1.
Anglo-Mysore Wars
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Hyder Ali and his successor Tipu Sultan fought a war on four fronts with the British attacking from the west, south and east, while the Marathas and the Nizams forces attacked from the north. The fourth war resulted in the overthrow of the house of Hyder Ali and Tipu, and the dismantlement of Mysore to the benefit of the East India Company, the First Anglo-Mysore War saw Hyder Ali gain some measure of success against the British, almost capturing Madras. The British convinced the Nizam of Hyderabad to attack Hyder, but the Nizam changed sides and that was temporary however, and the Nizam signed a new treaty with the British in Feb.1768. Hyder did contend with a British Bombay army attacking on the west, however, Hyders attack towards Madras resulted in the Madras government suing for peace, and the resultant Treaty of Madras. The Second Anglo-Mysore War witnessed bloodier battles with fortunes fluctuating between the contesting powers, Tipu defeated Baillie at the Battle of Pollilur in Sept.1780, and Braithwaite at Kumbakonam in Feb.1782, both of whom were taken prisoner to Seringapatam. This war saw the rise of Sir Eyre Coote, the British commander who defeated Hyder Ali at the Battle of Porto Novo, Tipu continued the war following his fathers death. Finally, the war ended with the last British-Indian treaty with an Indian ruler on equal footing, the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore, the Treaty of Gajendragad in April 1787 ended the conflict with the Marathas. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore and an ally of France, invaded the state of Travancore in 1789. The resultant war lasted three years and was a defeat for Mysore. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War saw the death of Tipu Sultan and further reductions in Mysorean territory, mysores alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the East India Company and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. Tipus troops were outnumbered 4,1 in this war, Mysore had 35,000 soldiers, whereas the British commanded 60,000 troops. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north, the British won a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam. Tipu was killed during the defence of the city, much of the remaining Mysorean territory was annexed by the British, the Nizam and the Marathas. The Wodeyars ruled the remnant state of Mysore until 1947, when it joined the Union of India and this enabled higher thrust and a longer range for the missile. Tipu Sultans Search for Legitimacy, Islam and Kingship in a Hindu Domain Cooper, culture, Combat, and Colonialism in Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-Century India. International History Review 27#3 pp, 534-549, Jaim, HM Iftekhar, and Jasmine Jaim. The Decisive Nature of the Indian War Rocket in the Anglo-Mysore Wars of the Eighteenth Century, arms & Armour 8#2 pp, 131-138. War, culture and society in early modern South Asia, 1740-1849 * Regan S. Gidwani, The Sword of Tipu Sultan, a novel linked to TV series Mysore invasion of Kerala
2.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
3.
Kingdom of Mysore
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The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom in southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a state of the Vijayanagara Empire. With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the kingdom became independent, the kingdom reached the height of its military power and dominion in the latter half of the 18th century under the de facto ruler Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. During this time, it came into conflict with the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Kingdom of Travancore, success in the first two Anglo-Mysore wars was followed by defeat in the third and fourth. Following Tipus death in the war of 1799, large parts of his kingdom were annexed by the British. The British restored the Wodeyars to their throne by way of a subsidiary alliance, the Wodeyars continued to rule the state until Indian independence in 1947, when Mysore acceded to the Union of India. Even as a state, Mysore came to be counted among the more developed and urbanized regions of India. This period also saw Mysore emerge as one of the important centers of art, the Mysore kings were not only accomplished exponents of the fine arts and men of letters, they were enthusiastic patrons as well, and their legacies continue to influence music and art even today. According to traditional accounts, the kingdom originated as a state based in the modern city of Mysore and was founded by two brothers, Yaduraya and Krishnaraya. Their origins are mired in legend and are still a matter of debate, while some historians posit a northern origin at Dwaraka, Yaduraya is said to have married Chikkadevarasi, the local princess and assumed the feudal title Wodeyar, which the ensuing dynasty retained. The kings who followed ruled as vassals of the Vijayanagara empire until the decline of the latter in 1565, by this time, the kingdom had expanded to thirty-three villages protected by a force of 300 soldiers. Raja Wodeyar Is reign also saw expansion with the annexation of Channapatna to the north from Jaggadeva Raya – a development which made Mysore a regional political factor to reckon with. This was in marked contrast to the chiefs of Tamil country who continued to pay off Chandragiri well into the 1630s. The invasion of the Keladi Nayakas of Malnad was also dealt with successfully and this period was followed by one of complex geo-political changes, when in the 1670s, the Marathas and the Mughals pressed into the Deccan. Chikka Devaraja, the most notable of Mysores early kings, who ruled during much of period, managed to not only survive the exigencies. He achieved this by forging alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. The kingdom soon grew to include Salem and Bangalore to the east, Hassan to the west, Chikkamagaluru and Tumkur to the north, the conflict brought mixed results with Mysore annexing Periyapatna but suffering a reversal at Palupare. According to historians Sanjay Subrahmanyam and Sethu Madhava Rao, Mysore was now formally a tributary of the Mughal empire, mughul records claim a regular tribute was paid by Mysore
4.
Arcot State
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Nawabs of the Carnatic ruled the Carnatic region of South India between about 1690 and 1801. The Carnatic was a dependency of Hyderabad Deccan, and was under the purview of the Nizam of Hyderabad. They initially had their capital at Arcot in the present-day Indian state of Tamil Nadu, the old province known as the Carnatic, in which Madras was situated, extended from the Krishna river to the Kaveri river, and was bounded on the West by Mysore kingdom and Dindigul. The Northern portion was known as the Mughal Carnatic, the Southern the Maratha Carnatic with the Maratha fortresses of Gingee, the Nawabs of the Carnatic trace their origin back to second Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab. With the Vijayanagara Empire in serious decline, the Nawabdom of the Carnatic controlled a vast territory south of the Krishna river, the Nawab Saadatullah Khan I moved his court from Gingee to Arcot. His successor Dost Ali conquered and annexed Madurai in 1736, in 1740, the Maratha forces descended on Arcot. They attacked the Nawab, Dost Ali Khan, in the pass of Damalcherry, in the war that followed, Dost Ali, one of his sons Hasan Ali, and a number of prominent persons lost their lives. This initial success at once enhanced Maratha prestige in the south, from Damalcherry the Marathas proceeded to Arcot, which surrendered to them without much resistance. Chanda Saheb and his son were arrested and sent to Nagpur, Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah became the ruler in 1765. The growing influences of the English and the French and their colonial wars had a impact on the Carnatic. Wallajah supported the English against the French and Hyder Ali, placing him heavily in debt, as a result he had to surrender much of his territory to the East India Company. Wikipedia Paul Benfield The thirteenth Nawab, Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan, died without issue, Ghouse Khans uncle Azim Jah was created the first Prince of Arcot in 1867 by Queen Victoria, and was given a tax free-pension in perpetuity. This privilege continues to be honoured by the Government of India, even after the 26th Amendment withdrew recognition for titles and this status is protected by the Indian Constitution, and the family continues to retain its privileges and titles. The current Prince of Arcot, Abdul Ali, inherited the title in July 1994. uq. net. au The House of Arcot
5.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
6.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
7.
Hyderabad State
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Hyderabad State, also known as Hyderabad Deccan, was an Indian princely state located in the south-central region of India with its capital at the city of Hyderabad. It is now divided into Telangana state, Hyderabad-Karnataka region of Karnataka, the state was ruled from 1724 until 1948 by a hereditary Nizam who was initially a Mughal governor of the Deccan before becoming independent. Hyderabad gradually became the first princely state to come under British paramountcy signing an alliance agreement. However, with the rise of militant razakars, India found it necessary to station Indian troops, subsequently, the Nizam signed an instrument of accession, joining India. Hyderabad State was founded by Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan who was the governor of Deccan under the Mughals from 1713 to 1721, in 1724, he once again resumed rule under the title of Asaf Jah. His other title Nizam ul-Mulk, became the title of his position Nizam of Hyderabad, by the end of his rule, the Nizam had become independent from the Mughals, and had founded the Asaf Jahi dynasty. Following the decline of the Mughal power, the region of Deccan saw the rise of Maratha Empire, the Nizam himself saw many invasions by the Marathas in the 1720s, which resulted in the Nizam paying a regular tax to the Marathas. The major battles fought between the Marathas and the Nizam include Palkhed, Rakshasbhuvan, and Kharda, in all of which the Nizam lost. Following the conquest of Deccan by Bajirao I and the imposition of chauth by him, Nizam remained a tributary of the Marathas for all intent, from 1778, a British resident and soldiers were installed in his dominions. In 1795, the Nizam lost some of his own territories to the Marathas, the territorial gains of the Nizam from Mysore as an ally of the British were ceded to the British to meet the cost of maintaining the British soldiers. In 1798, Nizam ʿĀlī Khan was forced to enter into an agreement which put Hyderabad under British protection and he was the first Indian prince to do so. Hyderabad under Nizam Ali Khan was a British ally in the second and third Maratha Wars, by 1918 Nizam Mīr Us̄mān ʿĀlī was given British titles, but the Crown retained the right to intervene in case of misrule. Hyderabad was considered backward, but peaceful, during this time, hyderabad’s Muslim nizams ruled over a predominantly Hindu population. The last Nizam, Osman Ali Khan, was one of the worlds richest men in the 1930s. In 1947 India gained independence and Pakistan came into existence, the British left the rulers of the princely states the choice of whether to join one or the other. On 11 June 1947, the Nizam issued a declaration to the effect that he had decided not to participate in the Constituent Assembly of either Pakistan or India, India insisted that the great majority of residents wanted to join India. The Nizam was in a position as his army numbered only 24,000 men. On 4 September the Prime Minister of Hyderabad Mir Laiq Ali announced to the Hyderabad Assembly that a delegation was about to leave for Lake Success, headed by Moin Nawaz Jung
8.
Travancore
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The Kingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævəŋkɔər/, Malayalam, തിരുവിതാംകൂർ Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, the official flag of the state was red with a dextrally-coiled silver conch shell at its center. In the early 19th century, the became a princely state of the British Empire. When the region was part of the Chera empire, it was known as Thiruvazhumkode. It was contracted to Thiruvankode, and anglicised by the English to Travancore. In course of time, the Ay kingdom, part of the Chera empire, which ruled the Thiruvazhumkode area, became independent, the Aayis controlled the land from present day Kollam district in the north, through Thiruvananthapuram district, all in Kerala, to the Kanyakumari district. There were two capitals, the one at Kollam and a subsidiary one at Thrippapur. The kingdom was also called Venad. Kings of Venad had, at times, travelled from Kollam and built residential palaces in Thiruvithamcode. By the time of King Marthanda Varma, the half of the kingdom had become dominant. During his reign, it absorbed the north and Thiruvithamcode or Travancore became the official name, Travancore was located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, Travancore was divided into three distinct regions, the eastern highlands, the central midlands, and the western lowlands. Venad was a state at the tip of the Indian Subcontinent. Till the end of the 11th century AD, it was a principality in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith and their capital during the first Sangam age was in Aykudi and later, towards the end of the 8th century AD, was at Quilon. Though a series of attacks by the resurgent Pandyas between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of the Ays, the dynasty was powerful till the beginning of the 10th century, when the Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the Second Chera Kingdom. An invasion of the Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096, however, the Chera capital, Mahodayapuram, also fell in the subsequent Chola attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam. Thus the end of the Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of Venad, the history of Travancore began with Marthanda Varma, who inherited the kingdom of Venad, and expanded it into Travancore during his reign
9.
Tipu Sultan
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Tipu Sultan, also known as the Tiger of Mysore, and Tipu Sahib, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the eldest son of Sultan Hyder Ali of Mysore, Tipu expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. He is considered a pioneer in the use of rocket artillery, Tipu Sultan deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies in their 1792 and 1799 Siege of Srirangapatna. Napoleon, the French commander-in-chief who later became emperor, sought an alliance with Tipu, Tipu engaged in expansionist attacks against his neighbours. He remained an enemy of the British East India Company. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu was forced into the humiliating Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of conquered territories, including Malabar. He sent emissaries to foreign states, including the Ottoman Turkey, Afghanistan and he is said to have forced Manglore Catholics to convert to Islam. Also during his only three temples of his kingdom were able to offer daily Pooja. Tipu Sultan was born on 20 November 1750 at Devanahalli, in present-day Bengaluru Rural district and he was named Tipu Sultan after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Tipu was also called Sultan Sayyid walShareef Fateh Ali Khan Tipu after his grandfather Fath Muhammad, Tipu was born at Devanhalli in a Najeeb AlTarfayn Sayyid family meaning having ancestry to both Imams Hassan and Hussain, as the son of Hyder Ali. Being illiterate, Hyder was very particular in giving his eldest son a princes education, from the age of 17 Tipu was given independent charge of important diplomatic and military missions. He was his fathers right arm in the wars from which Hyder emerged as the most powerful ruler of southern India. Tipus father, Hyder Ali, was an officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore, he rapidly rose in power. Hyders father, Fath Muhammad, was born in Kolar, Fateh Muhammad eventually entered the service of the Wodeyar Rajas of the Kingdom of Mysore. Tipus mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa, Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing. Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father, at age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16 and he also distinguished himself in the First Anglo-Maratha War of 1775–1779. In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahé, in response, Hyder launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of driving the British out of Madras
10.
Umdat ul-Umara
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Ghulam Husain Ali Khan aka Ghulam Hussainy or Umdat ul-Umra, was the Nawab of the Carnatic state in the Mughal Empire from 1795 to 1801. He was actually named by his grandfather, Anwaruddin Khan, as Abdul Wali, but he was subsequently renamed as Umdat ul-Umara, after the name of the court of the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. Umdat ul-Umara was the son of Muhammad Ali Khan Walahjah, an ally of the British East India Company. He was appointed Naib Subah of Nattharnagar, and Subah of Arcot and he succeeded on the death of his father 13th and installed on the musnaid 16 October 1795. Umdat ul-Umara ruled from 1795 to 1801, during his reign, the British East India Company demanded pieces of land as gifts. Many members of the British East India Company believed that Umdat ul-Umara, on the fall of Tipu Sultan in 1799, immediately, the British accused the Nawab of collaborating with Tipu Sultan and, conveniently, demanded the entire administration of the kingdom as indemnity. Umdat ul-Umara vehemently resisted the demands of the British East India Company, Umdat ul-Umara, however, died, perhaps poisoned by the Company, soon afterwards. The British takeover of Umdat ul-Umaras domain occurred during the reign of his nephew and successor and this document provided that Azim-ud-Daula ceded all his lands to British rule, including the territory of the Polygars. Nawabs of the Carnatic Ghulam Husainy Umdat ul-Umara
11.
Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah II
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Nawab Mir Nizam Ali Khan Siddiqi Bayafandi Bahadur Asaf Jah II was the Nizam of Hyderabad State in South India between 1762 and 1803. He was born on March 7,1734 as fourth son to Asaf Jah I and his official name is Asaf Jah II, Nizam ul-Mulk, Nizam ud-Daula, Nawab Mir Nizam Ali Khan Siddiqi Bayafandi Bahadur, Fath Jang, Sipah Salar, Nawab Subedar of the Deccan. He was defeated at the Battle of Udgir, by Sadishivarao Bhau after the assassination of Alamgir II, Asaf Jah II became the Subedar of the Deccan on July 8,1762. He transferred his capital from Aurangabad to Hyderabad in 1763 as Aurangabad was very close to Maratha Territory and therefore prone to aggression. Nizam Ali Khan was very fearful of the rise of highly capable figures such as Hyder Ali, in 1762, Raghunathrao allied with the Nizam due to mutual distrust and differences with Madhavrao Peshwa. In 1763, Madhavrao II defeated Nizam at Battle of Rakshasbhuvan, in 1795, he was defeated by Madhavrao IIs Marathas at the Battle of Kharda and was forced to cede Daulatabad, Aurangabad and Sholapur and pay an indemnity of Rs.30 million. A French general, Monsieur Raymond, served as his leader, strategist. The following year, he realized that the fall of Tipu Sultan was eminent and thus, thus Hyderabad, which is in both area and population comparable to the United Kingdom, became a princely state within the British Raj. Asaf Jah II died at Chowmahalla, Hyderabad at the age of 69 on August 6,1803
12.
Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet
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General Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet GCB was a British military leader. He was born at Newbyth House in Haddingtonshire, Scotland, the son of an Edinburgh merchant family and he was sent to India in 1779 with the 73rd Highlanders, in which he was a captain. Immediately on his arrival, Baird was attached to the commanded by Sir Hector Munro. In the action followed the whole force was destroyed, and Baird, severely wounded. The prisoners remained captive for over four years, Bairds mother, on hearing that her son and other prisoners were in fetters, is said to have remarked, God help the chiel chained to our Davie. The bullet was not extracted from Baird’s wound until his release and he was promoted to major in 1787, visited England in 1789, and purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in 1790, returning to India the following year. He held a command in the war against Tipu Sultan. He captured Pondicherry being promoted colonel in 1795, Baird served also at the Cape of Good Hope as a brigadier-general, and he returned to India as a major-general in 1798. In the last war against Tipu in 1799 Baird was appointed to the brigade command in the army. At the successful assault of Seringapatam, Baird led the storming party, General Baird commanded the Indian army which was sent in 1801 to co-operate with Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley was appointed second in command, but owing to ill-health did not accompany the expedition, Baird landed at Kosseir, conducted his army across the desert to Kena on the Nile, and then to Cairo. He arrived before Alexandria in time for the final operations, on his return to India in 1802, he was employed against Sindhia, but being irritated at another appointment given to Wellesley he relinquished his command and returned to Europe. But here again his usual ill luck attended him, during the subsequent Battle of Copenhagen, Baird was wounded. The same year he was made Colonel of the 24th Regiment of Foot, a post he would hold until his death. It was Bairds misfortune that he was junior by a few days both to Moore and to Lord Cavan, under whom he had served at Alexandria, and thus never had an opportunity of a chief command in the field. At the Battle of Corunna, he succeeded to the command after Moores death, but shortly afterwards his left arm was shattered. Once again thanked by parliament for his gallant services, he was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Bath and he was not employed again in the field, and personal and political enmities caused him to be neglected and repeatedly passed over. He was not given the rank of general until 1814
13.
Battle of Mallavelly
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The Battle of Mallavelly was fought on 27 March 1799 between forces of the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. On 27 March 1799, British troops arrived at Mallavelly, the enemy attacked the advanced pickets, and a general action ensued, in which the 33rd Regiment of Foot highly distinguished itself. A body of two men moved forward in the best order towards the regiment, which held its fire until the enemy came within about 60 yards. Then, led by its lieutenant-colonel, Arthur Wellesley, it made a bayonet charge, forcing the approaching column to give way. As the 12th Foot moved forward on the wing, a large body of Mysorean cavalry formed a wedge, with an elephant with a howdah on its back in front. The British line halted to receive the attack, immediately afterwards, two other very large bodies of the enemy were spotted in two topes or woods, preparing to support the first charge. Lieutenant-General Harris, recognising the danger, placed himself in the rear, frequently repeating the words, Steady. When the wedge approached within a hundred yards, the Mysoreans discharged their carbines and pistols, the rear of the wedge was hindered by the killed and wounded in front, and could not continue the charge. The elephant was severely wounded, its handler was dead, turning around, the beast directed all its fury upon the Mysoreans, overturning everything in its path and creating great havoc with a prodigious chain, which he swayed. A few Mysorean horsemen broke through the regiment, but were shot in its rear. The British artillery arrived and opened fire, the following morning the British army advanced and arrived before Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, and proceed to lay siege to the city
14.
Siege of Seringapatam (1799)
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The Siege of Seringapatam was the final confrontation of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore. The British, with the allied Nizam of Hyderabad, achieved a victory after breaching the walls of the fortress at Seringapatam. Tipu Sultan, Mysores ruler, was killed in the action, the British restored the Wodeyar dynasty to the throne after the victory, but retained indirect control of the kingdom. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War came to an end with the defeat, when the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out, the British assembled two large columns under General George Harris. The first consisted of over 26,000 British East India Company troops,4,000 of whom were European while the rest were local Indian sepoys, the second column was supplied by the Nizam of Hyderabad, and consisted of ten battalions and over 16,000 cavalry. Together, the force numbered over 50,000 soldiers. Tipus forces had been depleted by the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the consequent loss of half his kingdom, but he still probably had up to 30,000 soldiers. The River Cauvery, which flowed around the city of Seringapatam, was at its lowest level of the year, when letters were exchanged with Tipu, it seemed that he was playing for time. He requested two persons to be sent to him for discussions and also stated that he was preoccupied with hunting expeditions, Tipu Sultans prime minister and general, Mir Sadiq, is alleged to have been bought over by the British. The Governor-General of India, Richard Wellesley, planned the opening of a breach in the walls of Seringapatam. The location of the breach, as noted by Beatson, the author of an account of the Fourth Mysore War, was in the west curtain and this being the old rampart appeared weaker than the new. The Mysorean defence succeeded in preventing the establishment of a battery on the side of the River Cauvery on 22 April 1799. However, by 1 May, working at night, the British had completed their southern batteries, at sunrise on 2 May, the batteries of the Nizam of Hyderabad succeeded in opening a practical breach in the outer wall. In addition, the mines that were laid under the breach were hit by artillery, the leader of the British troops was Major General David Baird, an implacable enemy of Tipu Sultan, twenty years earlier, he had been held captive for 44 months. The storming troops, including men of the 73rd and 74th regiments, clambered up the breach, the assault was to begin at 1,00 p. m. to coincide with the hottest part of the day when the defenders would be taking refreshment. Led by two forlorn-hopes, two columns would advance upon the defences around the breach, then right and left to take over the fortifications. A third reserve column, commanded by Arthur Wellesley, would deploy as required to provide support where needed. At 11,00 a. m. on 4 May 1799, the British troops were briefed and whiskey, the forlorn-hopes, numbering seventy-six men, led the charge
15.
First Anglo-Mysore War
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The First Anglo–Mysore War was a conflict in India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the East India Company. The war was instigated in part by the machinations of Asaf Jah II, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the eighteenth century was a period of great turmoil in the Indian subcontinent. Their eastern holdings at Madras were strongly influenced by treaties with the Nawab of Carnatic, Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah, nominally ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty, control of Mysore had in 1761 come into the hands of Hyder Ali, a Muslim military leader. Each of these powers intrigued with and against the others, and sought to draw the power of the French and they had applied to the nizam, offering to pay rent well above that he was currently receiving from the nawab of Arcot, the nizam rejected their offers. Lord Robert Clive next applied to Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, at the same time, the nizam was involved in an alliance with the Marathas. Both he and the Marathas ruling peshwa, Madhavrao I were concerned over the expansionist threat posed by Hyder Ali, after assisting the Marathas in dealing with one of their confederates 1765, the allies began developing plans to invade Mysore. When the British began occupying the Northern Circars in March 1766 and he considered going to war against the company, but his poor financial condition made this impossible. Instead he negotiated a treaty with the company in November 1766, under its terms the company received four of the five circar immediately in exchange for 7 lakh rupees or military support to the nizam in his endeavours. One historian describes the agreement to the treaty as one of financial necessity. Pursuant to this treaty, the company provided two battalions of troops to the nizam, under the treaty, there were no limits placed on the number of troops the nizam could request, nor were there checks on the uses to which he could put them. Conflict involving Madras authorities, Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah and Hyder Ali, was also simmering, Hyder was annoyed that the British had established a fortified outpost at Vellore, and that the company had several times rebuffed his offers of alliance. An offer he made in late 1766 was rejected because the company council viewed it as incompatible with the treaty signed with the nizam. The war began in January 1767 when the Marathas, possibly anticipating movements by the nizam and they reached as far south as the Tunghabadhra River, before Hyder entered into negotiations to end the invasion. In exchange for payments of 30 lakhs rupees the Marathas agreed to withdraw north of the Kistna River, by March, according to Mysore historian Mark Wilks, this action by the Marathas was a somewhat typical move to acquire wealth that might otherwise be claimed by other belligerents. The nizam advanced as far as Bangalore, accompanied by two battalions of troops under Colonel Joseph Smith. In May, Smith discovered that the Hyder and the nizam were negotiating an alliance, the deal struck between the two powers called for them to join against the British. Hyder was to pay 18 lakhs rupees for the invasion to end, despite the agreement the two sides exhibited little trust for one another, Hyder was known to place spies in the nizams camp. This diplomatic maneouvring resulted in an attack against a company outpost at Changama by the combined Mysore-Hyderabad army under Hyders command, despite significantly outnumbering the British force, the allies were repulsed with heavy losses
16.
Second Anglo-Mysore War
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The Second Anglo–Mysore War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company from 1780 to 1784. At the time, Mysore was a key French ally in India, the great majority of soldiers on the company side were raised, trained, paid and commanded by the company, not the British government. However, the operations were bolstered by Crown troops sent from Britain, and by troops sent from Hanover. Following the British seizure of the French port of Mahé in 1779, Mysorean ruler Hyder Ali opened hostilities against the British in 1780, as the war progressed, the British recovered some territorial losses. Both France and Britain sent troops and naval squadrons from Europe to assist in the war effort, in 1783 news of a preliminary peace between France and Britain reached India, resulting in the withdrawal of French support from the Mysorean war effort. The British consequently also sought to end the conflict with Mysore, and this resulted in the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore, restoring the status quo antebellum under terms company officials such as Warren Hastings found extremely unfavourable. Stung by what he considered a British breach of faith during a war against the Marathas. The company began by capturing Pondicherry and other French outposts in 1778 and they then captured the French controlled port at Mahé on the Malabar coast in 1779. Hyder set about forming a confederacy against the British, which, in addition to the French, included the Marathas, in July 1780 Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic with an army of 80,000. He descended through the passes of the Eastern Ghats, burning villages as he went, the British responded by sending a force of 5,000 to lift the sieges. On the morning of 10 September 1780, the British force from Guntur under the command of Colonel William Baillie came under fire from Tipus guns near Pollilur. Baillie formed his force into a square formation and began to move slowly forward. However, Hyder Alis cavalry broke through the front, inflicting many casualties. Out of the British force of 3,820 men,336 were killed, the defeat was considered to be the East India Companys most crushing loss in India at that time. Munro reacted to the defeat by retreating to Madras, abandoning his baggage and dumping his cannons in the tank at Kanchipuram. Naravane states in fact that it was a massacre with only 50 officers and 200 men taken prisoner, instead of following up the victory and pressing on for a decisive victory at Madras, Hyder Ali instead renewed the siege at Arcot, which he captured on 3 November. This decision gave the British time to shore up their defences in the south, the arrival of Lord Macartney as governor of Madras in the summer of 1781 included news of war with the Dutch Republic. This forced Hyder Ali to realize that he could never completely defeat a power that had command of the sea, Tipu also defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Annagudi near Tanjore on 18 Feb 1782
17.
Third Anglo-Mysore War
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The Third Anglo–Mysore War was a conflict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore and the East India Company and its allies, including the Maratha Empire and the Nizam of Hyderabad. It was the third of four Anglo–Mysore Wars, Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Kingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali before him, had previously fought twice with the forces of the British East India Company. The First Anglo-Mysore War, fought in the 1760s, had ended inconclusively, British failure to support Mysore in conflicts with the Maratha Empire and other actions supportive of Mysores enemies led Hyder to develop a dislike for the British. This war also ended somewhat inconclusively in 1784 with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore and he refused to free British prisoners taken during the war, one of the conditions of the treaty. British General Charles, 2nd Earl Cornwallis became the Governor-General of India, in 1788 the company gained control of the Circar of Guntur, the southernmost of the Northern Circars, which the company had acquired under earlier agreements with the Nizam. In exchange, the company provided the Nizam with two battalions of company troops, both of these acts placed British troops closer to Mysore, but also guaranteed the Nizam would support the British in the event of conflict. The kingdom of Travancore had been a target of Tipu for acquisition or conquest since the end of the previous war, in 1789 Tipu Sultan sent forces onto the Malabar Coast to put down a rebellion. Many people fled to Travancore and Cochin, a state paying tribute to Tipu, Cornwallis, observing this build-up, reiterated to Campbells successor, John Holland, that an attack on Travancore should be considered a declaration of war, and met with a strong British response. On 29 December 1789, Tipu marched 14,000 troops from Coimbatore, the first phase was an embarrassing defeat for Tipu, when the defenders inflicted severe losses on the Tipus forces and drove them back. While the Mysorean forces and their allies regrouped, Governor Holland, much to Cornwallis dismay, Cornwallis was on the brink of going to Madras to take command when he received word that Hollands replacement, General William Medows was about to arrive. Medows forcibly removed Holland, and set about planning operations against Tipu while building up troops at Trichinopoly and it was May before Medows was prepared to march. In the meantime, Tipu had renewed his attack on Travancore, the plan of attack developed by Medows called for a two-pronged attack, with the main thrust against the Coimbatore district and a diversionary thrust into Mysore from the northeast. Cornwallis was unhappy with this plan, due in part to the lateness of the season, however, he was willing to give Medows the opportunity for independent command. Medows moved out of Trichinopoly in late May, hampered by weather and equipment problems, his progress was slow. He met little resistance, as Tipu had withdrawn his forces to the Mysore highlands. On 21 July Medows entered Coimbatore unopposed, after having some of the smaller fortifications in the district by either abandonment or the immediate surrender of the garrison. Further strong points in the fell, with Palghat and Dindigul requiring significant action to capture. The attack from Bengal, and a third from Bombay, were late in getting started when Tipu made his counterattack, on 2 September, Tipu left Srirangapatnam at the head of a 40, 000-man army
18.
South India
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The region occupies 19. 31% of Indias land area. Covering the southern part of the peninsular Deccan Plateau, South India is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The geography of the region is diverse, with two ranges, the Western and Eastern Ghats, bordering the plateau heartland. The Godavari River, Krishna River, Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vaigai rivers are important non-perennial sources of water, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Coimbatore and Kochi are the largest urban areas. Majority of the people in South India speak one of the four major Dravidian languages, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. During its history, a number of kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history. Major dynasties that were established in South India include the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, Pallavas, Satavahanas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, european countries entered India through Kerala and the region was colonised by Britain and other nations. HDI in the states is high and the economy has undergone growth at a faster rate than most northern states. Literacy rates in the states are higher than the national average with approximately 80% of the population capable of reading and writing. The fertility rate in South India is 1.9, the lowest of all regions in India, South India also known as Peninsular India has been known by several other names. Carnatic derived from Karnād or Karunād meaning high country has also associated with South India. Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with Neolithic cultures in South India date back to 8000 BCE, artefacts such as ground stone axes, and minor copper objects have been found in the region. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region, however, the region was in the middle of a trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu linking the Mediterranean and East Asia. Trade with Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, the region was part of the ancient Silk Road connecting the Asian continent in the East and the West. C. to 14th century A. D. The Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 14th century A. D. was the last Indian dynasty that ruled over the region. The Europeans arrived in the 15th century and by the middle of the 18th century, the French, the British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857. During the British colonial rule, the region was divided into the Madras Presidency, Hyderabad state, Mysore, Travancore, Kochi, Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. After the independence of India in 1947, the region was organised into four states, Madras State, Mysore State, Hyderabad State and Travancore-Cochin
19.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
20.
Wadiyar dynasty
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The Wadiyar dynasty was an Indian dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of Mysore from 1399 to 1761 and from 1799 to 1947. The kingdom was incorporated into the Dominion of India after its independence from British rule, in Kannada, the word Wadiyar means Lord or Lordship. Historical records use the term ″Wodeyar″ when referring to the royal family members. In more modern Kannada transliteration, the variation ″Odeyar″ is also used, the origin of Wodeyars is traced to Yadavas of Dvārakā, who came to Karnataka and seeing the natural beauty of the place made Mysore their abode. The Yadavas then ruled over the area for 600 years, the dynasty was established in 1399 by Yaduraya Wodeyar. He ruled Mysore under the Vijayanagara Empire until 1423, after Yaduraya Wodeyar, the Mysore kingdom was succeeded by the Wadiyar rulers. The kingdom remained fairly small during this period and was a part of the Vijayanagara Empire. After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, the Kingdom of Mysore became independent, during the reign of Krishnaraja Wadiyar III, the region came under the control of the British Empire. His successors changed the English spelling of their name to Wadiyar. The Vijayanagara Empire disintegrated in 1565, the power vacuum created soon after was exploited by Raja Wadiyar. Later famous rulers of the dynasty included Kanthirava Narasaraja I, who expanded the frontiers of the Mysore kingdom to Trichy in Tamil Nadu. The dynasty reached its peak under Chikka Devaraja, who reformed the administration of the empire by dividing it into 18 departments, after Tipu Sultan was killed by the British in the Battle of Srirangapatna in 1799, the Wadiyars were restored to a reduced kingdom. After restoring the Wadiyars to the throne of Mysore, the British shifted the capital back to the city of Mysore from Srirangapatna, the four-year-old boy Krishna Raja Wadiyar III, son of the last Wadiyar king, Khasa Chamaraja Wadiyar VIII, was anointed as the King of Mysore. Wadiyars were now subsidiaries of the British Raj and had to pay a subsidy to the British. British commissioners administered Mysore from 1831–1881, bowring are among the well-known commissioners of the period. In 1868, the British Parliament heeded the plea and decided to restore the kingdom to his adopted son Chamaraja Wadiyar IX. In 1881, the transfer of power back to the Wadiyars heralded an important phase in the making of modern Mysore, for the first time in India, democratic experiments were introduced by the establishment of a representative assembly. Under British hegemony, the Wadiyars, freed from security concerns and they made Mysore a cultural center of Karnataka, fostering a number of famous musicians, writers and painters
21.
Princely state
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A princely state, also called native state or Indian state, was a nominally sovereign monarchy under a local or regional ruler in a subsidiary alliance with a greater power. At the time of the British withdrawal,565 princely states were recognised in the Indian subcontinent, apart from thousands of zamindaris. Rulers of salute states entitled to a gun salute of eleven guns and above received from the British the style of Highness, while the Nizam of Hyderabad had the unique style of Exalted Highness. At the other end of the scale, the principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km2, or smaller than Bermuda. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 km2. The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947, by 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan – thirteen to Pakistan and the rest to India. During this time, the princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh. In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the Indian Government formally derecognised the princely families in 1971, followed by the Government of Pakistan in 1972. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities into tributary relations with Islamic sultanates, notably the Delhi Sultanate, in the south, however, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire remained dominant until the mid-17th century, among its tributaries was the future Mysore Kingdom. The Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire brought a majority of the existing Indian kingdoms and principalities under its suzerainty by the 17th century, beginning with its foundation in the early 16th century. The advent of Sikhism resulted in the creation of the Sikh Empire in the north by the early 18th century, at the same time, the Marathas carved out their own states to form the Maratha Empire. Through the 18th century, former Mughal governors formed their own independent states, India under the British Raj consisted of two types of territory, British India and the Native states or Princely states. In general the term British India had been used also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858, the term has also been used to refer to the British in India. More prestigious Hindu rulers often used the title Raja, Raje or a variant such as Rana, Rao, also in this class were several Thakurs or Thakores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari, Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Raja Inamdar, Saranjamdar. The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix maha in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. The states of Travancore and Cochin had queens regnant styled Maharani, generally the female forms applied only to sisters, spouses and widows, there were also compound titles, such as rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur raised the status of the one level. Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of titles, such as Varma in South India
22.
Presidencies and provinces of British India
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Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
23.
Coimbatore district
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Coimbatore District is a district in the Kongu Nadu region of the state of Tamil Nadu. Coimbatore is the headquarters of the district. It is one of the most industrialized districts and a textile, industrial, commercial, educational, information technology, healthcare. As of 2011, Coimbatore district had a population of 3,458,045 with a sex-ratio of 1,000, Coimbatore was in the middle of the Roman trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu in South India. The medieval Cholas conquered the Kongu Nadu in the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century followed by the Nayaks who introduced the Palayakkarar system under which Kongu nadu region was divided into 24 Palayams. The Coimbatore region played a prominent role in the Second Poligar War when it was the area of operations of Dheeran Chinnamalai, in 1804, Coimbatore was established as the capital of the newly formed Coimbatore district. The district experienced a boom in the early 19th century due to the decline of the cotton industry in Mumbai. Post independence, the district has seen rapid growth due to industrialisation, the region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Sangam Cheras dyansty and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the west coast and Tamil Nadu. The Kosar tribe mentioned in the second century CE Tamil epic Silappathikaram, the region was in the middle of a Roman trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu. The medieval Cholas conquered the Kongu Nadu in the 10th century CE, a Chola highway called Rajakesari Peruvazhi ran through the region. Much of Tamil Nadu came under the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire by the 15th century, in the 1550s, Madurai Nayaks who were the military governors of the Vijaynagara Empire took control of the region. After the Vijayanagara Empire fell in the 17th century, the Madurai Nayaks established their state as an independent kingdom, the Nayaks introduced the Palayakkarar system under which Kongu nadu region was divided into 24 Palayams. In the later part of the 18th century, the region came under the Kingdom of Mysore, after the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Anglo-Mysore Wars, the British East India Company annexed Coimbatore to the Madras Presidency in 1799. The Coimbatore region played a prominent role in the Second Poligar War when it was the area of operations of Dheeran Chinnamalai, in 1804, Coimbatore district was newly carved out and Coimbatore was established as the capital of the newly formed district. The district comprised present-day districts of Erode, Tiruppur, Niligirs and parts of Karur, Palakkad in Kerala, Nilgiris district was segregated in 1868. The region was hit during the Great Famine of 1876–78 resulting in nearly 200,000 famine related fatalities. The city experienced an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.0 on the Richter scale on February 8,1900, the first three decades of the 20th century saw nearly 20,000 plague-related deaths and an acute water shortage. The district experienced a boom in the 1920s and 1930s due to the decline of the cotton industry in Mumbai
24.
Dakshina Kannada
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Dakshina Kannada is a coastal district in the state of Karnataka in India. Sheltered by the Western Ghats on the east and surrounded by the Lakshadweep Sea on the west, Dakshina Kannada receives abundant rainfall during the monsoon. It is bordered by Udupi District to the north, Chikkamagaluru district to the northeast, Hassan District to the east, Kodagu to the southeast, and Kasaragod District in Kerala to the south. The district has 2 agroclimatic divisions namely Coastal region - consists of Mangalore and Bantwal taluks Malnad region - consists of Puttur, Belthangady, the district has 2 revenue subdivisions - Mangalore and Puttur. Mangalore city is the headquarters of Dakshina Kannada. The district is divided into five talukas namely Mangalore, Bantwal, Puttur, Sullia and it used to include 4 northern talukas, Udupi, Kundapur, Karkala and Byndoor, but these were separated in August 1997 to form Udupi district. Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Kasaragod are often called Tulu Nadu, important towns in Dakshina Kannada include Mangalore, Bantwal, Vittal, Puttur, Sullia, Surathkal, Moodabidri, Uppinangady, Venur, Mulki, Dharmasthala, Ujire, Belthangady and Subramanya. The district is known for beaches, red clay roof tiles, cashew nut and its products, banking, education, healthcare. According to 2011 Indian Census, the district ranks second in per capita income, second in HDI, first in literacy, before 1860, Dakshina Kannada was part of a district called Kanara, which was under a single administration in the Madras Presidency. In 1860, the British split the area into South Kanara and North Kanara, Kundapur taluk was earlier included in North Kanara, but was re-included in South Kanara later. During the Reorganisation of States in 1956, Kasaragod was split and transferred to the newly created Kerala state, South Canara was a district under the British empire which included the present Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Kasaragod districts and Aminidivi islands. Canara district was bifurcated in 1859 to form North Canara and South Canara, Dakshina Kannada became a district of Mysore State in 1956 which later was renamed Karnataka in 1973. Kasaragod became a district of Kerala during the Re-organization of States, the Udupi district was formed from the northern taluks of Dakshina Kannada in 1997. Later, the Karnataka Government, for the purpose of administration, split the greater Dakshina Kannada district into Udupi, three taluks of the former district namely Udupi, Karkala and Kundapura formed the new Udupi district. According to the 2011 census Dakshina Kannada has a population of 2,089,649 and this gives it a ranking of 220th in India. The district has a density of 457 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 9. 8%, Dakshina Kannada has a sex ratio of 1018 females for every 1000 males and a literacy rate of 88. 62%. The literacy rate of Mangalore city is 94%, tuluvas, distributed among the Billava, Mogaveera, Bunt, Koraga, Kulala, and Devadiga communities, are the largest ethnic group in the district
25.
Uttara Kannada
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Uttara Kannada is a district in the Indian state of Karnataka. The city of Karwar is the headquarters of the district. Sirsi, Dandeli and Bhatkal are the major developing towns of the district. Uttara Kannada was the home of the Kadamba kingdom from the 350 to 525, after the subjugation of the Kadambas by the Chalukyas, the district came under successive rule of empires like Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and Vijayanagar empire. Famous Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta is said to have stayed for a time in the district under the protection of Nawayath Sultan Jamal Al-Din at Hunnur and this place is presently known as Hosapattana and is located in the town of Honnavar. Ruins of an old mosque and its minaret can still be seen in the village, the district came under the rule of Maratha Empire in the 1750s and later part of Mysore Kingdom, who ceded it to the British at the conclusion of the Fourth Mysore War in 1799. It was initilally part of Kanara district in Madras Presidency, the district was divided to North and South Kanara districts in 1859. The British finally transferred Uttara Kannada district to Bombay Presidency in 1862, after Indias independence in 1947, Bombay Presidency was reconstituted as Bombay State. In 1956 the southern portion of Bombay State was added to Mysore State, Uttara Kannada was an ancient site of sea trade visited by the Arabs, Dutch, Portuguese, French and later the British. Ibn Battuta passed through this route during one or more of his journeys, the renowned Bengali poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, who visited Uttara Kannada in 1882, dedicated an entire chapter of his memoirs to this town. The 22-year-old Rabindranath Tagore stayed with his brother, Satyendranath Tagore, there is a substantial amount of Chardo families in this area as they had migrated due to the persecution of the Portuguese in Goa. Cintacora, also known as Chitrakul and Sindpur, was known to the Portuguese as an old port. PCr7 is from karwar. When Sadashivgad was built in area, the village also came to be known by that name. Pir fort, named for the Dargah of Shahkaramuddin, was captured, the creek at the mouth of the Kali River was a trading center which came into greater prominence after Sadashivgad was built and the Portuguese realised the advantages of its sheltered harbor. In 1638 a rival English trading body, the Courteen Association and it was a trade port frequented by traders from Arabia and Africa. Baitkhol port was famous for its natural harbour, the name Baithkhol is Arabic term, Bait-e-kol, meaning bay of safety. Muslin was the chief commodity purchased but Uttara Kannada was also a source for pepper, cardamom, cassia, situated on Indias west coast,50 miles south-east of Goa, Uttara Kannada was noted for its safe harbour. In 1649 the Courteen Association united with the British East India Company, in the Treaty of Mangalore signed in 1784, between Tipu Sultan and the East India Company, one finds reference to Uttara Kannada and Sadashivgad written as Karwar and Sadasewgude respectively
26.
Sharpe's Tiger
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Sharpes Tiger is the first historical novel in the Richard Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell and was first published in 1997. Sharpe is a private in the British army serving in India at Seringapatam, the first, chronologically, of the Richard Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell. It takes place in Mysore, India and tells of Sharpes adventures, Richard Sharpe is a private in the 33rd Regiment of Foot in the British army, currently invading Mysore and advancing on the Tippoo Sultans capital city of Seringapatam. Sharpe is contemplating desertion with his paramour, widow Mary Bickerstaff, the incident is witnessed by Morris and a junior officer, Ensign Hicks, resulting in Sharpes court martial and the virtual death sentence of 2,000 lashes for the private. He is saved, however, when the commander, Arthur Wellesley. It emerges that Lieutenant William Lawford has requested Sharpe to join him in a special mission, although Lawford is nominally in command, Sharpe quickly dominates the lieutenant by force of personality and, without authorization, brings Mary on the mission. Furthermore, Sharpe helps establish Lawfords cover story, having the lieutenant pose as a clerk who is deserting with Sharpe after witnessing the latters punishment. They are soon captured by scouts from the Tippoos army and led to Seringapatam where they meet Colonel Gudin, during their interrogation, the Tippoo enters and orders them load muskets, which takes Lawford far longer to do so than Sharpe, and then kill a British prisoner. Upon his attempt to shoot McCandless the musket misfires so Sharpe beats him instead before being halted by the Tippoo and his attempt to execute, and subsequent beating of, the colonel was to help prove that they were sincere deserters. During this attack Sharpe encounters Hakeswill and tries to him but is stopped by Gudin who wants prisoners. Several other members of his regiment are captured, though Morris escapes. Sharpe is rewarded for his actions in the attack by the Tippoo and is allowed to visit Mary, when they reunite, however, he finds that she has left him for one of Appah Raos men, Kunwar Singh, news which Sharpe takes in good grace. The two are captured and Sharpe is tortured until Lawford reveals their mission, Gudin then tells them that the spy they sought in the city had been killed weeks before and fed to the Tippoos pet tigers. They are then imprisoned with McCandless and Hakeswill as the British army prepares to attack the city by attempting to breach the booby trapped wall, during their imprisonment, Lawford and McCandless teach Sharpe to read in order that he may be a more effective sergeant. After days of bombardment, the British finally breach the wall, Mary joins Singh as he sets out to release McCandless and helps Sharpe escape by providing him a pistol which he uses to kill the tiger guarding them. Sharpe then swiftly defeats the Jettis sent to them as he, Lawford and McCandless escape. Lawford and Sharpe then sabotage the mine by setting it off prematurely, with the early detonation of the mine, Rao decides to abandon the Tippoo and withdraws him men from the battle resulting in the fight swinging decisively towards the British. Leaving Lawford with Gudin, Sharpe returns to Hakeswill and throws him to the Tippoos tigers and he then hunts down the Tippoo, who was fleeing the city, and kills him before looting his corpse
27.
Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
28.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
29.
Mauritius
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Mauritius, officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean about 2,000 kilometres off the southeast coast of the African continent. The country includes the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, and the outer islands, the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues form part of the Mascarene Islands, along with nearby Réunion, a French overseas department. The area of the country is 2,040 km², the capital and largest city is Port Louis. Mauritius was a British colonial possession from 1810 to 1968, the year of its independence, the government uses English as the main language. The sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago is disputed between Mauritius and the United Kingdom, the UK excised the archipelago from Mauritian territory in 1965, three years prior to Mauritian independence. The UK gradually depopulated the archipelagos indigenous population and leased its biggest island, Diego Garcia, access to the archipelago is prohibited to casual tourists, the media, and its former inhabitants. Mauritius also claims sovereignty over Tromelin Island from France, the people of Mauritius are multiethnic, multi-religious, multicultural and multilingual. The islands government is modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system. Along with the other Mascarene Islands, Mauritius is known for its flora and fauna. The island is known as the only known home of the dodo. Mauritius is the country in Africa where Hinduism is the largest religion. The first historical evidence of the existence of an island now known as Mauritius is on a map produced by the Italian cartographer Alberto Cantino in 1502. From this, it appears that Mauritius was first named Dina Arobi around 975 by Arab sailors, in 1507 Portuguese sailors visited the uninhabited island. The island appears with a Portuguese name Cirne on early Portuguese maps, another Portuguese sailor, Dom Pedro Mascarenhas, gave the name Mascarenes to the Archipelago. In 1598 a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand van Warwyck landed at Grand Port and named the island Mauritius, in honour of Prince Maurice van Nassau, later the island became a French colony and was renamed Isle de France. On 3 December 1810 the French surrendered the island to Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars, under British rule, the islands name reverted to Mauritius /məˈrɪʃəs/. Mauritius is also known as Maurice and Île Maurice in French. The island of Mauritius was uninhabited before its first recorded visit during the Middle Ages by Arab sailors, in 1507 Portuguese sailors came to the uninhabited island and established a visiting base
30.
Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson
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Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronté KB was a British flag officer in the Royal Navy. He was wounded several times in combat, losing most of one arm in the attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife. He was shot and killed during his victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle, Maurice Suckling and he rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command in 1778. He developed a reputation in the service through his valour and firm grasp of tactics but suffered periods of illness. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service and he fought in several minor engagements off Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica and subsequent diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797, he distinguished himself while in command of HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. The following year, he won a victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile. In 1801, he was dispatched to the Baltic and won another victory and he subsequently commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over the Cádiz blockade in 1805, on 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelsons fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle was Britains greatest naval victory, but during the action Nelson and his body was brought back to England where he was accorded a state funeral. Nelsons death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britains most heroic figures, numerous monuments, including Nelsons Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory and his legacy remains highly influential. Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 in a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England and he was named after his godfather Horatio Walpole then 2nd Baron Walpole, of Wolterton. His mother, who died on 26 December 1767, when he was nine years old, was a great-niece of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. She lived in the village of Barsham, Suffolk, and married the Reverend Edmund Nelson at Beccles church, Suffolk, Nelsons aunt, Alice Nelson was the wife of Reverend Robert Rolfe, Rector of Hilborough, Norfolk and grandmother of Sir Robert Monsey Rolfe. Rolfe twice served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, Nelson attended Paston Grammar School, North Walsham, until he was 12 years old, and also attended King Edward VI’s Grammar School in Norwich. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training, early in his service, Nelson discovered that he suffered from seasickness, a chronic complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life. He twice crossed the Atlantic, before returning to serve under his uncle as the commander of Sucklings longboat, at his nephews request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as coxswain to Commander Lutwidge aboard the converted bomb vessel HMS Carcass
31.
Battle of the Nile
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The British fleet was led in the battle by Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, they decisively defeated the French under Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys dAigalliers. Bonaparte sought to invade Egypt as the first step in a campaign against British India and he chased the French for more than two months, on several occasions only missing them by a matter of hours. Bonaparte was aware of Nelsons pursuit and enforced absolute secrecy about his destination and he was able to capture Malta and then land in Egypt without interception by the British naval forces. With the French army ashore, the French fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay,20 miles northeast of Alexandria, Commander Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys dAigalliers believed that he had established a formidable defensive position. The British fleet arrived off Egypt on 1 August and discovered Brueyss dispositions and his ships advanced on the French line and split into two divisions as they approached. One cut across the head of the line and passed between the anchored French and the shore, while the other engaged the seaward side of the French fleet. Trapped in a crossfire, the leading French warships were battered into surrender during a fierce battle, while the centre succeeded in repelling the initial British attack. As British reinforcements arrived, the centre came under renewed assault and, at 22,00, the battle reversed the strategic situation between the two nations forces in the Mediterranean and entrenched the Royal Navy in the dominant position that it retained for the rest of the war. It also encouraged other European countries to turn against France, and was a factor in the outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition. Bonapartes army was trapped in Egypt, and Royal Navy dominance off the Syrian coast contributed significantly to its defeat at the Siege of Acre in 1799 which preceded Bonapartes return to Europe. Nelson had been wounded in the battle, but he was proclaimed a hero across Europe and was subsequently made Baron Nelson—although he was dissatisfied with his rewards. His captains were highly praised and went on to form the nucleus of the legendary Nelsons Band of Brothers. The legend of the battle has remained prominent in the popular consciousness, despite significant efforts, British control of Northern European waters rendered these ambitions impractical in the short term, and the Royal Navy remained firmly in control of the Atlantic Ocean. However, the French navy was dominant in the Mediterranean, following the withdrawal of the British fleet after the outbreak of war between Britain and Spain in 1796. During the spring of 1798, Bonaparte assembled more than 35,000 soldiers in Mediterranean France and Italy and he also formed the Commission des Sciences et des Arts, a body of scientists and engineers intended to establish a French colony in Egypt. On 9 June, the fleet arrived off Malta, then under the ownership of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, Bonaparte demanded that his fleet be permitted entry to the fortified harbour of Valletta. When the Knights refused, the French general responded by ordering a large invasion of the Maltese Islands. While Bonaparte was sailing to Malta, the Royal Navy re-entered the Mediterranean for the first time in more than a year and this squadron, consisting of three ships of the line and three frigates, was entrusted to Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson
32.
Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley
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Richard Colley Wesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley KG PC PC was styled Viscount Wellesley from birth until 1781 and was known as Earl of Mornington from 1781 until 1799. He was an Irish and British politician and colonial administrator and he was the eldest son of The 1st Earl of Mornington, an Irish peer, and Anne, the eldest daughter of The 1st Viscount Dungannon. He was also the brother of Field Marshal The 1st Duke of Wellington and he first made his name as Governor-General of India between 1798 and 1805 and later served as Foreign Secretary in the British Cabinet and as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Wellesley was born in 1760 in Ireland, where his family were part of the Ascendancy and he was educated at the Royal School, Armagh, Harrow School and Eton College, where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar, and at Christ Church, Oxford. He was elected Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Ireland in 1782, due to the extravagance of his father and grandfather, he found himself so indebted that he was ultimately forced to sell all the Irish estates. However, in 1781 he was appointed to the position of Custos Rotulorum of Meath. In 1784 he joined also the British House of Commons as member for Bere Alston, soon afterwards he was appointed a Lord of the Treasury by William Pitt the Younger. Mornington seems to have caught Pitts large political spirit in the period 1793 to 1797, Robert Clive won and Warren Hastings consolidated the British ascendancy in India, but Mornington extended it into an empire. On the voyage outwards, he formed the design of annihilating French influence in the Deccan, soon after his landing, in April 1798, he learned that an alliance was being negotiated between Tipu Sultan and the French republic. Mornington resolved to anticipate the action of the enemy, and ordered preparations for war, the first step was to effect the disbandment of the French troops entertained by the Nizam of Hyderabad. The invasion of Mysore followed in February 1799, and the campaign was brought to a conclusion by the capture of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799. In 1803, the restoration of the Peshwa proved the prelude to the Mahratha war against Sindhia and he found the East India Company a trading body, but left it an imperial power. He was an excellent administrator, and picked two of his brothers for his staff, Arthur was his military adviser, and Henry was his personal secretary. He founded Fort William College, a training centre intended for those who would be involved in governing India, a free-trader like Pitt, he endeavoured to remove some of the restrictions on the trade between Britain and India. He reached England just in time to see Pitt before his death and he had been created a Peer of Great Britain in 1797, and in 1799 became Marquess Wellesley in the Peerage of Ireland. He formed a collection of over 2,500 painted miniatures in the Company style of Indian natural history. A motion by James Paull to impeach Wellesley due to his expulsion of the traders from Oudh was defeated in the House of Commons by 182 votes to 31 in 1808. Resolutions condemning him for the abuse of power were moved in both the Lords and Commons, but defeated by large majorities, in 1809 Wellesley was appointed ambassador to Spain
33.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
34.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
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His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 put him in the top rank of Britains military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and he was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons and he was a colonel by 1796, and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, following Napoleons exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the army which defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellesleys battle record is exemplary, he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, after ending his active military career, Wellington returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as part of the Tory party, from 1828 to 1830 and he oversaw the passage of the Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the figures in the House of Lords until his retirement. As such, he belonged to the Protestant Ascendancy and his biographers mostly follow the contemporary newspaper evidence in saying that he was born 1 May 1769, the day that he was baptised. He was most likely born at his parents townhouse,24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, but his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. He spent most of his childhood at his familys two homes, the first a house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle,3 miles north of Summerhill on the Trim Road in County Meath. In 1781, Arthurs father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his fathers earldom and he went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whytes Academy when in Dublin, and Browns School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton, where he studied from 1781 to 1784, moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of funds due to his fathers death, forced the young Wellesley. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew concerned at his idleness, stating. A year later, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement
35.
Duke of Wellington (title)
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Duke of Wellington is a hereditary title of the senior rank in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. General references to the Duke of Wellington usually refer to Arthur Wellesley as the 1st Duke of Wellington, the dukedom has descended to heirs male of the body with 11 other titles in various jurisdictions. The titles of Duke of Wellington and Marquess of Douro were bestowed upon Arthur Wellesley and he fought some 60 battles in his military career, and never lost a single one. He was considered the conqueror of Napoleon and he stands as one of the finest soldiers Great Britain and Ireland has ever produced, others being the Duke of Marlborough & John, 2nd Duke of Argyll. The Viscountcy of Wellesley and the Barony and Earldom of Mornington are in the Peerage of Ireland and these were granted to the first Duke as victory titles for his distinguished services as victorious commanding general in the Peninsular War and at the Battle of Waterloo. The family seat is Stratfield Saye House, near Basingstoke, Hampshire, apsley House, in London, is now owned by English Heritage, although the family retain an apartment there. The dukedom of Ciudad Rodrigo in the Spanish peerage, together with its subsidiary titles, will continue to be held in the female line of descendants of the first Duke
36.
Srirangapatnam
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Srirangapatna is a town in Mandya district of the Indian state of Karnataka. Located near the city of Mysore, it is of religious, cultural, although situated a mere 15 km from Mysore city, Srirangapatna lies in the neighbouring district of Mandya. The entire town is enclosed by the river Kaveri to form a river island, while the main river flows on the eastern side of the island, the Paschima Vaahini segment of the same river flows to its west. The town is accessible by train from Bangalore and Mysore and is also well-connected by road. The highway passes through town and special care was taken to minimize any impact on the monuments. The town takes its name from the celebrated Ranganathaswamy temple which dominates the town, the temple was built by the Ganga dynasty rulers of the area in the 9th century, the structure was strengthened and improved upon architecturally some three centuries later. Thus, the temple is a medley of the Hoysala and Vijayanagar styles of temple architecture, as of 2001 India census, Srirangapatna had a population of 23,448. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%, Srirangapatna has an average literacy rate of 68%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 74%, and female literacy is 63%. In Srirangapatna, 10% of the population is under 6 years of age, Srirangapatna is located at 12. 41°N76. 7°E /12.41,76.7. It has an elevation of 679 metres. Srirangapatna Sangama is the confluence of the three holy streams creating the island, located 27 km upstream from the town is the spectacular Shivanasamudra Falls, the second biggest waterfall in India and the 16th largest in the world. Srirangapatna has since time immemorial been a center and place of pilgrimage. During the Vijayanagar empire, it became the seat of a major viceroyalty, from several nearby vassal states of the empire, such as Mysore. When, perceiving the decline of the Vijayanagar empire, the rulers of Mysore ventured to assert independence, raja Wodeyar vanquished Rangaraya, the then viceroy of Srirangapatna, in 1610 and celebrated the Navaratri festival in the town that year. Srirangapatna became the de facto capital of Mysore under Hyder Ali, in that heady period, the state ruled by Tipu extended its frontiers in every direction, encompassing a major portion of South India. Srirangapatna flourished as the capital of this powerful state. Various Indo-Islamic monuments that dot the town, such as Tipu Sultans palaces, the Darya Daulat and this battle was the last engagement of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. The Battle of Seringapatam,1799, was truly momentous in its historic effects, at the battles climax, Tipu Sultan was killed within the fort of Seringapatam, betrayed by one of his own confidants, the spot where he ultimately fell is marked by a memorial
37.
Archaeological Survey of India
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It was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham who also became its first Director-General. The first systematic research into Indias history was conducted by the Asiatic Society, based in Calcutta, the society promoted the study of ancient Sanskrit and Persian texts and published an annual journal titled Asiatic Researches. Notable among its members was Charles Wilkins who published the first English translation of the Bhagavad Gita in 1785 with the patronage of the then Governor-General of India. However, the most important of the achievements was the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837. This successful decipherment inaugurated the study of Indian palaeography, armed with the knowledge of Brahmi, Alexander Cunningham, a protégé of Prinsep, carried out a detailed survey of the Buddhist monuments which lasted for over half a century. Inspired by early amateur archaeologists like the Italian military officer, Jean-Baptiste Ventura, the survey was suspended briefly between 1865 and 1871 due to lack of funds but restored by Lord Lawrence the then Viceroy of India. In 1871, the Survey was revived as a separate department, to this day, Alexander Cunningham is revered as the Father of Indian Archaeology. Cunningham retired in 1885 and was succeeded as Director General by James Burgess, Burgess launched a yearly journal The Indian Antiquary and an annual epigraphical publication Epigraphia Indica as a supplement to the Indian Antiquary. The post of Director General was permanently suspended in 1889 due to a crunch and was not restored until 1902. In the interim period, conservation work in the different circles was carried out by the superintendents of the individual circles, the post of Director General was restored by Lord Curzon in 1902. Breaking with tradition, Curzon chose a 26-year-old professor of classical studies at Cambridge named John Marshall to head the survey. Marshall served as Director General for a quarter of a century and during his long tenure, Marshall established the post of Government epigraphist and encouraged epigraphical studies. The most significant event of his tenure was, however, the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization at Harappa, the success and scale of the discoveries made ensured that the progress made in Marshalls tenure would remain unmatched. Marshall was succeeded by Harold Hargreaves in 1928, Hargreaves was succeeded by Daya Ram Sahni, supervisor of Marshalls excavation of Harappa in 1921−22, who in 1931, became the first Indian Director General of the survey. Sahni was succeeded by J. F. Blakiston and K. N. Dikshit both of whom had participated in the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro, in 1944, a British archaeologist and army officer, Mortimer Wheeler took over as Director General. Wheeler served as Director General till 1948 and during this period he excavated the Iron Age site of Arikamedu, Wheeler was succeeded by N. P. Chakravarti in 1948. The National Museum was inaugurated in New Delhi on August 15,1949 to house the artifacts displayed at the Indian Exhibition in the United Kingdom, madho Sarup Vats and Amalananda Ghosh succeeded Chakravarti. Ghoshs tenure which lasted until 1968 is noted for the excavations of Indus Valley sites at Kalibangan, Lothal, the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act was passed in 1958 bringing the archaeological survey under the aegis of the Ministry of Culture
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Iron
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Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
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Rocket
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A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket before use, Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in the vacuum of space. In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere, multistage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China, significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Earths moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for satellites, human spaceflight. Chemical rockets are the most common type of high power rocket, chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks, the first gunpowder-powered rockets were developed in Song China, by the 13th century. The Chinese rocket technology was adopted by the Mongols and the invention was spread via the Mongol invasions to the Near East, medieval and early modern rockets were used militarily as incendiary weapons in sieges. An early Chinese text to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing, between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya, which included 107 gunpowder recipes,22 of which are for rockets. In Europe, Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his military treatise Bellifortis around 1405. The name Rocket comes from the Italian rocchetta, meaning bobbin or little spindle, the Italian term was adopted into German in the mid 16th century by Leonhard Fronsperger and Conrad Haas, and by the early 17th century into English. Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima, an important early work on rocket artillery. The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the late 18th century in the Kingdom of Mysore, in 1814, Francis Scott Key wrote the line rockets red glare while held captive on a British ship that was laying siege to Fort McHenry. The first mathematical treatment of the dynamics of rocket propulsion is due to William Moore, in 1815, Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko constructed rocket-launching platforms, which allowed rockets to be fired in salvos, and gun-laying devices. William Hale in 1844 greatly increased the accuracy of rocket artillery, the Congreve rocket was further improved by Edward Mounier Boxer in 1865. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky first speculated on the possibility of manned spaceflight with rocket technology, robert Goddard in 1920 published proposed improvements to rocket technology in A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes
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Mysorean rockets
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Mysorean rockets were the first iron-cased rockets successfully deployed for military use. Hyder Ali, the 18th century ruler of Mysore, and his son and successor, Tipu Sultan brought the concept of using sword and blade thrust rockets in their military force to fight the advancing British army. There was a rocket corps in the Mysore Army, beginning with about 1,200 men in Hyder Alis time. Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan deployed them effectively against the larger British East India Company forces during the Anglo-Mysore Wars and these missiles were fitted with swords and traveled several meters through the air before coming down with edges facing the enemy. The British took an active interest in the technology and developed it further during the 19th century, although rockets existed also in Europe, they were not iron cased, and their range was far less than that of their East Asian counterparts. In battles at Srirangapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with effect against the British. The areas of town where rockets and fireworks were manufactured were known as Taramandal Pet, Tipu Sultan wrote a military manual called Fathul Mujahidin in which 200 rocket men were assigned to each Mysorean cushoon. Mysore had 16 to 24 cushoons of infantry, the rocket men were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target. In addition, wheeled rocket launchers capable of launching five to ten rockets almost simultaneously were used in war, the iron tube acted as a combustion chamber and contained well-packed black powder propellant. A rocket carrying about one pound of powder could travel almost 1,000 yards, in contrast, rockets in Europe, not being iron cased, could not take large chamber pressures and as a consequence, were not capable of reaching distances anywhere near as great. The entire road alongside Jumma Masjid near City Market and Taramandalpet, in 1792, during the Third Anglo-Mysore War, there was mention of two rocket units fielded by Tipu Sultan,120 men and 131 men respectively. Lt. Col. Knox was attacked by rockets near Srirangapatna on the night of 6 February 1792, the Rocket Corps ultimately reached a strength of about 5000 in Tipu Sultans army. Mysore rockets were used for ceremonial purposes. When the Jacobin Club of Mysore sent a delegation to Tipu Sultan,500 rockets were launched as part of the gun salute, during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, rockets were again used on several occasions. One of these involved Colonel Arthur Wellesley, later famous as the First Duke of Wellington, Wellesley was defeated by Tipus Diwan, Purnaiya, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. The commander chosen for this operation was Col, the following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without losing a single man. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards, some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent
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Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet
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Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet KCH FRS was an English inventor and rocket artillery pioneer distinguished for his development and deployment of Congreve rockets, and a Tory Member of Parliament. He was son of Lt. General Sir William Congreve, 1st Baronet and he was educated at Newcomes school in Hackney, Wolverhampton Grammar School and Singlewell School in Kent. He then studied law at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1793, in 1814 he succeeded his father as second Baronet Congreve. Following a damaging libel action against it in 1804, Congreve withdrew from publishing, many years previously, several unsuccessful experiments had been made at the Royal Laboratory in Woolwich by Lieut General Thomas Desaguliers. In 1804, at his own expense, began experimenting with rockets at Woolwich, Congreve was awarded the honorary rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the Hanoverian armys artillery in 1811, and was often referred to as Colonel Congreve, later made Major general in the same army. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March that year and he was also awarded the Order of St. George following the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 and 1816 he was made Knight Commander of the Royal Guelphic Order. In 1821 he was awarded the Order of the Sword by the King of Sweden, earlier in 1812 he offered to contest for Parliament the borough of Liverpool but withdrew before polling for lack of support. In 1818 he was returned as Member for Plymouth, a seat he held until his death and they had two sons and a daughter. In later years he became a businessman and was chairman of the Equitable Loan Bank, director of the Arigna Iron and Coal Company, the Palladium Insurance Company and the Peruvian Mining Company. After a major fraud case began against him in 1826 in connection with the Arigna company, he fled to France, where he was taken seriously ill. He was prosecuted in his absence, the Lord Chancellor ultimately ruling, just before Congreves death and he died in Toulouse, France in May 1828, aged 55, and was buried there in the Protestant and Jewish cemetery of Chemin du Béarnais. Mysorean rockets were the first iron - cased rockets that were deployed for military use. In battles at Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with effect against the British. The Indian rocket experiences, mentioned in Munros book of 1789, several rocket cases were collected from Mysore and sent to Britain for analysis. The development was chiefly the work of William Congreve, who set up a research, after development work was complete the rockets were manufactured in quantity further north, near Waltham Abbey, Essex. He was told that the British at Seringapatam had suffered more from the rockets than from the shells or any weapon used by the enemy. In at least one instance, an eye-witness told Congreve, a rocket had killed three men and badly wounded others. Congreve first demonstrated solid fuel rockets at the Royal Arsenal in 1805 and he considered his work sufficiently advanced to engage in two Royal Navy attacks on the French fleet at Boulogne, France, one that year and one the next
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Congreve rocket
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The Congreve rocket was a British military weapon designed and developed by Sir William Congreve in 1804, based directly on Mysorean rockets. The Kingdom of Mysore in India used Mysorean rockets as a weapon against the British in the wars that they fought against the British East India Company, several Mysore rockets were sent to Woolwich for studying and reverse-engineering following the Second, Third, and Fourth Mysore wars. Even so, Congreve had to start his project in 1804 with his own funds, the first demonstration of his solid fuel rockets was in September 1805. The rockets were used effectively during the Napoleonic Wars, the War of 1812, Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali developed the military tactic of using mass attacks with rocket artillery brigades on infantry formations. In 1792, Tipu Sultan wrote a manual called Fathul Mujahidin in which 200 rocket men were prescribed to each Mysorean rocket artillery brigade known as cushoons. Mysore had 16 to 24 cushoons of infantry, the areas of town where rockets and fireworks were manufactured were known as taramandal pet. The rocket men were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder, in addition, wheeled rocket launchers were used in war that were capable of launching five to ten rockets almost simultaneously. The iron tube acted as a chamber and contained well-packed black powder propellant. A rocket carrying about one pound of powder could travel almost 1,000 yards, in contrast, rockets in Europe were not iron cased and could not take large chamber pressures, and as a consequence they were not capable of reaching distances anywhere near as great. Hyder Alis father was the naik or chief constable at Budikote, there was a regular rocket corps in the Mysore Army, beginning with about 1,200 men in Hyder Alis time. Hyder Ali introduced the first iron cased rockets in warfare, in the Third Anglo-Mysore War in 1792, there is mention of two rocket units fielded by Tipu Sultan,120 men and 131 men respectively. Lieutenant Colonel Knox was attacked by rockets near Srirangapatna on the night of 6 February 1792, the rocket corps ultimately reached a strength of about 5,000 in Tipu Sultans army. Mysore rockets were used for ceremonial purposes. The Jacobin Club of Mysore sent a delegation to Tipu Sultan, during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, rockets were again used on several occasions. One of these involved Colonel Arthur Wellesley, later famous as the First Duke of Wellington, the rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells, others, called ground rockets, on striking the ground, would rise again and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly and he continued, the rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. Baird led the attack on the fort on the afternoon of 4 May
