1.
Distillation
–
Distillation is a process of separating the component or substances from a liquid mixture by selective evaporation and condensation. Distillation may result in complete separation, or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components of the mixture. In either case the process exploits differences in the volatility of the mixtures components, in industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction. For example, In the fossil fuel industry distillation is a class of operation in obtaining materials from crude oil for fuels. Distillation permits separation of air into its components — notably oxygen, nitrogen, Distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates out other fermentation products of commercial value. An installation for distillation, especially of alcohol, is a distillery, the distillation equipment is a still. Distillation is an old method of artificial desalination. Aristotle wrote about the process in his Meteorologica and even that ordinary wine possesses a kind of exhalation, later evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the 1st century AD. Distilled water has been known since at least c,200, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process. Work on distilling other liquids continued in early Byzantine Egypt under the Greek-Egyptian Zosimus of Panopolis, Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern Han Dynasty, but archaeological evidence indicates that actual distillation of beverages began in the Jin and Southern Song dynasties. A still was found in a site in Qinglong, Hebei province dating to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were more common during the Yuan dynasty, arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively in their chemical experiments. Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century, fractional distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi the first book dedicated to the subject of distillation. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice and this includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations, riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour. These alembics often featured a system around the beak, using cold water for instance. Today, the retorts and pot stills have largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes
2.
Condenser (laboratory)
–
A condenser is an apparatus or item of equipment used to condense. While condensers can be applied at various scales, in the research, training, or discovery laboratory, in simplest form, such a condenser consists of a single glass tube with outside air providing cooling. Depending on the application and the scale of the process, different types of condensers, since at least the 19th century, scientists have sought creative designs to maximize the surface area of vapor-liquid contact and heat exchange. Many types of laboratory condensers—simpler Liebig and Allihn, coiled Graham types, simple and Dimroth types of cold finger condensers, likewise, the configurations of laboratory apparatus involving condensers are many and varied, to cover low and high boiling solvents, simple and complex separations, etc. The direction of vapor and condensate flows in the laboratory condenser chosen for each of these may vary, as do the optimal flow direction for the cooling fluid, etc. Condensers can be applied at various scales, from micro-scale to process-scale, using laboratory glassware, in simplest form, a condenser can consist of a single tube of glass or metal, where the flow of outside air produces the cooling. In a further form, condensers consist of concentric glass tubes. Attachment of such during tubes and bubblers can be direct, or indirect via gas/vacuum lines, condensers are often used in reflux, where the hot solvent vapors of a liquid being heated are cooled and allowed to drip back. This reduces the loss of solvent allowing the mixture to be heated for extended periods, condensers are used in distillation to cool the hot vapors, condensing them into liquid for separate collection. For fractional distillation, an air or Vigreux condenser is used to slow the rate at which the hot vapors rise. Historically, the retort appearing in illustrations of the practice of alchemists is an apparatus that is essentially an unpacked air condenser, Liebig condensers are often used as air condensers, with air circulated rather than a liquid coolant. A Snyder column is an extremely effective air-cooled column used in selected fractional distillations and these floating glass stoppers act as check valves, closing and opening with vapor flow, and enhancing vapor-condensate mixing. F. A. A variant of the Liebig condenser having a slender design, with cone. The fused-on narrower coolant jacket may render more efficient cooling with respect to coolant consumption, the Allihn condenser or bulb condenser or simply reflux condenser is named after Felix Richard Allihn. The Allihn condenser consists of a glass tube with a water jacket. A series of bulbs on the tube increases the area upon which the vapor constituents may condense. A Davies condenser, also known as a surface condenser, is similar to the Liebig condenser. The coolant circulates in both the jacket and the central tube
3.
Raschig ring
–
Raschig rings are pieces of tube, approximately equal in length and diameter, used in large numbers as a packed bed within columns for distillations and other chemical engineering processes. They are usually ceramic or metal and provide a surface area within the volume of the column for interaction between liquid and gas vapours. Raschig rings are named after their inventor, the German chemist Friedrich Raschig and they form what is now known as random packing, and enabled Raschig to perform distillations of much greater efficiency than his competitors using fractional distillation columns with trays. In a distillation column, the reflux or condensed vapour runs down the column, covering the surfaces of the rings, as the vapour and liquid pass each other countercurrently in a small space, they tend towards equilibrium. Thus, less volatile material tends to go downwards, and more volatile material upwards and they are also used for devices where gas and liquid are put in contact for purposes of gas absorption, stripping or chemical reaction, and as a support for biofilms in biological reactors. Given the success of the simply-shaped Raschig ring, there have many other forms developed in an attempt to either improve upon it. The Pall ring attempts to increase the useful aspects of packing, by giving a number of edges to disrupt flow. Rather than using a tube, the Pall ring resembles an open basket structure of thin bars. These form both a tube and also a structure of cross bars. Pall rings may be injection moulded of plastics, moulded of ceramics or press-formed from metal sheet, the Raschig Super Ring represents a further development of the same concepts behind the Pall ring. It optimises the production of turbulent film-type flows and prevents the formation of drops, the rings no longer resemble rings but are pressed from metal sheet in the form of wave shapes of narrow strips. Super rings appeared in 1995 and have developed through several improved generations since
4.
Condensation
–
Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase, and is the reverse of evaporation. The word most often refers to the water cycle and it can also be defined as the change in the state of water vapour to liquid water when in contact with a liquid or solid surface or cloud condensation nuclei within the atmosphere. When the transition happens from the phase into the solid phase directly. A few distinct reversibility scenarios emerge here with respect to the nature of the surface, absorption into the surface of a liquid —is reversible as evaporation. Adsorption onto solid surface at pressures and temperatures higher than the species triple point—also reversible as evaporation, adsorption onto solid surface at pressures and temperatures lower than the species triple point—is reversible as sublimation. Condensation commonly occurs when a vapor is cooled and/or compressed to its limit when the molecular density in the gas phase reaches its maximal threshold. Vapor cooling and compressing equipment that collects condensed liquids is called a condenser, psychrometry measures the rates of condensation through evaporation into the air moisture at various atmospheric pressures and temperatures. Water is the product of its vapor condensation—condensation is the process of such phase conversion, condensation is a crucial component of distillation, an important laboratory and industrial chemistry application. Because condensation is a naturally occurring phenomenon, it can often be used to water in large quantities for human use. Many structures are made solely for the purpose of collecting water from condensation, such as air wells and it is also a crucial process in forming particle tracks in a cloud chamber. In this case, ions produced by an incident particle act as centers for the condensation of the vapor producing the visible cloud trails. Furthermore, condensation is a step in many industrial processes, such as power generation, water desalination, thermal management, refrigeration. Numerous living beings use water made accessible by condensation, a few examples of these are the Australian Thorny Devil, the darkling beetles of the Namibian coast, and the Coast Redwoods of the West Coast of the United States. To alleviate these issues, the air humidity needs to be lowered. This can be done in a number of ways, for example opening windows, turning on extractor fans, using dehumidifiers, drying clothes outside and covering pots and pans whilst cooking. Air conditioning or ventilation systems can be installed that help remove moisture from the air, the amount of water vapour that can be stored in the air can be increased simply by increasing the temperature. However, this can be a double edged sword as most condensation in the home occurs when warm, as the air is cooled, it can no longer hold as much water vapour. This leads to deposition of water on the cool surface and this is very apparent when central heating is used in combination with single glazed windows in winter
5.
Raoult's law
–
Raoults law is a law of thermodynamics established by French chemist François-Marie Raoult in 1887. It states that the vapor pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. If a non-volatile solute is dissolved into a solvent to form an ideal solution, the decrease in vapor pressure is directly proportional to the mole fraction of solute in an ideal solution. P = p A ⋆ x A Δ p = p A ⋆ − p = p A ⋆ = p A ⋆ x B. This is analogous to the gas law, which is a limiting law valid when the interactive forces between molecules approach zero, for example as the concentration approaches zero. Raoults law is valid if the physical properties of the components are identical. The more similar the components are, the more their behavior approaches that described by Raoults law, for example, if the two components differ only in isotopic content, then Raoults law is essentially exact. Comparing measured vapor pressures to predicted values from Raoults law provides information about the relative strength of intermolecular forces. The converse is true for positive deviations, thus the total pressure above the solution of A and B would be p = p A ⋆ x A + p B ⋆ x B. Since the sum of the mole fractions is equal to one and this is a linear function of the mole fraction x B, as shown in the graph. Raoults law was discovered as an idealised experimental law. This equation for the potential may then be used to derive other thermodynamic properties of an ideal solution. However, a fundamental thermodynamic definition of an ideal solution is one in which the chemical potential of each component is given by the above formula. Assuming also that the vapor mixture acts as an ideal gas, if the system is at equilibrium, then the chemical potential of the component i must be the same in the liquid solution and in the vapor above it. That is, μ i, l i q = μ i, v a p. The corresponding equation for i in equilibrium with its vapor is. Subtracting the equations gives us R T ln x i = R T ln f i f i ⋆ which re-arranges to f i = x i f i ⋆. The fugacities can be replaced by simple pressures if the vapor of the solution behaves ideally i. e. p i = x i p i ⋆ which is Raoults Law, an ideal solution would follow Raoults Law, but ideal solutions are extremely rare
6.
Spinning band distillation
–
Spinning band distillation is a technique used to separate liquid mixtures which are similar in boiling points. When liquids with similar boiling points are distilled, the vapors are mixtures, fractionating columns help separate the mixture by allowing the mixed vapors to cool, condense, and vaporize again in accordance with Raoults law. With each condensation-vaporization cycles, the vapors are enriched in a certain component, a larger surface area allows more cycles, improving separation. This speeds up equilibration and provides for a number of condensation-vaporization cycles. Spinning band distillation may sometimes be used to recycle waste solvents which contain different solvents, Spinning cone B/R Instrument Corporation, Spinning Band Distillation, accessed 27 Oct,2006. B/R Instrument Corporation, Comparison of Spinning Band Distillation with Packed Column Distillation, marshall Space Flight Center, Two Methods for Purifying Carbon Tetrachloride
7.
Theoretical plate
–
A theoretical plate in many separation processes is a hypothetical zone or stage in which two phases, such as the liquid and vapor phases of a substance, establish an equilibrium with each other. Such equilibrium stages may also be referred to as a stage, ideal stage. The performance of many separation processes depends on having a series of stages and is enhanced by providing more such stages. In other words, having more theoretical plates increases the efficiency of the process be it either a distillation, absorption, chromatographic. The concept of theoretical plates and trays or equilibrium stages is used in the design of different types of separation. The concept of theoretical plates in designing distillation processes has been discussed in reference texts. Since an actual, physical plate is rarely a 100% efficient equilibrium stage, the number of actual plates is more than the required theoretical plates. N a = N t E where N a is the number of actual, physical plates or trays, N t is the number of plates or trays. So-called bubble-cap or valve-cap trays are examples of the vapor and liquid contact devices used in distillation columns. Another example of vapor and liquid contact devices are the spikes in laboratory Vigreux fractionating columns and that spacing is chosen primarily for ease of installation and ease of access for future repair or maintenance. An example of a simple tray is a perforated tray. The desired contacting between vapor and liquid occurs as the vapor, flowing upwards through the perforations, comes into contact with the liquid flowing downwards through the perforations. The calculation process requires the availability of a deal of vapor–liquid equilibrium data for the components present in the distillation feed. In an industrial distillation column, the Nt required to achieve a given separation also depends upon the amount of reflux used, using more reflux decreases the number of plates required and using less reflux increases the number of plates required. Hence, the calculation of Nt is usually repeated at various reflux rates, Nt is then divided by the tray efficiency, E, to determine the actual number of trays or physical plates, Na, needed in the separating column. The theoretical plate in conventional distillation trays has no height and it is simply a hypothetical equilibrium stage. However, the plate in packed beds, chromatography and other applications is defined as having a height. N t = H H E T P where N t is the number of plates, H is the total bed height
8.
Reflux
–
Reflux is a technique involving the condensation of vapors and the return of this condensate to the system from which it originated. It is used in industrial and laboratory distillations and it is also used in chemistry to supply energy to reactions over a long period of time. Inside the column, the reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficiency of the distillation column. The more reflux provided for a number of theoretical plates. Conversely, for a desired separation, the more reflux is provided. A liquid reaction mixture is placed in a vessel open only at the top and this vessel is connected to a Liebig or Vigreux condenser, such that any vapours given off are cooled back to liquid, and fall back into the reaction vessel. The vessel is then heated vigorously for the course of the reaction, the purpose is to thermally accelerate the reaction by conducting it at an elevated temperature. In addition, as a given solvent will always boil at a certain temperature, by careful choice of solvent, one can control the temperature within a very narrow range. The constant boiling action also serves to continuously mix the solution and this technique is useful for performing chemical reactions under controlled conditions that require substantial time for completion. The diagram shows a typical reflux apparatus for applying energy to chemical reactions and it includes an optional beaker of water between the reactants and the heat. This is often used as a safety precaution when using flammable reactants, in modern laboratories, open flames are avoided due to the many flammable solvents often in use, and electrical heating, is preferred. Furthermore, a boiling, thermally stable silicone oil is generally used to immerse the reaction vessel. Using an oil bath, temperatures of up to several hundred degrees can easily be achieved, if even higher temperatures are required, the oil bath can be replaced with a sand bath. The apparatus shown in the diagram represents a batch distillation as opposed to a continuous distillation, the liquid feed mixture to be distilled is placed into the round-bottomed flask along with a few anti-bumping granules, and the fractionating column is fitted into the top. As the mixture is heated and boils, vapor rises up the column, the vapor condenses on the glass platforms inside the column and runs back down into the liquid below, thereby refluxing the upflowing distillate vapor. The hottest tray is at the bottom of the column and the coolest tray is at the top, at steady state conditions, the vapor and liquid on each tray is at equilibrium. Only the most volatile of the stays in gaseous form all the way to the top. The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser, the separation can be enhanced with the addition of more trays
9.
Condenser (heat transfer)
–
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, by cooling it. In so doing, the latent heat is given up by the substance, Condensers can be made according to numerous designs, and come in many sizes ranging from rather small to very large. For example, a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the outside air, Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes such as distillation, steam power plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers, a surface condenser is an example of such a heat-exchange system. It is a shell and tube heat exchanger installed at the outlet of steam turbine in thermal power stations. Commonly, the water flows through the tube side and the steam enters the shell side where the condensation occurs on the outside of the heat transfer tubes. The condensate drips down and collects at the bottom, often in a built-in pan called a hotwell, the shell side often operates at a vacuum or partial vacuum, produced by the difference in specific volume between the steam and condensate. Conversely, the vapor can be fed through the tubes with the coolant water or air flowing around the outside, in chemistry, a condenser is the apparatus which cools hot vapors, causing them to condense into a liquid. See Condenser for laboratory-scale condensers, as opposed to industrial-scale condensers, examples include the Liebig condenser, Graham condenser, and Allihn condenser. This is not to be confused with a reaction which links two fragments into a single molecule by an addition reaction and an elimination reaction. In laboratory distillation, reflux, and rotary evaporators, several types of condensers are commonly used, the Liebig condenser is simply a straight tube within a cooling water jacket, and is the simplest form of condenser. Being more complex shapes to manufacture, these types are also more expensive to purchase. These three types of condensers are laboratory glassware items since they are made of glass. Larger condensers are used in industrial-scale distillation processes to cool distilled vapor into liquid distillate. Commonly, the coolant flows through the side and distilled vapor through the shell side with distillate collecting at or flowing out the bottom. A typical configuration of such a unit is as follows. In this heat exchanger section, the refrigerant goes through multiple tube passes, there is a motorized fan inside the condenser unit near the top, which is covered by some grating to keep any objects from accidentally falling inside on the fan. The fan is used to blow the outside cooling air in through the heat exchange section at the sides, of course, an electric power supply is needed for the compressor and fan inside the unit
10.
Fractional distillation
–
Generally the component parts have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere. If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25 °C, heat source, such as a hot plate with a bath, and ideally with a magnetic stirrer. g. As an example consider the distillation of a mixture of water, ethanol boils at 78.4 °C while water boils at 100 °C. So, by heating the mixture, the most volatile component will concentrate to a degree in the vapor leaving the liquid. Some mixtures form azeotropes, where the mixture boils at a lower temperature than either component, in this example, a mixture of 96% ethanol and 4% water boils at 78.2 °C, the mixture is more volatile than pure ethanol. For this reason, ethanol cannot be purified by direct fractional distillation of ethanol-water mixtures. The apparatus is assembled as in the diagram, the mixture is put into the round bottomed flask along with a few anti-bumping granules, and the fractionating column is fitted into the top. The fractional distillation column is set up with the source at the bottom on the still pot. As the distance from the stillpot increases, a gradient is formed in the column, it is coolest at the top. As the mixed vapor ascends the temperature gradient, some of the vapor condenses and revaporizes along the temperature gradient, each time the vapor condenses and vaporizes, the composition of the more volatile component in the vapor increases. This distills the vapor along the length of the column, the vapor condenses on the glass platforms, known as trays, inside the column, and runs back down into the liquid below, refluxing distillate. The hottest tray is at the bottom and the coolest is at the top, at steady state conditions, the vapor and liquid on each tray are at equilibrium. The most volatile component of the exits as a gas at the top of the column. The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser, the process continues until all the ethanol boils out of the mixture. This point can be recognized by the rise in temperature shown on the thermometer. The above explanation reflects the theoretical way fractionation works, normal laboratory fractionation columns will be simple glass tubes filled with a packing, often small glass helices of 4 to 7 mm diameter. Such a column can be calibrated by the distillation of a known mixture system to quantify the column in terms of number of theoretical trays, in laboratory distillation, several types of condensers are commonly found. The Liebig condenser is simply a tube within a water jacket
11.
Unit operation
–
In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit operation is a basic step in a process. Unit operations involve a change or chemical transformation such as separation, crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomerization. For example, in processing, homogenization, pasteurization, chilling. A process may require many unit operations to obtain the product from the starting materials. Historically, the different chemical industries were regarded as different industrial processes, arthur Dehon Little propounded the concept of unit operations to explain industrial chemistry processes in 1916. They summed up these processes into unit operations. Each unit operation follows the physical laws and may be used in all relevant chemical industries. For instance, the engineering is required to design a mixer for either napalm or porridge, even if the use. The unit operations form the principles of chemical engineering. Chemical engineering unit operations consist of five classes, Fluid flow processes, including transportation, filtration. Heat transfer processes, including evaporation and heat exchange, mass transfer processes, including gas absorption, distillation, extraction, adsorption, and drying. Thermodynamic processes, including gas liquefaction, and refrigeration, mechanical processes, including solids transportation, crushing and pulverization, and screening and sieving. A pure unit operation is a transport process, while a mixed chemical/physical process requires modeling both the physical transport, such as diffusion, and the chemical reaction. This is usually necessary for designing catalytic reactions, and is considered a separate discipline, combining a stack of these gives the system of equations for the whole column. There is a range of solutions, because a higher reflux ratio enables fewer plates, the engineer must then find the optimal solution with respect to acceptable volume holdup, column height and cost of construction. Distillation Design Separation process Transport phenomena Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering Process simulation Unit process
12.
Chemical engineering
–
A chemical engineer designs large-scale processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms and energy into useful forms and products. A1996 British Journal for the History of Science article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid. In the same however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited for having coined the term. The History of Science in United States, An Encyclopedia puts this at around 1890, Chemical engineering, describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession, chemical engineer, was already in use in Britain. Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of operations, a fundamental concept of the discipline of chemical engineering. Most authors agree that Davis invented the concept of operations if not substantially developed it. He gave a series of lectures on unit operations at the Manchester Technical School in 1887, three years before Davis lectures, Henry Edward Armstrong taught a degree course in chemical engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute. Armstrongs course failed simply because its graduates, were not especially attractive to employers. Employers of the time would have rather hired chemists and mechanical engineers, starting from 1888, Lewis M. Norton taught at MIT the first chemical engineering course in the United States. Nortons course was contemporaneous and essentially similar with Armstrongs course, both courses, however, simply merged chemistry and engineering subjects. Its practitioners had difficulty convincing engineers that they were engineers and chemists that they were not simply chemists, unit operations was introduced into the course by William Hultz Walker in 1905. By the early 1920s, unit operations became an important aspect of engineering at MIT and other US universities. For instance, it defined chemical engineering to be a science of itself, unit operations in a 1922 report, and with which principle, it had published a list of academic institutions which offered satisfactory chemical engineering courses. Meanwhile, promoting chemical engineering as a science in Britain lead to the establishment of the Institution of Chemical Engineers in 1922. IChemE likewise helped make unit operations considered essential to the discipline, by the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was insufficient in developing chemical reactors. While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain, along with other novel concepts, such process systems engineering, a second paradigm was defined. Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its elements, such as control system
13.
Petroleum
–
Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
14.
Petrochemical
–
Petrochemicals, also called petroleum distillates, are chemical products derived from petroleum. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. The two most common classes are olefins and aromatics. Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions, chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas liquids like ethane and propane. Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha, Olefins and aromatics are the building-blocks for a wide range of materials such as solvents, detergents, and adhesives. Olefins are the basis for polymers and oligomers used in plastics, resins, fibers, elastomers, lubricants, global ethylene and propylene production are about 115 million tonnes and 70 million tonnes per annum, respectively. Aromatics production is approximately 70 million tonnes, the largest petrochemical industries are located in the USA and Western Europe, however, major growth in new production capacity is in the Middle East and Asia. There is substantial inter-regional petrochemical trade, primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups depending on their chemical structure, Olefins includes ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. Ethylene and propylene are important sources of chemicals and plastics products. Butadiene is used in making synthetic rubber, aromatics includes benzene, toluene, and xylenes. Benzene is a raw material for dyes and synthetic detergents, manufacturers use xylenes to produce plastics and synthetic fibers. Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen used to make ammonia, ammonia is used to make the fertilizer urea and methanol is used as a solvent and chemical intermediate. The prefix petro- is an abbreviation of the word petroleum, since petro- is Ancient Greek for rock. Therefore, the correct term would be oleochemicals. However, the term oleochemical is used to describe chemicals derived from plant, benzene, toluene and xylenes, as a whole referred to as BTX and primarily obtained from petroleum refineries by extraction from the reformate produced in catalytic reformers. Methane and BTX are used directly as feedstocks for producing petrochemicals, the output ethylene capacity of large steam crackers ranged up to as much as 1.0 –1.5 Mt per year. Steam crackers are not to be confused with steam reforming plants used to produce hydrogen, like commodity chemicals, petrochemicals are made on a very large scale. Petrochemical manufacturing units differ from commodity chemical plants in that often produce a number of related products
15.
Natural-gas processing
–
Natural-gas processing begins at the well head. The composition of the raw natural gas extracted from producing wells depends on the type, depth, and location of the underground deposit, oil and natural gas are often found together in the same reservoir. The natural gas produced from oil wells is generally classified as associated-dissolved, Natural gas production absent any association with crude oil is classified as “non-associated. ”In 2009,89 percent of U. S. wellhead production of natural gas was non-associated. Natural-gas processing plants purify raw natural gas by removing common contaminants such as water, carbon dioxide, some of the substances which contaminate natural gas have economic value and are further processed or sold. A fully operational plant delivers pipeline-quality dry natural gas that can be used as fuel by residential, commercial and industrial consumers, raw natural gas comes primarily from any one of three types of wells, crude oil wells, gas wells, and condensate wells. Natural gas that comes from oil wells is typically called associated gas. This gas can have existed as a gas cap above the oil in the underground formation. Natural gas from gas wells and from wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is called non-associated gas. Gas wells typically produce raw natural gas, while condensate wells produce raw natural gas along with other low molecular weight hydrocarbons. Those that are liquid at ambient conditions are called natural gas condensate, Natural gas is called sweet gas when relatively free of hydrogen sulfide, gas that does contain hydrogen sulfide is called sour gas. Such gas is referred to as coalbed gas or coalbed methane, coalbed gas has become an important source of energy in recent decades. Raw natural gas typically consists primarily of methane, the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon molecule and it also contains varying amounts of, Heavier gaseous hydrocarbons, ethane, propane, normal butane, isobutane, pentanes and even higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. When processed and purified into finished by-products, all of these are referred to as Natural Gas Liquids or NGL. Acid gases, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans such as methanethiol and ethanethiol, water, water vapor and liquid water. Also dissolved salts and dissolved gases, liquid hydrocarbons, perhaps some natural-gas condensate and/or crude oil. Mercury, very small amounts of mercury primarily in elemental form, naturally occurring radioactive material, natural gas may contain radon, and the produced water may contain dissolved traces of radium, which can accumulate within piping and processing equipment. This can render piping and equipment radioactive over time, the raw natural gas must be purified to meet the quality standards specified by the major pipeline transmission and distribution companies. Those quality standards vary from pipeline to pipeline and are usually a function of a pipeline systems design, in general, the standards specify that the natural gas, Be within a specific range of heating value
16.
Coal tar
–
Coal tar, also known as liquor carbonis detergens, is a very thick, dark liquid with a number of medical and industrial uses. As a medication it is used to treat psoriasis and seborrheic dermatitis, for psoriasis it may be used together with ultraviolet light therapy. It is used by application to the affected area, industrial uses include preservation of railway ties and improving the surface of roads. Side effects include skin irritation, sun sensitivity, allergic reactions and it is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe for the baby and use during breastfeeding is not typically recommended. Coal tar is one of the by-products when coal is made into coke and it is a complex mixture of phenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and heterocyclic compounds. Coal tar was discovered around 1665 and used for purposes as early as the 1800s. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Coal tar is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In the United Kingdom 125 ml of 5% shampoo costs the NHS about 1.89 pounds, in the United States a month of treatment costs less than 25 USD. Coal-tar was one of the key starting materials for the pharmaceutical industry. It can be used in medicated shampoo, soap and ointment, as a treatment for dandruff and psoriasis, as well as being used to kill and repel head lice. When used as a medication in the U. S. coal tar preparations are considered over-the-counter drug pharmaceuticals and are subject to regulation by the FDA, named brands include Denorex, Balnetar, Psoriasin, Tegrin, T/Gel, and Neutar. Pine tar has also been used for this purpose. Various phenolic coal tar derivatives have analgesic properties and these included acetanilide, phenacetin, and paracetamol. Paracetamol is the only coal-tar derived analgesic still in use today, Coal tar is incorporated into some parking-lot sealcoat products, which are used to protect and beautify the underlying pavement. Sealcoat products that are coal-tar based typically contain 20 to 35 percent coal-tar pitch, Coal tar was a component of the first sealed roads. In its original development by Edgar Purnell Hooley, tarmac was tar covered with granite chips, later the filler used was industrial slag. Today, petroleum derived binders and sealers are more commonly used and these sealers are used to extend the life and reduce maintenance cost associated with asphalt pavements, primarily in asphalt road paving, car parks and walkways. Being flammable, coal tar is used for heating or to fire boilers
17.
Brewing
–
Brewing is the production of beer by steeping a starch source in water and fermenting the resulting sweet liquid with yeast. It may be done in a brewery by a brewer, at home by a homebrewer. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests that emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, since the nineteenth century the brewing industry has been part of most western economies. The basic ingredients of beer are water and a starch source such as malted barley. Most beer is fermented with a brewers yeast and flavoured with hops, less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum and cassava. Secondary sources, such as maize, rice, or sugar, may also be used, sometimes to reduce cost, or to add a feature, the proportion of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill. Steps in the process include malting, milling, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering. There are three main methods, warm, cool and spontaneous. Fermentation may take place in an open or closed fermenting vessel, there are several additional brewing methods, such as barrel aging, double dropping, and Yorkshire Square. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in cuneiform from ancient Mesopotamia. Ethnographic studies and archaeological records indicate that brewing alcohol was primary an activity engaged in by women, chemical tests of ancient pottery jars reveal that beer was produced as far back as about 7,000 years ago in what is today Iran. This discovery reveals one of the earliest known uses of fermentation and is the earliest evidence of brewing to date, in Mesopotamia, the oldest evidence of beer is believed to be a 6, 000-year-old Sumerian tablet depicting people drinking a beverage through reed straws from a communal bowl. A 3900-year-old Sumerian poem honouring Ninkasi, the goddess of brewing, contains the oldest surviving beer recipe. The invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 5,000 years ago, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. Ale produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. More than 133 billion litres are sold per year—producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion in 2006
18.
Hydrocarbon
–
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one atom has been removed are functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons, the classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows, Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen, the formula for acyclic saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2. The most general form of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2, where r is the number of rings and those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as linear or branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property, hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers. As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms and those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula CnH2n and those containing triple bonds are called alkyne. Those with one triple bond have the formula CnH2n−2, aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. Hydrocarbons can be gases, liquids, waxes or low melting solids or polymers, in terms of shells, carbon consists of an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for covalent or dative bonding. Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system, lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturns largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt, mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. Methane and ethane are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. Propane is however easily liquefied, and exists in propane bottles mostly as a liquid, butane is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters
19.
Oil refinery
–
Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units. In many ways, oil refineries use much of the technology of, the crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant. There is usually an oil depot at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products, an oil refinery is considered an essential part of the downstream side of the petroleum industry. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the tanks and are therefore hazardous. Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to power for ships, automobiles, aircraft engines, lawn mowers, dirt bikes. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation, Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes, alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing, smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation, or more commonly, dimerization. The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, the final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products uses a process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material. Oil refineries are large plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day. Because of the capacity, many of the units operate continuously, as opposed to processing in batches. The high capacity also makes process optimization and advanced process control very desirable, petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories, light distillates, middle distillates, heavy distillates and residuum. This classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions as in the above drawing and these are not usually transported but instead are blended or processed further on-site. Chemical plants are often adjacent to oil refineries or a number of further chemical processes are integrated into it. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-cracked in a plant. Using the Claus process, hydrogen sulfide is afterwards transformed to elementary sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry, the rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the other parts of the refinery. Often an electrical plant is combined into the whole refinery process to take up the excess heat. Desalter unit washes out salt from the oil before it enters the atmospheric distillation unit
20.
Boiling point
–
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the environmental pressure. A liquid in a vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For a given pressure, different liquids boil at different temperatures, for example, water boils at 100 °C at sea level, but at 93.4 °C at 2,000 metres altitude. The normal boiling point of a liquid is the case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level,1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar, the heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure. Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation, evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquids edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, a saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase, the liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant, a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy is removed, similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa, at higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, the boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached
21.
Reboiler
–
Reboilers are heat exchangers typically used to provide heat to the bottom of industrial distillation columns. They boil the liquid from the bottom of a column to generate vapors which are returned to the column to drive the distillation separation. The heat supplied to the column by the reboiler at the bottom of the column is removed by the condenser at the top of the column, proper reboiler operation is vital to effective distillation. In a typical classical distillation column, all the vapor driving the separation comes from the reboiler, the reboiler receives a liquid stream from the column bottom and may partially or completely vaporize that stream. Steam usually provides the heat required for the vaporization, the most critical element of reboiler design is the selection of the proper type of reboiler for a specific service. Most reboilers are of the shell and tube heat exchanger type, however, other heat transfer fluids like hot oil or Dowtherm may be used. Fuel-fired furnaces may also be used as reboilers in some cases, commonly used heat exchanger type reboilers are, Kettle reboilers are very simple and reliable. They may require pumping of the column bottoms liquid into the kettle, in this reboiler type, steam flows through the tube bundle and exits as condensate. The liquid from the bottom of the tower, commonly called the bottoms, thermosyphon reboilers do not require pumping of the column bottoms liquid into the reboiler. Thermosyphon reboilers are more complex than kettle reboilers and require more attention from the plant operators, there are many types of thermosyphon reboilers including vertical, horizontal, once-through or recirculating. Fired heaters, also known as furnaces, may be used as a distillation column reboiler, a pump is required to circulate the column bottoms through the heat transfer tubes in the furnaces convection and radiant sections. The heat source for the fired heater reboiler may be either fuel gas or fuel oil, a forced circulation reboiler uses a pump to circulate the column bottoms liquid through the reboilers. This is useful if the reboiler must be located far from the column, some fluids are temperature sensitive such as those subject to polymerization by contact with high temperature heat transfer tube walls. High liquid recirculation rates are used to reduce tube wall temperatures, thereby reducing polymerization on the tube, perry, Robert H. & Green, Don W. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook. Column reboilers Sketches and discussion of various reboiler types
.png)