1.
Saint-Quentin, France
–
Saint-Quentin is a commune in the Aisne department in Hauts-de-France in northern France. It has been identified as the Augusta Veromanduorum of antiquity and it is named after Saint Quentin, who is said to have been martyred here in the 3rd century. Saint-Quentin is a sub-prefecture of Aisne, although Saint-Quentin is by far the largest city in Aisne, the capital is the third-largest city, Laon. The mayor of Saint-Quentin is Xavier Bertrand, a member of the right-wing UMP Party, the city was founded by the Romans, in the Augustean period, to replace the oppidum of Vermand as the capital of Viromandui. It received the name of Augusta Viromanduorum, Augusta of the Viromandui, the site is that of a ford across the River Somme. During the late Roman period, it is possible that the capital was transferred back to Vermand. From the 9th century, Saint-Quentin was the capital of Vermandois County, from the 10th century, the counts of Vermandois were very powerful. The city grew rapidly, the bourgeois organized themselves and obtained, in the half of the 11th century. At the beginning of the 13th century, Saint-Quentin entered the royal domain, at that time, it was a thriving city, based on its wool textile industry. It was also a centre of commerce boosted by its position on the border of the kingdom of France and it also benefited from its location in the heart of a rich agricultural region. From the 14th century, Saint-Quentin suffered from this strategic position, in the 15th century, the city was disputed between the king of France and the dukes of Burgundy. Ravaged by the plague on several occasions, its population decreased, while its economy was in crisis, its fair was increasingly irrelevant, the declining textile industry turned to the production of flax canvas. Meanwhile, the city faced major expenses to maintain its fortifications, between the end of the 15th century and the mid-17th century, this strategic position was the cause of frequent misfortune. In 1557, a siege by the Spanish army ended with the looting of the city, given back to France in 1559, it underwent intense fortification work, the medieval wall was protected by many new advanced fortifications, redesigned several times. Two districts were razed to make way for them, in the mid-17th century, the city escaped the sieges, but suffered the horrors of wars ravaging the Picardy region, accompanied by the plague and famine. In the second half of the 17th century, the conquests of Louis XIV took St Quentin away from the border, at the end of the 16th century, its textile production specialized in fine flax canvas. This brought prosperity, particularly in the 18th century, when these textiles were exported across Europe, during the First French Empire, difficulties in the export market brought an economic decline. At the request of the municipality, Napoleon authorized the razing of the fortifications, in 1814-1815, Saint-Quentin was occupied by the Russian army, but without any damage
Saint-Quentin, France
–
Town hall
Saint-Quentin, France
–
The Market
Saint-Quentin, France
–
Ruins in St. Quentin, France during
First World War.
Saint-Quentin, France
–
The Basilica
2.
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France in 1789.
Ancien Régime provinces in
1789.
Kingdom of France
–
Royal Standarda
Kingdom of France
–
Henry IV, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1610.
Kingdom of France
–
Louis XIII, by
Philippe de Champaigne, 1647.
3.
18th-century philosophy
–
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
18th-century philosophy
–
German philosopher
Immanuel Kant
18th-century philosophy
–
History of
Western philosophy
18th-century philosophy
–
Cesare Beccaria, father of classical criminal theory (1738–1794)
18th-century philosophy
–
Like other Enlightenment philosophers,
Rousseau was critical of the
Atlantic slave trade.
4.
Anarchy
–
Anarchy is the condition of a society, entity, group of people, or a single person that rejects hierarchy. The term originally meant leaderlessness, but in 1840, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon adopted the term in his treatise What Is Property, to refer to a new political philosophy, anarchism, which advocates stateless societies based on voluntary associations. In practical terms, anarchy can refer to the curtailment or abolition of traditional forms of government and it could also mean a nation or anywhere on earth that is inhabited, that has no system of government or central rule. The word anarchy comes from the ancient Greek ἀναρχία, which combines ἀ, not, without and ἀρχή, ruler, leader, thus, the term refers to a person or society without rulers or without leaders. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant treated anarchy in his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View as consisting of Law and Freedom without Force. Thus, for Kant, anarchy falls short of being a civil state because the law is only an empty recommendation if force is not included to make this law efficacious. For there to be such a state, force must be included while law and freedom are maintained, Kant identified four kinds of government, Law and freedom without force. Anarchism is a philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of social, some individualist anarchists are also socialists or communists while some anarcho-communists are also individualists or egoists. Anarchism as a movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Since the 1890s, the term libertarianism has been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States, right-libertarians are divided into minarchists and anarcho-capitalists or voluntarists. Outside the English-speaking world, libertarianism generally retains its association with left-wing anarchism, many of these societies can be considered to be anarchic in the sense that they explicitly reject the idea of centralized political authority. The egalitarianism typical of human hunter-gatherers is interesting when viewed in an evolutionary context, one of humanitys two closest primate relatives, the chimpanzee, is anything but egalitarian, forming hierarchies that are dominated by alpha males. In Society Against the State Pierre Clastres examines stateless societies where cultural practices and attitudes avert the development of hierarchy. He dismisses the notion that the state is the outcome of the evolution of human societies
Anarchy
–
Mainland Europe experienced near-anarchy in the
Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)
Anarchy
–
Heads of Aristocrats, on spikes
Anarchy
–
Nestor Makhno (1918), the leader of the Anarchist Free Territory in
Ukraine during the
Russian Civil War.
5.
Communism
–
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
Communism
–
Vladimir Lenin after his return to
Petrograd
Communism
Communism
–
USSR postage stamp depicting the states ruled by self-proclaimed communist parties, launching the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1
Communism
–
A demonstration of the
Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Moscow, December 2011
6.
Political philosophy
–
In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism, the Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, prior to Chinas adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century. Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato, ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories, timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of philosophy is Platos Republic. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and the Roman statesman Cicero, Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between nation and state religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises, the institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive, chanakya, 4th century BC Indian political philosopher. Another influential extant Indian treatise on philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu, the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, augustines City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth. Thomas Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of law, according to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law, Eternal law Divine positive law Natural law Human law Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of canon law. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an influential thinker in the Natural Law tradition
Political philosophy
–
Plato (left) and
Aristotle (right), from a detail of
The School of Athens, a fresco by
Raphael. Plato's
Republic and Aristotle's
Politics secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.
Political philosophy
–
Eugène Delacroix's
Liberty Leading the People (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time when old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.
7.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution, Rousseaus novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction and his Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club and he was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794,16 years after his death. Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state, since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Rousseau was proud that his family, of the order, had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he signed his books Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting citizens, the citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as inhabitants, whose descendants were called natives and continued to lack suffrage. There was much debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, in 1707, a democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being. He was shot by order of the Little Council, Jean-Jacques Rousseaus father, Isaac, was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacquess grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it. The trade of watchmaking had become a tradition by the time of Rousseaus father. Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. A Genevan watchmaker, Rousseau wrote, is a man who can be introduced anywhere, in 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, Rousseaus mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family. She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher and he cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques died in his early thirties. In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theater disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, after a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. She married Rousseaus father at the age of 31, isaacs sister had married Suzannes brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Rousseau in 1753, by
Maurice Quentin de La Tour
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
The house where Rousseau was born at number 40, Grand-Rue.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Les Charmettes, where Rousseau lived with
Mme. de Warens in 1735–6, now a museum dedicated to Rousseau.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio
Venice that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the Ambassador
8.
Socialism
–
Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
Socialism
–
Charles Fourier, influential early French socialist thinker
Socialism
–
The celebration of the election of the Commune, 28 March 1871. The
Paris Commune was a major early implementation of socialist ideas
Socialism
–
G. D. H. Cole, English socialist theorist who was a member of the
Fabian Society as well as the main theorist of
guild socialism
Socialism
–
Leon Trotsky,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Lev Kamenev at the Second Communist Party Congress, 1919.
9.
Red flag (politics)
–
In politics, a red flag is a symbol of socialism, communism, and left-wing politics, it has been associated with left-wing politics since the French Revolution. Socialists adopted the symbol during the Revolutions of 1848 and it became a symbol of communism as a result of its use by the Paris Commune of 1871. The flags of several communist states, including China, Vietnam, the Labour Party in Britain used it until the late 1980s. It was the inspiration for the socialist anthem, The Red Flag, in the Middle Ages, ships in combat flew a long red streamer, called the Baucans, to signify a fight to the death. In one petition, a group of English sailors asserted that the Crown had no right to a share of the money earned from a Norman ship captured in 1293 because it had raised the Baucans. By the 17th century, the Baucans had evolved into a red flag and it was raised in cities and castles under siege to indicate that they would not surrender. The red flag is a signal of defiance and battle, according to Chambers Cyclopedia, the red cap was a symbol of popular revolt in France going back to the Jacquerie of 1358. The color red become associated with early in the French Revolution due to the popularity of the Tricolour cockade, introduced in July 1789. A red flag was raised over the Champ-de-Mars in Paris on July 17,1791 by Lafayette, commander of the National Guard, as a symbol of martial law, as many as fifty anti-royalist protesters were killed in the fighting that followed. Inverting the original symbolism, the Jacobins protested this action by flying a red flag to honor the martyrs blood of those who had been killed and they created their own red flags to declare the martial law of the people against the revolt of the court. The Jacobin Club ruled France during the Reign of Terror and made the red flag an unofficial national emblem, however, the earlier Tricolor never lost its official status and regained popularity under Napoleon. British sailors mutinied near the mouth of the River Thames in 1797, two red flags soaked in calfs blood were flown by marchers in South Wales during the Merthyr Rising of 1831. It is claimed to be the first time that the red flag was waved as a banner of workers power, along with the Newport Rising eight years later, it was one of the most serious violent outbreaks witnessed on mainland Britain. The red flags of Merthyr became a potent relic following the execution of early trade unionist Dic Penderyn in August 1831, during the Mexican siege of the Alamo in March 1836, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana displayed a plain red flag from the highest church tower in Bejar. The meaning of flag was not socialism, its meaning - directed to the Alamo defenders - meant no surrender. At much the same time, the Liberal Colorados in the Uruguayan Civil War used red flags, during the 1848 Revolution in France, Socialists and radical republicans demanded that the red flag be adopted as Frances national flag. The banner of the Paris Commune of 1871 was red and it was at time that the red flag became a symbol of communism. The flag was flown by anarchists at a May Day rally for a workday in Chicago in 1886
Red flag (politics)
–
"Lamartine, before the
Hôtel de Ville, Paris, rejects the Red Flag," February 25, 1848. By
Henri Felix Emmanuel Philippoteaux (1815–1884). Lamartine said that the red flag represented revolutionary violence, and "has to be put down immediately after the fighting."
Red flag (politics)
–
The plain red flag is often used at socialist or communist rallies, especially on
International Workers' Day.
10.
History of socialism
–
The history of socialism has its origins in the French Revolution of 1789 and the changes which it wrought, although it has precedents in earlier movements and ideas. The Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848 just before the Revolutions of 1848 swept Europe, in the last third of the 19th century in Europe social democratic parties arose in Europe, drawing mainly from Marxism. The Australian Labor Party was the worlds first elected socialist party when the party won the 1899 Queensland state election, some argued that capitalism had been abolished. Socialist governments established the mixed economy with partial nationalisations and social welfare, by 1968, the prolonged Vietnam War, gave rise to the New Left, socialists who tended to be critical of the Soviet Union and social democracy. Anarcho-syndicalists and some elements of the New Left and others favored decentralized collective ownership in the form of cooperatives or workers councils, mazdak preached and instituted a religion-based socialist or proto-socialist system in the Zoroastrian context of Sassanian Persia. The English word socialist in its modern sense dates from at least 1822, prominent leaders in the movement also called for a more equitable distribution of income and better living conditions for the working classes. The very first trade unions and consumers’ cooperative societies also emerged in the hinterland of the Chartist movement, by 1842 socialism had become the topic of a major academic analysis by a German scholar, Lorenz von Stein, in his Socialism and Social Movement. According to an 1888 volume of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, the word socialism first appeared on 13 February 1832 in Le Globe, a liberal French newspaper of Pierre Leroux. Leroux returned to the theme of socialism in 1834, and Louis Reybaud published Études sur les réformateurs contemporains ou socialistes modernes in 1842 in France, in England Robert Owen was also using the term socialism independently around the same time. Owen is considered the father of the cooperative movement, the first modern socialists were early 19th-century Western European social critics. Early-19th-century followers of the theories of such thinkers as Robert Owen, Claude Henri de Saint-Simon. Outlining principles for the reorganization of society along collectivist lines, Saint-Simon and Owen sought to build socialism on the foundations of planned, continental Europeans considered communism more atheistic then socialism. In England, however, communism sounded too close to communion - with Catholic overtones and this latter trend was powerful enough to produce the communism of Étienne Cabet in France and of Wilhelm Weitling in Germany. Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist, Anarchist Peter Sabatini reports that in the United States of early to mid-19th century, there appeared an array of communal and utopian counterculture groups. William Godwins anarchism exerted an influence on some of this. After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a community within the United States at New Harmony. One member of this commune was Josiah Warren, considered to be the first individualist anarchist, for American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster t is apparent. William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form, Henri de Saint-Simon, who is called the founder of French socialism, argued that a brotherhood of man must accompany the scientific organization of industry and society
History of socialism
–
Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, founder of French Socialism
History of socialism
–
New Harmony, a utopian attempt; depicted as proposed by
Robert Owen
History of socialism
–
Statue of
Marx and
Engels in Alexanderplatz, Berlin.
History of socialism
–
Barricades Boulevard Voltaire, Paris during the uprising known as the Paris Commune
11.
Socialist calculation debate
–
A central aspect of the debate concerned the role and scope of the law of value in a socialist economy. Taylor, Henry Douglas Dickinson and Maurice Dobb, who took the position that socialism was both feasible and superior to capitalism, debate among socialists has existed since the emergence of the broader socialist movement between those advocating market socialism, centrally planned economies and decentralized economic planning. As a result, this perspective played little to no role during the socialist calculation debate in the early 20th century, however, no detailed outlines for decentralized economic planning were proposed by these thinkers at this time. In the early 20th century, Enrico Barone provided a theoretical framework for a planned socialist economy. In contrast to Neurath, Karl Kautsky argued that money would have to be utilized in a socialist economy, in a socialist economy, there would be no incentive to use money as financial capital, thus money would have a slightly different role in socialism. An English translation by Mike Baker was published in 1990, ludwig von Mises argument against socialism was in response to Otto Neurath. Mises argued that money and market-determined prices for the means of production were essential in order to make decisions regarding their allocation. Bryan Caplan, an anarcho-capitalist economist, has criticized the version of the calculation problem advanced by Mises arguing that the lack of economic calculation makes socialism impossible, Caplan recognizes that socialism makes economic calculation impossible, yet that problem may not be severe enough to make socialism impossible. For instance, he points out that the fall of the Soviet Union does not prove that calculation was the issue there. More likely the problems resulted from bad incentives arising out of the one-party political system and this model came to be referred to as the Lange model. In this model, a Central Planning Board would be responsible for setting prices through an approach to establish equilibrium prices. Managers of the firms would be instructed to set prices to equal marginal cost, so that economic equilibrium. The Lange model was expanded upon by Abba Lerner and became known as the Lange-Lerner theorem, according to Auerbach and Sotiropoulos, Hayek gives an unexpected endorsement to socialism that is more sophisticated than Langes superficial defense of socialism. Paul Cockshott and Allin Cottrell, and Andy Pollack have proposed new forms of coordination based on information technology for non-market socialism. Proposals for decentralized economic planning emerged in the late 20th century in the form of participatory economics, david McMullen argues that social ownership of the means of production and the absence of markets for them is fully compatible with a decentralized price system. In a post-capitalist society, transactions between enterprises would entail transfers of property between custodians rather than an exchange of ownership. Individuals would be motivated by the satisfaction from work and the desire to contribute to economic outcomes rather than material reward. Bids and offer prices would aim to minimize costs and ensure that output is guided by expected final demand for private, enterprises and startups would receive their investment funding from project assessment agencies
Socialist calculation debate
–
World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)
12.
Socialist economics
–
Socialist economics refers to the economic theories, practices, and norms of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems. Where markets are utilized for allocating inputs and capital goods among economic units, when planning is utilized, the economic system is designated a planned socialist economy. Non-market forms of socialism usually include a system of accounting based on calculation-in-kind or a measure of labor-time as a means to value resources. The term socialist economics may also be applied to analysis of former and existing economic systems that call themselves socialist, Socialist economics has been associated with different schools of economic thought. Marxian economics provided a foundation for socialism based on analysis of capitalism, while neoclassical economics, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believed that hunter-gatherer societies and some primitive agricultural societies were communal, and called this primitive communism. Engels wrote about this at length in the book The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, as such it is commonly regarded as a movement belonging to the modern era. Marx had viewed the process in a light, referring to it as part of the process of primitive accumulation whereby enough initial capital is amassed to begin capitalist production. The dislocation that Polyani and others describe, triggered natural counter-movements in efforts to re-embed the economy in society and these counter-movements, that included, for example, the Luddite rebellions, are the incipient socialist movements. Over time such movements gave birth to or acquired an array of intellectual defenders who attempted to develop their ideas in theory, as Polanyi noted, these counter-movements were mostly reactive and therefore not full-fledged socialist movements. Some demands went no further than a wish to mitigate the capitalist markets worst effects, later, a full socialist program developed, arguing for systemic transformation. As socialism developed, so did the socialist system of economics, the first theories which came to hold the term socialism began to be formulated in the late 18th century, and were termed socialism early in the 19th century. The central beliefs of the socialism of this period rested on the exploitation of those who labored by those who owned capital or rented land, Socialist ideas found expression in utopian movements, which often formed agricultural communes aimed at being self-sufficient on the land. These included many religious movements, such as the Christian socialism of the Shakers in America, the Zionist kibbutzim and communes of the counterculture are also manifestations of utopian socialist ideas. Utopian socialism had little to offer in terms of a theory of economic phenomena. In theory, economic problems were dissolved by a society which had transcended material scarcity. In practice, small communities with a common spirit could sometimes resolve allocation problems, the first organized theories of socialist economics were significantly impacted by classical economic theory, including elements in Adam Smith, Robert Malthus and David Ricardo. Ricardo argued that the class was parasitic. A key early socialist theorist of political economy was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and he was the most well-known of nineteenth century mutualist theorists and the first thinker to refer to himself as an anarchist
Socialist economics
–
Charles Fourier, influential early French socialist thinker
Socialist economics
–
The Conquest of Bread by
Peter Kropotkin, influential work which presents the economic vision of
anarcho-communism
13.
Cooperative
–
Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6. 9% of their profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2. 4% for other rival supermarkets. The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed by the cooperative movement and it includes the World Council of Credit Unions. A second organization was formed later in Germany, the International Raiffeisen Union, in the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association serves as the sectors oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country, a U. S. National Cooperative Bank was formed in the 1970s. By 2004, a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the Internet by use of a. coop domain. Since 2014, following International Cooperative Alliances introduction of the Cooperative Marque, ICA cooperatives, cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, in alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context, in 1761, the Fenwick Weavers Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education, owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, in 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owens thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford, within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom. Other events such as the founding of a society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor. Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests, Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal by not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization, external societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies which have moved to adopt the cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to make visible the increasing contribution of social economy organizations, the roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide
Cooperative
–
The volunteer board of a retail
consumers' cooperative, such as the former
Oxford, Swindon & Gloucester Co-op, is held to account at an Annual General Meeting of members
Cooperative
Cooperative
–
Robert Owen (1771–1858) was a social reformer and a pioneer of the cooperative movement.
Cooperative
–
Co-op City in
The Bronx,
New York City is the largest cooperative housing development in the world, with 55,000 people.
14.
Economic democracy
–
In addition to these moral concerns, economic democracy makes practical claims, such as that it can compensate for capitalisms inherent effective demand gap. Economic democracy has been proposed as a component of larger socioeconomic ideologies, as a stand-alone theory, for example, as a means to securing full economic rights, it opens a path to full political rights, defined as including the former. Both market and non-market theories of economic democracy have been proposed, according to many analysts, deficiency of effective demand is the most fundamental economic problem. That is, modern society does not earn income to purchase its output. While balanced mixed economies have existed throughout history, veteran Project Manager for the U. S. Treasury Department. Cook, and other critics claim that command economies are predominate, as common resources are monopolized by imperial centers of wealth and power, conditions of scarcity are imposed artificially upon the majority, resulting in large-scale socio-economic imbalance. In the Georgist view of any system, wealth includes all material things produced by labor for the satisfaction of human desires. Land, labor and capital are generally considered the essential factors in producing wealth, land includes all natural opportunities and forces. Capital includes the portion of wealth devoted to producing more wealth, according to Henry George, People seek to satisfy their desires with the least exertion. Human beings interact with nature to produce goods and services that other human beings need or desire, the laws and customs that govern the relationships among these entities constitute the economic structure of a given society. Products are exchanged in a market -- that is to say, goods and services are bought and sold at prices determined for the most part by competition, individual enterprises compete with one another in providing goods and services to consumers, each enterprise trying to make a profit. This competition is the determinant of prices. Most of the people who work for pay in this society work for other people, most working people are wage labourers. Supply and demand are generally accepted as market functions for establishing prices, organisations typically endeavor to 1) minimize the cost of production, 2) increase sales, in order to 3) maximize profits. In chapter 3 of his book, Community Organizing, Theory and Practice, Biklen states that, according to this viewpoint, orporate power, upper class power, uneven distribution of wealth and prejudice cause social problems. He problem is not one of poverty, but of enormous wealth, the problem is not one of gaps or cracks in an otherwise fine system but of a system which perpetuates prejudicial views concerning race, sex, age, and disability. The problem is not one of incompetence but of barriers to education, jobs and this perspective is, above all, eclectic. It embraces Marxs criticism of class inequality but is not only a social class analysis
Economic democracy
–
GAP Chart from
We Hold These Truths
15.
Equal opportunity
–
Chances for advancement should be open to everybody interested such that they have an equal chance to compete within the framework of goals and the structure of rules established. Individuals should succeed or fail based on their own efforts and not extraneous circumstances such as having well-connected parents and it is opposed to nepotism and plays a role in whether a social structure is seen as legitimate. The concept is applicable in areas of life in which benefits are earned and received such as employment and education. People with differing political viewpoints often view the concept differently, the meaning of equal opportunity is debated in fields such as political philosophy, sociology and psychology. It is being applied to wider areas beyond employment including lending, housing, college admissions, voting rights. In the classical sense, equality of opportunity is closely aligned with the concept of equality before the law, Equal opportunity provisions have been written into regulations and have been debated in courtrooms. It is sometimes conceived as a right against discrimination. The actual President is a peasants son and his predecessor again began life in a humble way in the shipping business. There is surely equality of opportunity under the new order in the old nation, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, the concept assumes that society is stratified with a diverse range of roles, some of which are more desirable than others. And the benefit of equality of opportunity is to bring fairness to the process for coveted roles in corporations, associations, nonprofits, universities. It can apply to a hiring decision, or to all hiring decisions by a specific company. The term is interrelated with and often contrasted with other conceptions of equality such as equality of outcome, further, it is seen as unfair if external factors, that are viewed as being beyond the control of a person, significantly influence what happens to him or her. Equal opportunity, then, emphasizes a fair process, in contrast, in sociological analysis, equal opportunity is seen as a factor correlating positively with social mobility, in the sense that it can benefit society overall by maximizing well-being. There are differing senses of what equality of opportunity is and related notions, with slight variations and it is characterized by, Open call. Positions bringing superior advantages should be open to all applicants, job openings should be publicized in advance giving applicants a reasonable opportunity to apply, further, all applications should be accepted. Applications should be judged on their merits with procedures designed to identify those best-qualified, the applicant judged as most qualified is offered the position while others are not. There is agreement that the result of the process is again unequal, in the sense that one person has the position while another does not, what is considered fair and unfair is spelled out in advance. An expression of this appeared in The New York Times
Equal opportunity
–
Thinkers often use the
metaphor of a race to describe equality of opportunity. Photo: a sprinter at the starting block.
Equal opportunity
–
The formal conception focuses on procedural fairness during the competition: are the hurdles the same height? Photo: athletes Ulrike Urbansky and Michelle Carey in Osaka.
Equal opportunity
Equal opportunity
–
Issues about equal opportunity have been raised about the skin color of runway models at the
São Paulo Fashion Week; in 2009, quotas requiring that at least 10% of models be "black or indigenous" were imposed as a substantive way to counteract a "bias towards white models," according to one account.
16.
Internationalism (politics)
–
Internationalism is a political principle which transcends nationalism and advocates a greater political or economic cooperation among nations and people. In 19th-century UK there was a liberal internationalist strand of political thought epitomized by Richard Cobden, Cobden and Bright were against the protectionist Corn Laws and in a speech at Covent Garden on September 28,1843 Cobden outlined his utopian brand of internationalism, Free Trade. Cobden believed that Free Trade would pacify the world by interdependence, a belief in the idea of the moral law and an inherent goodness in human nature also inspired their faith in internationalism. One of the first international organisations in the world was the International Workingmens Association, in this sense, the socialist understanding of internationalism is closely related to the concept of international solidarity. From this perspective, it is in the ruling class interest to promote nationalism in order to hide the inherent class conflicts at play within a given society, therefore, socialists see nationalism as a form of ideological control arising from a societys given mode of economic production. The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Internationals were socialist political groupings which sought to advance workers revolution across the globe and achieve international socialism. Socialist internationalism is anti-imperialist, and therefore supports the liberation of peoples from all forms of colonialism and foreign domination, therefore, socialists have often aligned themselves politically with anti-colonial independence movements, and actively opposed the exploitation of one country by another. In socialist theory, world peace can only come once economic competition has been ended, in proportion as the antagonism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end. The idea was reiterated later by Lenin and advanced as the policy of the Bolshevik party during World War I. But our attitude towards war is different from that of the bourgeois pacifists. Figures such as Karl Marx and anarchist revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin would play prominent roles in the First International, one faction, with Marx as the figurehead, argued that workers and radicals must work within parliaments in order to win political supremacy and create a workers government. The Socialist International, known as the Second International, was founded in 1889 after the disintegration of the International Workingmens Association, unlike the First International, it was a federation of socialist political parties from various countries, including both reformist and revolutionary groupings. The parties of the Second International were the first socialist parties to win support among the working class and have representatives elected to parliaments. Ostensibly committed to peace and anti-imperialism, the International Socialist Congress held its meeting in Basel, Switzerland in 1912. This betrayal led the few anti-war delegates left within the Second International to organize the International Socialist Conference at Zimmerwald, known as the Zimmerwald Conference, its purpose was to formulate a platform of opposition to the war. The conference was unable to reach agreement on all points, but ultimately was able to publish the Zimmerwald Manifesto, the most left-wing and stringently internationalist delegates at the conference were organized around Lenin and the Russian Social Democrats, and known as the Zimmerwald Left. The Zimmerwald Left resolutions urged all socialists who were committed to the internationalist principles of socialism to struggle against the war and it was an association of communist political parties from throughout the world dedicated to proletarian internationalism and the revolutionary overthrow of the world bourgeoisie. A variety of still active left-wing political organizations claim to be the successors of Trotskys original Fourth International
Internationalism (politics)
–
Meeting of the
Anti-Corn Law League, 1846.
Internationalism (politics)
Internationalism (politics)
–
Ramsay Macdonald, a political spokesman for internationalism.
Internationalism (politics)
–
Karl Marx was a prominent member of the First International, who drafted many of their pamphlets and statements
17.
Labour voucher
–
Labour vouchers are a device proposed to govern demand for goods in some models of socialism, much as money does under capitalism. Unlike money, vouchers cannot circulate and are not transferable between people and they are also not exchangeable for any means of production hence they are not transmutable into Capital. Once a purchase is made the labour vouchers are either destroyed or must be re-earned through labour, therefore, with such a system in place, monetary theft would become impossible. Such a system is proposed by many as a replacement for money while retaining a system of remuneration for work done. It is also a way of ensuring there is no way to make money out of money as in a capitalist market economy. Author and activist Michael Albert and economist Robin Hahnel have proposed a system of remuneration in their economic system of participatory economics. A difference is that in parecon credits are awarded based on both the time spent working and the amount of effort and sacrifice spent during labour, rather than simple contribution. Some later advocates of participism and parecon have also proposed awarding more based on job difficulty or danger, Labour vouchers were first proposed in the 1820s by Josiah Warren and Robert Owen. Two early attempts at implementing labour vouchers were made by following their experiences attempting to establish a utopian community at New Harmony, Indiana, in which currency was prohibited. In 1827, Josiah Warren established the Cincinnati Time Store where goods could be purchased with labor vouchers representing an agreement to perform labor and he folded the store in 1830 in order to devote his effort to establishing communities that implemented his principles of labour-based prices. Beginning in 1832, Robert Owen and his followers attempted to implement labour notes in London and Glasgow by establishing marketplaces, the followers of Robert Owen stood for a society of co-operative communities. These bazaars were ultimately failures but the idea of labour vouchers appeared in similar forms in France in the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Marx explained that this would be necessary since socialism emerges from capitalism, in Marxs proposal, early socialist society would reward its citizens according to the amount of labour they contribute to society. The individual producer receives back from society—after the deductions have been made—exactly what he gives to it, what he has given to it is his individual quantum of labor. The same amount of labor which he has given to society in one form, marx was adamant in saying that labour vouchers were not a form of money as they cannot circulate—a problem he pointed out with Owens system of labour-time notes. During the Great Depression, European communities implemented local currencies with varying success, more modern implementations as time-based currencies were implemented in the United States starting in the 1970s. Owenism Mutualism Collectivist anarchism DeLeonism Participism Inclusive Democracy Inclusive Democracy is unique in proposing two kinds of vouchers, basic vouchers issued to each citizen according to need, are used for essential goods and services such as health care. And non-basic vouchers awarded to each worker for labor contributed are used to pay for non-essential commercial goods, some proposed systems which advocate labour vouchers, namely participism, reject the labour theory of value
Labour voucher
–
World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)
18.
Sharing economy
–
Sharing economy is an umbrella term with a range of meanings, often used to describe economic and social activity involving online transactions. For this reason, the sharing economy has been criticised as misleading. However, many commentators assert that the term is valid as a means of describing a generally more democratized marketplace. Also known as shareconomy, collaborative consumption or peer economy, an academic definition of the term refers to a hybrid market model of peer-to-peer exchange. Such transactions are often facilitated via community-based online services, uberization is also an alternative name for the phenomenon. A common premise is that information about goods is shared. Collaborative consumption as a phenomenon is a class of economic arrangements in which participants mutualize access to products or services, the phenomenon stems from an increasing consumer desire to be in control of their consumption instead of passive victims of hyperconsumption. The consumer peer-to-peer rental market is valued at $26bn, with new services, the Harvard Business Review, the Financial Times and many others have argued that sharing economy is a misnomer. Harvard Business Review suggested the word for the sharing economy in the broad sense of the term is access economy. The authors say, When sharing is market-mediated—when a company is an intermediary between consumers who dont know each other—it is no longer sharing at all, rather, consumers are paying to access someone elses goods or services. According to sharing economy expert Alex Stephany, it is a mystery as to who first used the term sharing economy, the people who share is one of the broadest definitions, which encompasses the on-demand economy, the gig economy, social media, and a great deal else. They can include some organisations that operate without online transactions, such as bike kitchens, the true sharing economy does include some large internationally available web sites however, such as Freecycle. The term sharing economy has been used since about 2010, yet according to a Pew survey taken in winter 2015. Survey respondents who had heard of the term had divergent views on what it meant, in 2010 and 2011, many people involved with the sharing economy did indeed consider it to be about sharing in the traditional sense. A commonly used example at the time was the idea of sharing a power drill —a tool that many consumers might use for only a few minutes in their lifetime. Advocates said it made sense for regular consumers not to buy their own power drill, but to borrow from others instead, several startups companies were launched to help people share drills and similar goods along these lines. While some successful platforms such as Airbnb can be described as involving the sharing of a resource, the scope of the sharing economy has been a subject of academic debate. Depending on the used, some platforms would be included within the sharing economy
Sharing economy
–
Examples of
Commons-based peer production (CBPP) communities a.k.a. P2P communities
19.
State ownership
–
State ownership refers to property interests that are vested in the state or a public body representing a community as opposed to an individual or private party. State ownership may refer to ownership and control of any asset, industry, or enterprise at any level, the process of bringing an asset into state ownership is called nationalization or municipalization. State ownership is one of the three forms of property ownership, differentiated from private, cooperative and common ownership. In market-based economies, state-owned assets are managed and operated as joint-stock corporations with a government owning either all or a controlling stake of the shares. This form is referred to as a state-owned enterprise. Governments may also use the profitable entities they own to support the general budget, the creation of a state-owned enterprise from other forms of public property is called corporatization. In Soviet-type economies, state property was the dominant form of industry as property, a state-owned enterprise is a commercial enterprise owned by a government entity in a capitalist market or mixed economy. Reasons for state ownership of enterprises are that the enterprise in question is a natural monopoly or because the government is promoting economic development. State-owned enterprises may or may not be expected to operate in a commercial manner. The transformation of entities and government agencies into government-owned corporations is sometimes a precursor to privatization. State capitalist economies are capitalist market economies that have high degrees of government-owned businesses, Public ownership of the means of production is a subset of social ownership, which is the defining characteristic of a socialist economy. However, state ownership and nationalization by themselves are not socialist, as they can exist under a variety of different political. State ownership by itself does not imply social ownership where income rights belong to society as a whole, as such, state ownership is only one possible expression of public ownership, which itself is one variation of the broader concept of social ownership. There is a variety of organizational forms for state-run industry. State ownership is advocated as a form of ownership for practical concerns. Proponents assume that the state, as the representative of the public interest, would manage resources, as a form of social ownership, state ownership may be contrasted with cooperatives and common ownership. Socialist theories and political ideologies that favor state ownership of the means of production may be labelled state socialism, engels argued that state ownership of commercial industry would represent the final stage of capitalism, consisting of ownership and management of large-scale production and manufacture by the state. There is a distinction to be made between state ownership and public property, the former may refer to assets operated by a specific state institution or branch of government, used exclusively by that branch, such as a research laboratory
State ownership
–
A plaque marking state property in
Riga,
Latvia.
State ownership
–
A plaque marking state property in
Jūrmala.
20.
Market socialism
–
Market socialism is a type of economic system involving the public, cooperative, or social ownership of the means of production in the framework of a market economy. Market socialism differs from non-market socialism in that the mechanism is utilized for the allocation of capital goods. Market socialism is distinguished from the concept of the economy, because unlike the mixed economy, models of market socialism are complete. Among early advocates of socialism were the Ricardian socialist economists. Even though these models did not rely on genuine markets, they were labeled market socialist for their utilization of financial prices. In more recent models proposed by American neoclassical economists, public ownership of the means of production is achieved through public ownership of equity, the key theoretical basis for market socialism is the negation of the underlying expropriation of surplus value present in other, exploitative, modes of production. Proponents of early market socialism include the Ricardian socialist economists, the liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill. These models of socialism entailed perfecting or improving the market-mechanism and free-price system by removing distortions caused by exploitation, private property and this form of market socialism has been termed free-market socialism because it does not involve planners. Mills early economic philosophy was one of free markets, later he altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his Principles of Political Economy in defence of a socialist outlook, and defending some socialist causes. Within this revised work he made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Mills Principles, first published in 1848, was one of the most widely read of all books on economics in the period, as Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations had during an earlier period, Mills Principles dominated economics teaching. In the case of Oxford University it was the text until 1919. Mill promoted substituting capitalist businesses with worker cooperatives, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon developed a theoretical system called mutualism, which attacks the legitimacy of existing property rights, subsidies, corporations, banking, and rent. Proudhon envisioned a market where people would enter the market with equal power. Proponents believe that cooperatives, credit unions, and other forms of ownership would become viable without being subject to the state. Market socialism has also used to describe some individualist anarchist works which argue that free markets help workers. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster It is apparent, William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form. Warren was a follower of Robert Owen and joined Owens community at New Harmony, josiah Warren termed the phrase Cost the limit of price, with cost here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item
Market socialism
–
Portrait of philosopher
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) by
Gustave Courbet. Proudhon was the primary proponent of anarchist
mutualism, and influenced many later
individualist anarchist and social anarchist thinkers.
21.
Lange model
–
In this model, the state owns non-labor factors of production, and markets allocate final goods and consumer goods. Unlike models of capitalism, the Lange model is based on direct allocation, by contrast, in a capitalist economy managers are instructed to maximize profits for private owners, while competitive pressures are relied on to indirectly lower the price to equal marginal cost. This model was first proposed by Oskar R. Lange in 1936 during the socialist calculation debate, the planning board simulates a market in capital goods by a trial-and-error process first elaborated by Vilfredo Pareto and Léon Walras. Some parallels might be drawn with the New Economic Mechanism or so-called Goulash Communism in Hungary under Kádár, the model is sometimes called the Lange–Lerner model. Abba Lerner wrote a series of articles that greatly influenced Langes thinking, for example, Lerner caused Lange to re-write his 1936 and 1937 articles on market socialism, before they were re-published as chapters in a 1938 book. Lerner influenced Langes thinking on social dividend payments, Lerner also argued that investment in the Lange model would inevitably be politicized. The Lange model was developed in response to Ludwig von Mises, the Lange model contains principles proposed by neoclassical economists Vilfredo Pareto and Léon Walras. Langes theory emphasizes the idea of Pareto efficiency, a situation is Pareto-efficient if there is no way to rearrange things to any individual better off without making anyone worse off. To achieve Pareto efficiency, a set of conditions must be formulated in stages and this idea of deriving conditions to ensure that consumer preferences are in balance with the maximum amount of goods and services produced is emphasized by Walras. The Lange model suggests three levels of decision-making, the lowest level contains firms and households, the intermediate level contains industrial ministries, and the highest level is the central planning board. The board sets the price of consumer goods arbitrarily and informs the producing firms of these prices. The state-owned firms then produce at the level of output where marginal cost equals price, P = MC, at the intermediate level, industrial ministries determine the sectoral expansion of industry. Households decide how to allocate income and how much labor to supply by choosing between work and leisure, the key institutions of the Lange model include the central planning board, industrial ministries for each economic sector, and state enterprises managed democratically by their employees. Because prices are set by the planning board artificially aiming to achieve planned growth objectives, it is unlikely that supply. To produce the amount of goods and services, the Lange model suggests a trial-and-error method. If there is a surplus of a good, the central planning board lowers the price of that good. Conversely, if there is a shortage of a good, the board raises the price and this process of price adjustments takes place until equilibrium between supply and demand is achieved. The central planning board also distributes social dividends to the population, apart from setting prices, the central planning board allocates social dividends
Lange model
–
World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)
22.
Mutualism (economic theory)
–
Integral to the scheme is the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism originated from the writings of philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, mutualists oppose the idea of individuals receiving an income through loans, investments, and rent, as they believe these individuals are not laboring. Though Proudhon opposed this type of income, he expressed that he had never intended. to forbid or suppress, by decree, ground rent. Insofar as they ensure the right to the full product of their labor, mutualists support markets. However, they argue for conditional titles to land, whose ownership is only so long as it remains in use or occupation, thus advocating personal property. Although mutualism is similar to the doctrines of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, unlike them. Proudhon himself described the liberty he pursued as the synthesis of communism, Mutualism, as a term, has seen a variety of related uses. Charles Fourier first used the French term mutualisme in 1822, although the reference was not to an economic system, the first use of the noun mutualist was in the New-Harmony Gazette by an American Owenite in 1826. In the early 1830s, a organization in Lyons, France. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings. Clarence Lee Swartz gives his own account of the origin of the term, claiming that he word mutualism seems to have been first used by John Gray,1826 also saw the publication of the Constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests at Kendal, Ohio. By 1846, Proudhon was speaking of mutualité in his writings, Greene, in 1850, used the term mutualism to describe a mutual credit system similar to that of Proudhon. During the Second French Republic, Proudhon had his biggest public effect through his involvement with four newspapers, Le Représentant du Peuple, Le Peuple, La Voix du Peuple, Le Peuple de 1850. His polemical writing style, combined with his perception of himself as an outsider, produced a cynical, combative journalism that appealed to many French workers. He repeatedly criticised the policies and promoted reformation of credit. He tried to establish a popular early in 1849, but despite over 13,000 people signing up, receipts were limited falling short of 18, 000FF. Proudhon ran for the constituent assembly in April 1848, but was not elected, although his name appeared on the ballots in Paris, Lyon, Besançon, the workshops were to give work to the unemployed. Proudhon was never enthusiastic about such workshops, perceiving them to be essentially charitable institutions that did not resolve the problems of the economic system and he was against their elimination unless an alternative could be found for the workers who relied on the workshops for subsistence
Mutualism (economic theory)
–
Portrait of philosopher
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) by
Gustave Courbet. Proudhon was the primary proponent of anarchist mutualism, and influenced many later
individualist anarchist and social anarchist thinkers.
Mutualism (economic theory)
–
Francesc Pi i Margall,
catalan brief
President of the
First Spanish Republic and main spanish translator of Proudhon´s works
Mutualism (economic theory)
–
The bisected orange and black flag is typically used by Mutualists
23.
Project Cybersyn
–
The information would also be input into economic simulation software that the government could use to forecast the possible outcome of economic decisions. The principal architect of the system was British operations research scientist Stafford Beer, one of its main objectives was to devolve decision-making power within industrial enterprises to their workforce in order to develop self-regulation of factories. The projects name in English is a portmanteau of the words cybernetics, Stafford Beer was a British consultant in management cybernetics. Beer saw this as an opportunity to implement his ideas on a national scale. More than offering advice, he left most of his consulting business. He traveled to Chile often to collaborate with local implementors and used his contacts to secure help from British technical experts. The implementation schedule was very aggressive, and the system had reached a prototype stage at the start of 1973. The system was most useful in October 1972, when about 40,000 striking truck drivers blocked the streets that converged towards Santiago. After the military coup on September 11,1973, Cybersyn was abandoned, there were 500 unused telex machines bought by the previous government, each was put into one factory. In the control centre in Santiago, each day data coming from each factory were put into a computer, there were four levels of control, with algedonic feedback. If one level of control did not remedy a problem in a certain interval, the results were discussed in the operations room and a top-level plan was made. The software for Cybersyn was called Cyberstride, and used Bayesian filtering and it was written by Chilean engineers in consultation with a team of 12 British programmers. The futuristic operations room was designed by a led by the interface designer Gui Bonsiepe. The project is described in detail in the second edition of Strafford Beers books Brain of the Firm and Platform for Change. The latter book includes proposals for social innovations such as having representatives of diverse groups into the control centre. Chilean science fiction author Jorge Baradit published a Spanish-language science fiction novel Synco in 2008, alexander Kharkevich, head of the Department of technical physics in Kiev with a similar concept in 1962. Eden Medina, Designing Freedom, Regulating a Nation, Socialist Cybernetics in Allendes Chile, journal of Latin American Studies 38, 571-606. Lessons of Stafford Beer The CeberSyn heritage in the XXI Century The CyberSyn multimedia reconstruction Before ’73 Coup, Chile Tried to Find the Right Software for Socialism, by Alexei Barrionuevo
Project Cybersyn
–
The Operations Room (or Opsroom): a physical location where economic information was to be received, stored, and made available for speedy decision-making. It was designed in accordance with Gestalt principles in order to give users a platform that would enable them to absorb information in a simple but comprehensive way.
24.
Types of socialism
–
Some definitions of socialism are very vague, while others are so specific that they only include a small minority of the things that have been described as socialism in the past. There have been numerous political movements which called themselves socialist under some definition of the term, some of these interpretations are mutually exclusive, and all of them have generated debates over the true meaning of socialism. The word socialism was coined in the 1830s, and it was first used to refer to philosophical or moral beliefs rather than any political views. For example, Alexandre Vinet, who claimed to have been the first person to use the term, in a similar vein, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon claimed that socialism is every aspiration towards the amelioration of society. Some of them also created communities that put their ideals into practice. A constant feature of these societies was social and economic equality. He advocated the creation of a society in each person was ranked according to his or her capacities. The key focus of early socialism was on administrative efficiency and industrialism. Simons ideas provided a foundation for economic planning and technocratic administration of society. Other early socialist thinkers, such as Thomas Hodgkin and Charles Hall, the Ricardian socialists viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange-value. These ideas embodied early conceptions of market socialism, although they share a common root, schools of socialism are divided on many issues, and sometimes there is a split within a school. The following is an overview of the major issues which have generated or are generating significant controversy amongst socialists in general. Some branches of socialism arose largely as a construct, others in the heat of a revolution. A few arose merely as the product of a ruling party, some are in favour of a socialist revolution, whilst others tend to support reform instead. The first utopian socialists even failed to address the question of how a socialist society would be achieved, Socialists are also divided on which rights and liberties are desirable, such as the bourgeois liberties. Some hold that they are to be preserved in a socialist society, Marx and Engels even held different opinions at different times, and some schools are divided on this issue. All socialists criticize the current system in some way, some criticisms center on the ownership of the means of production, whereas others tend to focus on the nature of mass and equitable distribution. A few are opposed to unchecked industrialism as well as capitalism, also, Marxian Socialists maintain, in contrast to the Utopian Socialists, that the root of injustice is not in how goods are distributed, but for whose economic benefit are they produced and sold
Types of socialism
–
Charles Fourier, influential French early socialist
Types of socialism
–
Karl Marx (1818–1883)
Types of socialism
–
Rosa Luxemburg, Influential
left communist critical of bolshevism
Types of socialism
–
Antonio Negri, main theorist of Italian autonomism
25.
Agrarian socialism
–
Agrarian socialism is a political ideology which combines an agrarian way of life with a socialist economic system. Agrarian socialism applies to predominantly pre-industrial, non-urbanized demographics, the emphasis of agrarian socialists is therefore on control, ownership and utilisation of land rather than other means of production. A 17th century movement called the diggers based their ideas on agrarian communism, the Socialist Revolutionary Party was a major political party in early 20th century Russia and a key player in the Russian Revolution. After the February Revolution of 1917 it shared power with other liberal, the partys ideology was built upon the philosophical foundation of Russias narodnik–Populist movement of the 1860s-70s and its worldview developed primarily by Alexander Herzen and Pyotr Lavrov. Their main innovation was a dialogue with Marxism and integration of some of the key Marxist concepts into their thinking. The intention was to widen the concept of the people so that it encompassed all elements in the society that were opposed to the Tsarist regime, chernov nevertheless considered the proletariat the vanguard, with the peasantry forming the main body of the revolutionary army. Yeomen, Sharecroppers and Socialists, Plain Folk Protest in Texas, 1870-1914, Texas A&M University Press
Agrarian socialism
–
Socialist–Revolutionary election poster, 1917. The caption in red reads "партия соц-рев" (in Russian), short for Party of the Socialist Revolutionaries. The banner bears the party's motto "В борьбе обретешь ты право свое" ("In struggle you take your rights"), and the globe bears the slogan "земля и воля" ("land and freedom") expressing the agrarian socialist ideology of the party.
26.
Social anarchism
–
Social anarchism is a non-state form of socialism and is considered to be the branch of anarchism which sees individual freedom as being dependent upon mutual aid. Social anarchist thought emphasizes community and social equality as complementary to autonomy, social anarchists advocate the conversion of present-day private property into social property or the commons, while retaining respect for personal property. The term social anarchism is used interchangeably with libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism. It emerged in the late 19th century as a distinction from individualist anarchism, mutualists typically accept property rights, but with brief abandonment time periods. A mutualist property regime is described as one rooted in possession, occupancy-and-use. Collectivist anarchism is a form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. It is a tendency, not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called collectivist or communitarian anarchism. Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production and this position was criticised by later anarcho-communists as effectively uphold the wages system. Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, markets, money, capitalism and private property. Economically, anarchist communists believe in converting private property into the commons or public goods, Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution, the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society, are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution, in the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct strategic school of thought within anarchism. Like anarchist-communists, anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the system and private ownership of the means of production. Important principles include workers solidarity, direct action, and workers self-management of enterprises, in terms of post-capitalist vision, anarcho-syndicalists most often subscribe to communist or collectivist anarchist economic systems on the issue of distributing goods. However, anarcho-syndicalists differ from anarcho-communists on wanting federations of workers syndicates as the locus of organising the economy and its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a trade union centered anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism outlined a view of the origin, aims. Platformism is a tendency within the anarchist movement and it stresses the need for tightly organized anarchist organizations, that are able to influence working class and peasant movements. It is in many ways identical to especifismo, and has an antecedent in the work of Mikhail Bakunin, Platformist groups reject the model of Leninist vanguardism
Social anarchism
–
Proudhon and his children, by
Gustave Courbet, 1865
Social anarchism
–
Mikhail Bakunin
Social anarchism
–
Anarcho-communist
Peter Kropotkin believed that in
anarchy, workers would spontaneously self-organize to produce goods for all of society.
27.
Anarchist communism
–
Some anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution, the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the examples of anarchist communist societies were the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution. Anarchist communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, an early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as libertarian. Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, returning to New York he was able to serialise his book in his periodical Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement social. Published in 27 issues from June 9,1858 to February 4,1861 and this was the first anarchist journal to use the term libertarian. The French anarchist journalist Sébastien Faure, later founder and editor of the four-volume Anarchist Encyclopedia, started the weekly paper Le Libertaire in 1895. He saw anarchic initiative, reasoned will and the autonomy of each as the conditions for the revolution of the proletariat. In Déjacques view, a government resulting from an insurrection remains a reactionary fetter on the initiative of the proletariat. As Bakunins associate, James Guillaume, put it in his essay, Ideas on Social Organization, When production comes to outstrip consumption. But, Errico Malatesta stated that instead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work, the federal congress at Florence has eloquently demonstrated the opinion of the Italian International on this point. The above report was made in an article by Malatesta and Cafiero in the Jura Federations bulletin later that year, Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist of anarchist communism, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. Kropotkin felt that cooperation is more beneficial than competition, arguing in his scientific work Mutual Aid. Aims of life vary with each and every individual, and the society is civilized, the more will individuality be developed. He supported the expropriation of property into the commons or public goods. Some support a form of trade in the form of non-monetary commons. Others such as Tiziana Terranova easily see anarcho-communism being compatible with a non-hierarchical, open access, free association, so between 1880 and 1890 with the perspective of an immanent revolution, who was opposed to the official workers movement, which was then in the process of formation. They were opposed not only to political struggles but also to strikes which put forward wage or other claims, but While they were not opposed to strikes as such, they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day
Anarchist communism
–
Sylvain Maréchal
Anarchist communism
–
Carlo Cafiero
Anarchist communism
–
Peter Kropotkin
28.
Anarcho-syndicalism
–
The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are solidarity, direct action and direct democracy, or workers self-management. The end goal of anarcho-syndicalism is to abolish the wage system, Anarcho-syndicalist theory therefore generally focuses on the labour movement. Reflecting the anarchist philosophy from which it draws its primary inspiration, hubert Lagardelle wrote that Pierre-Joseph Proudhon laid out fundamental ideas of anarcho-syndicalism, and repudiated both capitalism and the state in the process. He viewed free economic groups and struggle, not pacifism as dominant in humans, the CNT started small, counting 26,571 members represented through several trade unions and other confederations. In 1911, coinciding with its first congress, the CNT initiated a strike that provoked a Barcelona judge to declare the union illegal until 1914. That same year of 1911, the union officially received its name. From 1918 on the CNT grew stronger, the CNT had an outstanding role in the events of the La Canadiense general strike, which paralyzed 70% of industry in Catalonia in 1919, the year the CNT reached a membership of 700,000. Around that time, panic spread among employers, giving rise to the practice of pistolerismo and these pistoleros are credited with killing 21 union leaders in 48 hours. In 1922 the International Workers Association was founded in Berlin, the CNT joined immediately, however, the following year, with the rise of Miguel Primo de Riveras dictatorship, the labor union was outlawed, once again. The first secretaries of the International included the writer and activist Rudolph Rocker, along with Augustin Souchy. Following the first congress, other groups affiliated from France, Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Poland and Romania. Later, a bloc of unions in the USA, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Cuba, Costa Rica and El Salvador also shared the IWAs statutes. The biggest syndicalist union in the USA, the IWW, considered joining but eventually ruled out affiliation in 1936, citing the IWAs policies on religious and political affiliation. The Industrial Workers of the World, although not anarcho-syndicalist, were informed by developments in the revolutionary syndicalist milieu at the turn of the 20th century. Although the terms anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism are often used interchangeably, the Biennio Rosso was a two-year period, between 1919 and 1920, of intense social conflict in Italy, following the first world war. The Biennio Rosso took place in a context of crisis at the end of the war, with high unemployment. It was characterized by strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land. In Turin and Milan, workers councils were formed and many factory occupations took place under the leadership of anarcho-syndicalists, the agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the Padan plain and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias
Anarcho-syndicalism
–
Émile Pouget
Anarcho-syndicalism
–
The 1910 Congress in which the Spanish CNT was established
Anarcho-syndicalism
–
Rudolph Rocker, 1922
International Workers Association Secretary
29.
Authoritarian socialism
–
Several countries, including the Soviet Union and Maoist China have been described by journalists and scholars as Authoritarian Socialist states. However, neither state used the term authoritarian socialist to describe themselves — these states declared themselves to be Proletarian or Peoples Democracies, Authoritarian socialism also encompassed ideologies like Arab and African Socialism. Authoritarian socialism is derived from the concept of socialism-from-above, Hal Draper defined socialism-from-above as the philosophy which employs an elite administration to run the socialist state. The other side of socialism is a more democratic socialism-from-below, Draper viewed socialism-from-below as being the purer, more Marxist, version of socialism. Marx and Engels were devoutly opposed to any socialist institution that was “conducive to superstitious authoritarianism. ”The idea of socialism-from-above is much more frequently discussed in elite circles than socialism-from-below, even if that is the Marxist ideal, because it is more practical. The first major work that proposed an authoritarian socialist state was Edward Bellamy’s novel Looking Backward. Bellamy distances himself from radical socialist values, and in ways his ideal society still imitates many of the systems in late 19th century America. However, his served as the inspiration for a mass political movement, called Nationalism. These Nationalist Clubs, so called because of their desire to nationalize industry, were supporters of the Populists. Workers were rewarded and recognized via a system based on the army. Most importantly, the government is the most powerful and respected institution, arthur Lipow identifies the bureaucratic ruling of this ideal society as a quasi-military organization of both economic and social relations. Bellamy elevates the modern military as a catalyst for national interest, the biggest critique of Bellamy’s society is that it is based on the idea of socialism-from-above. The regime is imposed on the people by an expert elite and there is no democratic control or individual liberty. The new institutions would not be created and shaped from below but would, of necessity, correspond to the laid down in advance by the utopian planner. ”Friedrich von Hayek. He recognized, and was critical of, the trends of socialism-from-above in collectivism. Democracy is an obstacle to this suppression of freedom which the direction of economic activity requires. Hence arises the class between planning and democracy. ”He also argues that socialism and fascism both are based in central planning and valuing the state over the individual. In this way, as happened in the years following World War I, often, as authoritarian powers enforce socialist economics, the process goes hand in hand with supporting the growth of heavy industry as a means of reaching industrialization
Authoritarian socialism
–
The Russian Orthodox Cathedral, once the most dominant landmark in
Baku, was demolished in the 1930s in accordance with
Marxist–Leninist atheism.
Authoritarian socialism
–
Vladimir Lenin, leader of both the
RSFSR and the Soviet Union from 1917 to 1924, was one of the most influential figures of the 20th Century.
Authoritarian socialism
–
Bolshevik forces marching in
Moscow in 1917, shortly after the
October Revolution
30.
Blanquism
–
Having seized power, the revolutionaries would then use the power of the state to introduce socialism. It is considered a sort of putschism – that is. Instead he believed that revolution should be carried out by a group of professional, dedicated revolutionaries. This dictatorship would permit the implementation of the basis of a new order, after which power would then be handed to the people, for Blanquists, the overturning of the bourgeois social order and the revolution are ends sufficient in themselves, at least for their immediate purposes. He was one of the non-Marxist socialists of his day, the Central Revolutionary Committee was a French Blanquist political party founded in 1881 and dissolved in 1898. The CRC was founded by Édouard Vaillant to continue the struggle of Auguste Blanqui. The CRC was a blanquist party, revolutionary activism, atheism, patriotism and Jacobinism of the French Revolution, the CRC was weakened by a split in 1888, when numerous members followed General Georges Boulanger who synthesized jacobin nationalism with socialism. Many saw Boulangism as a way to socialism. Following the Boulangist dissidence, Vaillant re-centered the CRC around the idea of syndicalism, the CRC was further re-enforced by the affiliation of the Revolutionary Communist Alliance, formed by dissidents of the Revolutionary Socialist Workers Party in 1896. The CRC was dissolved into the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1898, the term Blanquism has often been used polemically to accuse some revolutionaries of failing to sufficiently meld their praxis with the mass working class. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were keen to distinguish their conception of revolution from Blanquism, as Engels put it in a short fragment, The Program of the Blanquist Fugitives from the Paris Commune, Blanqui is essentially a political revolutionist. He is a socialist only through sentiment, through his sympathy with the sufferings of the people, rosa Luxemburg and Eduard Bernstein have criticised Lenin that his conception of revolution was elitist and essentially Blanquist. Blanquism did not count on the action of the working class. It, therefore, did not need to organize the people for the revolution, the people were expected to play their part only at the moment of revolution. Preparation for the revolution concerned only the group of revolutionists armed for the coup. Indeed, to assure the success of the conspiracy, it was considered wiser to keep the mass at some distance from the conspirators. It is worth noting that by social democracy Luxemburg has in mind the use of the term derived from Marx. The influence of revisionism notwithstanding, she conceived of the democratic party as a mass based organisation of working class struggle
Blanquism
–
Louis Auguste Blanqui
31.
Democratic socialism
–
Some tendencies of democratic socialism advocate for revolution in order to transition to socialism, distinguishing it from some forms of social democracy. For Hain, this divide is more important than the revolutionary/reformist divide. A similar, but more complex, argument is made by Nicos Poulantzas, Draper himself uses the term revolutionary-democratic socialism as a type of socialism from below in his The Two Souls of Socialism. Similarly, about Eugene Debs, he writes, Debsian socialism evoked a response from the heart of the people. In contrast, other tendencies of democratic socialism advocate for eventual socialism that follow a gradual, reformist or evolutionary path to socialism, rather than a revolutionary one. We are socialists because we are developing a strategy for achieving that vision. The term is used to refer to policies that are compatible with and exist within capitalism. Though this is not always the case, for example, Robert M. contended that a more benevolent form of capitalism had emerged since the. According to Crosland, it was now possible to achieve equality in society without the need for fundamental economic transformation. Some proponents of market socialism see it as a system compatible with the political ideology of democratic socialism. The term democratic socialism can be used even another way, to refer to a version of the Soviet model that was reformed in a democratic way, for example, Mikhail Gorbachev described perestroika as building a new, humane and democratic socialism. Consequently, some former Communist parties have rebranded themselves as democratic socialist, justification of democratic socialism can be found in the works of social philosophers like Charles Taylor and Axel Honneth, among others. Honneth has put forward the view that political and economic ideologies have a social basis, contra liberal individualism, Honneth has emphasised the inter-subjective dependence between humans, that is, our well-being depends on recognising others and being recognised by them. Democratic socialism, with its emphasis on social collectivism, could be seen as a way of safeguarding this dependency and their concern for both democracy and social justice marks them out as key precursors of democratic socialism. Owens followers again stressed both participatory democracy and economic socialisation, in the form of consumer co-operatives, credit unions, the Chartists similarly combined a working class politics with a call for greater democracy. The British moral philosopher John Stuart Mill also came to advocate a form of socialism within a liberal context. Democratic socialism became a prominent movement at the end of the 19th century, in Germany, the Eisenacher socialist group merged with the Lassallean socialist group, in 1875, to form the German Social Democratic Party. In Australia, the Labour and Socialist movements were gaining traction, the ALP has been the main driving force for workers rights in Australia, backed by Australian Trade Unions, in particular the Australian Workers Union
Democratic socialism
–
James Keir Hardie was an early democratic socialist, who founded the
Independent Labour Party in Great Britain
Democratic socialism
–
Italian President
Giuseppe Saragat
32.
Ethical socialism
–
Ethical socialism is a political philosophy that appeals to socialism on ethical and moral grounds as opposed to economic, egoistic, and consumeristic grounds. It emphasizes the need for a morally conscious economy based upon the principles of service, cooperation, ethical socialism is distinct in its focus on criticism of the ethics of capitalism, and not merely criticism of the economic, systemic, and material issues of capitalism. Soon self-recognized ethical socialists arose in Britain, such as R. H. Tawney, a British Christian socialist, and its ideals were connected to Christian socialist, Fabian, ethical socialism was an important ideology within the British Labour Party. Ethical socialism has been supported by British Prime Ministers Ramsay MacDonald, Clement Attlee. When the Social Democratic Party of Germany renounced Marxism during the Godesberg Program in the 1950s, ethical socialist thought emphasizes the need for a morally conscious economy based upon the principles of service, cooperation, and social justice while opposing possessive individualism. Ethical socialism is distinct in its focus on criticism of the ethics of capitalism, R. H. Tawney denounced self-seeking amoral and immoral behaviour that he claimed is supported by capitalism. Tawney opposed what he called the society that causes private property to be used to transfer surplus profit to functionless owners – capitalist rentiers. However Tawney did not denounce managers as a whole, believing that management and he supported nationalization of strategic industries and services. Tawney supported worker participation in the business of management in the economy as well as consumer, employee, employer, Green opposed property rights of the few that were preventing the ownership of property by the many. Ethical socialism was advocated and promoted by former British Prime Minister Tony Blair who has influenced by John Macmurray who himself was influenced by Green
Ethical socialism
–
Clement Attlee, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, (1945-1951).
33.
Eco-socialism
–
Eco-socialism, green socialism or socialist ecology is an ideology merging aspects of socialism with that of green politics, ecology and alter-globalization or anti-globalization. Eco-socialists advocate dismantling capitalism, focusing on common ownership of the means of production by freely associated producers, caroline Lucas, leader of the Green Party of England and Wales, has described her partys brand of socialism as appealing to both middle-class environmentalists as well as working-class socialists. Eco-socialists are critical of many past and existing forms of both Green politics and socialism and they are often described as Red Greens - adherents to Green politics with clear anti-capitalist views, often inspired by Marxism. Brookes, both critics of environmentalism, and is common in Australia, New Zealand and the United States, eco-socialists also criticise bureaucratic and elite theories of self-described socialism such as Maoism, Stalinism and what other critics have termed bureaucratic collectivism or state capitalism. Instead, eco-socialists focus on imbuing socialism with ecology while keeping the emancipatory goals of first-epoch socialism, eco-socialists aim for communal ownership of the means of production by freely associated producers with all forms of domination eclipsed, especially gender inequality and racism. This often includes the restoration of land in opposition to private property. William Morris, the English novelist, poet and designer, is credited with developing key principles of what was later called eco-socialism. During the 1880s and 1890s, Morris promoted his eco-socialist ideas within the Social Democratic Federation, Green anarchism, or ecoanarchism, is a school of thought within anarchism which puts a particular emphasis on environmental issues. An important early influence was the thought of the American anarchist Henry David Thoreau and his book Walden as well as Leo Tolstoy and Elisee Reclus. In the late 19th century there emerged anarcho-naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain, Cuba and Portugal. Several anarchists from the century, including Herbert Read, Ethel Mannin, Leopold Kohr, Jacques Ellul. Important contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology, Social ecology is closely related to the work and ideas of Murray Bookchin and influenced by anarchist Peter Kropotkin. Social ecologists assert that the present ecological crisis has its roots in human social problems, in 1958, Murray Bookchin defined himself as an anarchist, seeing parallels between anarchism and ecology. His first book, Our Synthetic Environment, was published under the pseudonym Lewis Herber in 1962, the book described a broad range of environmental ills but received little attention because of its political radicalism. His groundbreaking essay Ecology and Revolutionary Thought introduced ecology as a concept in radical politics, lecturing throughout the United States, he helped popularize the concept of ecology to the counterculture. Post-Scarcity Anarchism is a collection of written by Murray Bookchin. It outlines the possible form anarchism might take under conditions of post-scarcity and it is one of Bookchins major works, and its radical thesis provoked controversy for being utopian and messianic in its faith in the liberatory potential of technology. Bookchin argues that societies are also post-scarcity societies, and can thus imagine the fulfillment of the social and cultural potentialities latent in a technology of abundance
Eco-socialism
–
Murray Bookchin
34.
Socialist feminism
–
Socialist feminism rose in the 1960s and 1970s an offshoot of the feminist movement and New Left that focuses upon the interconnectivity of the patriarchy and capitalism. Socialist feminists argue that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of womens oppression, Socialist feminists reject radical feminisms main claim that patriarchy is the only or primary source of oppression of women. Rather, socialist feminists assert that women are unable to be due to their financial dependence on males. Women are subjects to the rulers in capitalism due to an uneven balance in wealth. They see economic dependence as the force of womens subjugation to men. Further, socialist feminists see womens liberation as a part of larger quest for social, economic. Socialist feminists attempted to integrate the fight for liberation with the struggle against other oppressive systems based on race. Socialist feminists thus consider how the sexism and gendered division of labor of each era is determined by the economic system of the time. Those conditions are expressed through capitalist and patriarchal relations. Socialist feminists, thus reject the Marxist notion that class and class struggle are the defining aspects of history. Marx asserted that when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression would vanish as well, for example, they observe that womens class status is generally derivative of her husbands class or occupational status. e. g. A secretary that marries her boss assumes his class status, in 1972, the Chicago Womens Liberation Union published Socialist Feminism, A Strategy for the Womens Movement, which is believed to be the first to use the term socialist feminism, in publication. On the other hand, the Socialist Party USA is an example of a socialist feminist party which is not explicitly Marxist, Socialist feminism is an inclusive way of creating social change. We value synthesis and cooperation rather than conflict and competition and it generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy that should be replaced by decentralized free association. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an part of class struggle. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a component of feminist struggle. Susan Brown claims that as anarchism is a philosophy that opposes all relationships of power. Bakunin opposed patriarchy and the way the law subjects to the domination of the man
Socialist feminism
–
Lucía Sánchez Saornil, leader of
Mujeres Libres in 1933
Socialist feminism
–
Socialist feminist Clara Zetkin and
Rosa Luxemburg, 1910
35.
Leninism
–
Functionally, the Leninist vanguard party was to provide the working class with the political consciousness and revolutionary leadership necessary to depose capitalism in Imperial Russia. As a political-science term, Leninism entered common usage in 1922, two years later, in July 1924, at the fifth congress of the Communist International, Grigory Zinoviev popularized the term Leninism to denote vanguard-party revolution. In the pamphlet What is to be Done, in the pamphlet Freedom to Criticise and Unity of Action, Lenin said, Full, inner-party democratic debate was Bolshevik Party practice under Lenin, even after the banning of party factions in 1921. Although a guiding influence in policy, Lenin did not exercise absolute power, under Stalin, the inner-party practice of democratic free debate did not continue after the death of Lenin in 1924. Democracy for the exploiters will be, in one or another form, is a question of the specific national features of this or that capitalism. In the soviet political system, the party would be one of many political parties competing for elected power. Nevertheless, the circumstances of the Red vs, to feed the populaces of town and country, Lenin instituted War Communism as a necessary condition—adequate supplies of food and weapons—for fighting the Russian Civil War. Lenin regarded the appearance of new socialist states in the countries as necessary to the strengthening Russias economy. In that, he was encouraged by the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Italian insurrection and general strikes of 1920, and industrial unrest in Britain, France, and the U. S. Lenin vs. To that end followed proposals reducing the powers of Party posts. Lenin advised Trotsky to emphasize Stalins recent bureaucratic alignment in such matters, despite advice to refuse any rotten compromise, Trotsky did not heed Lenins advice, and General Secretary Stalin retained power over the Communist Party and the bureaucracy of the soviet government. In the course of instituting government policy, Stalin promoted the doctrine of Socialism in One Country, hence, revolutionary workers should politically ally with peasant political organisations, but not with capitalist political parties. The Oppositionists Until exiled from Russia in 1929, Leon Trotsky helped develop and led the Left Opposition with members of the Workers Opposition, the Decembrists, the Stalinist economic policy vacillated between appeasing capitalist kulak interests in the countryside, and destroying them. Initially, the Stalinists also rejected the national industrialisation of Russia, in both cases, the Left Opposition denounced the regressive nature of the policy towards the kulak social class of wealthy peasants, and the brutality of forced industrialisation. Trotsky described the vacillating Stalinist policy as a symptom of the nature of a ruling bureaucracy. The anti–Trotsky campaign culminated in the executions of the Moscow Trials, in political practice, Leninism, despite its origin as Communist revolutionary praxis, was adopted throughout the political spectrum. In Singapore, the Peoples Action Party was organised Leninist political party featuring internal democracy, the PAP initiated single-party dominance in the government and popular politics of Singapore. In Marxist philosophy, the term Left communism identifies a range of the Communist political perspectives that are the left-wing among Communists, Left communism criticizes the political ideas that the Bolshevik Party practiced at certain periods of their history as a revolutionary vanguard party
Leninism
–
The Russian revolutionary and later Soviet premier Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov) in 1920.
Leninism
–
Leninism codified: the intellectual
György Lukács, the
philosopher of Leninism, c. 1952.
Leninism
–
Leon Trotsky (ca. 1929)
36.
Liberal socialism
–
Liberal socialism is a socialist political philosophy that includes liberal principles within it. Although liberal socialism unequivocally favors a mixed economy, it identifies legalistic and artificial monopolies to be the fault of capitalism. It considers both liberty and equality to be compatible and mutually dependent on each other, Principles that can be described as liberal socialist are based on the works of philosophers such as Mill, Bernstein, Dewey, Rosselli, Bobbio, Mouffe and Polanyi. Other important liberal socialist figures include Calogero, Gobetti, Hobhouse, Keynes, liberal socialism has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics. Liberal socialists seminal ideas can be traced to John Stuart Mill, Mill theorised that capitalist societies should experience a gradual process of socialisation through work-controlled enterprises, coexisting with private enterprises. The main liberal English thinker John Stuart Mills early economic philosophy was one of free markets, however, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. He also accepted the principle of intervention for the purpose of animal welfare. Mill originally believed that equality of taxation meant equality of sacrifice, given an equal tax rate regardless of income, Mill agreed that inheritance should be taxed. A utilitarian society would agree that everyone should be one way or another. Therefore, receiving inheritance would put one ahead of society unless taxed on the inheritance and those who donate should consider and choose carefully where their money goes—some charities are more deserving than others. Considering public charities boards such as a government will disburse the money equally, however, a private charity board like a church would disburse the monies fairly to those who are in more need than others. Later he altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his Principles of Political Economy in defence of a socialist outlook, within this revised work he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Mills Principles, first published in 1848, was one of the most widely read of all books on economics in the period, as Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations had during an earlier period, Mills Principles dominated economics teaching. In the case of Oxford University it was the text until 1919. Mill also at some point promoted substituting capitalist businesses with worker cooperatives, liberal socialism has exercised influence in British politics, especially in the variant known as ethical socialism. Ethical socialists advocated an economy that involves an acceptance of a role of both public enterprise as well as socially-responsible private enterprise. Ethical socialism was founded by the R. H. Tawney, a Christian socialist and it emphasizes the need for a morally-conscious economy based upon the principles of service, cooperation, and social justice while opposing possessive individualism. Ethical socialism is distinct in its focus on criticism of the ethics of capitalism and its founder, Tawney, denounced the self-seeking amoral and immoral behaviour that he claimed is supported by capitalism
Liberal socialism
–
Willy Brandt,
Chancellor of West Germany, (1969-1974).
Liberal socialism
–
R. H. Tawney.
Liberal socialism
–
Ramsay MacDonald,
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, (1924, 1929-1935).
Liberal socialism
–
Carlo Rosselli
37.
Libertarian socialism
–
It criticizes wage labour relationships within the workplace. Instead, it emphasizes workers self-management of the workplace and decentralized structures of political organization, as such libertarian socialism, within the larger socialist movement, seeks to distinguish itself both from Leninism/Bolshevism and from social democracy. Libertarian socialism is a Western philosophy with diverse interpretations, though some general commonalities can be found in its many incarnations and they propose that this economic system be executed in a manner that attempts to maximize the liberty of individuals and minimize concentration of power or authority. Libertarian socialists are critical of coercive institutions, which often leads them to reject the legitimacy of the state in favor of anarchism. Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale private property, the next recorded use of the term was in Europe, when libertarian communism was used at a French regional anarchist Congress at Le Havre. January the following year saw a French manifesto issued on Libertarian or Anarchist Communism, finally,1895 saw leading anarchists Sébastien Faure and Louise Michel publish La Libertaire in France. The word stems from the French word libertaire, and was used to evade the French ban on anarchist publications, in the context of the European socialist movement, libertarian has conventionally been used to describe those who opposed state socialism, such as Mikhail Bakunin. Early in the century, libertarian socialism was as powerful a force as social democracy. Libertarian socialists played a role in the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917. Libertarian socialists played a dominant role in the Mexican Revolution of 1911, twenty years after World War I was over, libertarian socialists were still strong enough to spearhead the social revolution that swept across Republican Spain in 1936 and 1937. The history of socialist thought includes a long associational and anti-statist tradition prior to the victory of the Bolshevism in the east. Libertarian socialists are anti-capitalist, and can thus be distinguished from right-wing libertarians, whereas capitalist principles concentrate economic power in the hands of those who own the most capital, libertarian socialism aims to distribute power more widely amongst members of society. This is sometimes characterized as a desire to maximize free creativity in a society in preference to free enterprise and it is a negatively connoted term used to draw an analogy between slavery and wage labor by focusing on similarities between owning and renting a person. Libertarian socialists believe that freedom, society works towards a system in which individuals have the power to decide economic issues along with political issues. Many libertarian socialists believe that large-scale voluntary associations should manage industrial production and they see a distinction between concepts of private property and personal possession. Private property grants an exclusive control over a thing whether it is in use or not. Also the separation of work and life is questioned, and alternatives suggested that are underpinned by notions of dignity, self-realization, Libertarian socialists generally regard concentrations of power as sources of oppression that must be continually challenged and justified. Libertarian socialists typically oppose rigid and stratified structures of authority, be political, economic
Libertarian socialism
–
American anarchist
Emma Goldman, prominent
anarcha-feminist,
free love and
freethought activist
Libertarian socialism
–
August 17, 1860 edition of libertarian Communist publication Le Libertaire edited by
Joseph Déjacque.
Libertarian socialism
–
William Godwin
Libertarian socialism
–
Charles Fourier
38.
Marxism
–
It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
Marxism
–
Karl Marx
Marxism
–
One of the 20th century's most prominent Marxist academics; the Australian archaeologist
V. Gordon Childe
39.
Maoism
–
Mao Zedong Thought, or Maoism, is a political theory derived from the teachings of the Chinese political leader Mao Zedong. Its followers are known as Maoists, the modern Chinese intellectual tradition of the turn of the twentieth century is defined by two central concepts, iconoclasm and nationalism. It was this association of conservatism and Confucianism which lent to the nature of Chinese intellectual thought during the first decades of the twentieth century. Chinese iconoclasm was expressed most clearly and vociferously by Chen Duxiu during the New Culture Movement which occurred between 1915 and 1919, vital to understanding Chinese nationalist sentiments of the time is the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed in 1919. The negative reaction culminated in the May 4th Incident which occurred on day in 1919. The May 4th Incident and Movement which followed, catalyzed the political awakening of a society which had long seemed inert, yet another international event would have a large impact on not only Mao but also the Chinese intelligentsia, the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Although the revolution did elicit interest among Chinese intellectuals, socialist revolution in China was not considered an option until after the May 4th Incident. Afterwards, To become a Marxist was one way for a Chinese intellectual to both the traditions of the Chinese past and Western domination of the Chinese present. During the period following the Long March, Mao and the Communist Party of China were headquartered in Yanan. During this period Mao clearly established himself as a Marxist theoretician, the rudimentary philosophical base of Chinese Communist ideology is laid down in Maos numerous dialectical treatises and was conveyed to newly recruited party members. This period truly established ideological independence from Moscow for Mao and the CPC, the Initial Marxist Period from 1920–1926, Marxist thinking employs imminent socioeconomic explanations, Maos reasons were declarations of his enthusiasm. Mao did not believe education alone would bring about the transition from capitalism to communism because of three main reasons and these reasons do not provide socioeconomic explanations, which usually form the core of Marxist ideology. The Formative Maoist Period from 1927–1935, In this period, Mao avoided all theoretical implications in his literature and his writings in this period failed to elaborate what he meant by the Marxist method of political and class analysis. Prior to this period, Mao was concerned with the dichotomy between knowledge and action, now, he was more concerned with the dichotomy between revolutionary ideology and counter-revolutionary objective conditions. There was more correlation drawn between China and the Soviet model, the Mature Maoist Period from 1935–1940, Intellectually, this was Maos most fruitful time. The shift of orientation was apparent in his pamphlet Strategic Problems of Chinas Revolutionary War and this pamphlet tried to provide a theoretical veneer for his concern with revolutionary practice. Mao started to separate from the Soviet model since it was not automatically applicable to China, Chinas unique set of historical circumstances demanded a correspondingly unique application of Marxist theory, an application that would have to diverge from the Soviet approach. The Civil-War Period from 1940-1949, Unlike the Mature period, this period was intellectually barren, Mao focused more on revolutionary practice and paid less attention to Marxist theory
Maoism
–
Tiananmen with a portrait of Mao Zedong
Maoism
–
Maoist leader
Prachanda speaking at a rally in Pokhara,
Nepal
40.
Owenism
–
Owenism is the utopian socialist philosophy of 19th-century social reformer Robert Owen and his followers and successors, who are known as Owenites. Owenism aimed for radical reform of society and is considered a forerunner of the cooperative movement, the Owenite movement undertook several experiments in establishment of utopian communities organized according to communitarian and cooperative principles. One of the best known of these efforts, which were unsuccessful, was the project at New Harmony, Indiana. Owenism is also associated with the development of the British trade union movement. Owen’s economic thought grew out of poverty in Britain in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. His thought was rooted in seventeenth century English moral economy ideals of “fair exchange, just price, claeys notes that Owen’s ‘Plan’ began as grandiose but otherwise not exceptionally unusual workhouse scheme to place the unemployed poor in newly built rural communities. Owen’s “plan” was itself derivative a number of Irish and English trade unionists such as William Thompson and Thomas Hodgskin, Owens villages thus needed to be compared with the Dickensian Houses of Industry that were created after the passage of the 1834 Poor Law amendment act. Owen’s report was to spark a widespread “socialist” movement that established co-operatives, labour exchanges, and experimental communities in the United Kingdom, the United States, Owen was to disseminate his ideas in North America beginning in 1824. His ideas were most widely received in New York and Philadelphia and these men rooted their thought in Ricardian socialism and the labour theory of value. George Mudie, a printer, formed an Owenite community at Spa Fields, Mudie published a weekly journal, the Economist, which ran from 27 January 1821 to 9 March 1822. The printer Henry Hetherington was a member, Mudie moved to Orbiston after this community failed. Archibald James Hamilton, the laird of Dalzell and Orbiston. He was one of the gentlemen who commissioned Robert Owens’ “Report to the County of Lanark”, in 1821, he and several other Owenite sympathizers such as Abram Combe formed the Edinburgh Practical Society that operated a co-operative store, and a school. In addition, Hamilton provided his 290-acre estate, Orbiston, for the first Owenite co-operative community in the United Kingdom, the community collapsed in 1827 on the death of its founder. Ralahine Community, County Clare, Ireland was organized on the estate of John Vandeleur by Edward T. Craig, unlike other Owenite communities, workers were paid “labour notes” which they could spend in the co-operative store. By this time, Owenism had moved on to its Labour Exchange phase, the experiment ended when Vandeleur lost his estate through gambling. Harmony Hall Community at Queenwood Farm, Hampshire and this is the only other colony than New Harmony in Indiana founded by Robert Owen himself. In 1839 his Association of Classes of All Nations acquired five hundred acres at Queenwood farm and he purchased the community of New Harmony from the religious communists known as the Rappites
Owenism
–
New Harmony, a utopian attempt; depicted as proposed by
Robert Owen
Owenism
–
Interior view of the Blackfriars Rotunda, where the N.U.W.C. met.
Owenism
–
Frances Wright, c. 1825
41.
Reformism
–
In contrast, reformism posits that a capitalist economy can be gradually transformed into a qualitatively different socialist system through political and economic reform. There are two types of reformism, one has no intention of bringing about socialism or fundamental economic change to society and is used to oppose such structural changes. The debate on the ability for social democratic reformism to lead to a socialist transformation of society is over a century old, according to Rosa Luxemburg, under reformism, is not overthrown, but is on the contrary strengthened by the development of social reforms. The French social theorist Andre Gorz criticized reformism by advocating an alternative to reformism. One of the delegates to the SPD congress, Eduard Bernstein, expanded on the concept, Bernstein was a leading social democrat in Germany. Reformism was quickly targeted by revolutionary socialists, with Rosa Luxemburg condemning Bernsteins Evolutionary Socialism in her 1900 essay Reform or Revolution. In 1959, the Godesberg Program marked the shift of the Social Democratic Party of Germany from a Marxist program espousing an end to capitalism to a reformist one focused on social reform. After Joseph Stalin consolidated power in the Soviet Union, the Comintern launched a campaign against the Reformist movement by denouncing them as social fascists, in modern times, reformists are seen as centre-left. Some social democratic parties, such as the Canadian NDP and the Social Democratic Party of Germany, are considered to be reformist. The term was applied to elements within the British Labour Party in the 1950s and subsequently, anthony Crosland wrote The Future of Socialism as a personal manifesto arguing for a reformulation of the term. Left reformism, the state and the problem of socialist politics today
Reformism
–
Precursors
42.
Revisionism (Marxism)
–
Within the Marxist movement, the word revisionism is used to refer to various ideas, principles and theories that are based on a significant revision of fundamental Marxist premises. The term is most often used by those Marxists who believe that such revisions are unwarranted, as such, revisionism often carries pejorative connotations and the term has been used by many different factions. It is typically applied to others and rarely as a self-description, in contrast, people who view themselves as fighting against revisionism have often self-identified as anti-revisionists. The term revisionism has been used in a number of contexts to refer to different revisions of Marxist theory, the views of Bernstein and Jaurès gave rise to reformist theory, which asserts that socialism can be achieved through gradual peaceful reforms from within a capitalist system. Most of those who left in the 1960s started aligning themselves with Mao Zedong as opposed to the Soviet Union, an example was E. P. Thompsons New Reasoner. The Chinese routinely described the Soviets as modern revisionists through the 1960s and this usage was copied by the various Maoist groups that split off from communist parties around the world. In 1978, the Sino-Albanian Split occurred, which caused Enver Hoxha and this caused a split in the Maoist movement, with some following the Albanian Party of Labours line, most notably the Communist Party of New Zealand and the Communist Party of Canada
Revisionism (Marxism)
–
Eduard Bernstein, early revisionist.
43.
Revolutionary socialism
–
The term revolutionary socialism refers to socialist tendencies that subscribe to the doctrine that social revolution is necessary in order to affect structural changes to society. More specifically, it is the view that revolution is a precondition for a transition from capitalism to socialism. Revolutionary socialists believe such a state of affairs is a precondition for establishing socialism, Revolutionary socialism encompasses multiple political and social movements that may define revolution differently from one another. Revolutionary socialism also includes non-Marxist movements like anarchism, revolutionary syndicalism and it is used in contrast to the reformism of social democracy, which is not anti-capitalist in form. Revolutionary socialism is opposed to social movements that seek to ameliorate the economic. Revolutionary socialism also exists in contrast to the concept of revolutionary groups seizing power without first achieving mass support. Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle, the proletariat of each country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own bourgeoisie. The Communists fight for the attainment of the aims, for the enforcement of the momentary interests of the working class, The Communists disdain to conceal their views. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution,24 years after the Communist Manifesto Marx and Engels admitted that in developed countries labour may attain its goal by peaceful means. Marxist scholar Adam Schaff argued that Marx, Engels and Lenin have expressed such view on many occasions, the reformist viewpoint was introduced into Marxist thought by Eduard Bernstein, one of the leaders of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. From 1896 to 1898, Bernstein published a series of articles entitled Probleme des Sozialismus and these articles led to a debate on revisionism in the SPD, and can be seen as the origins of a reformist trend within Marxism. In 1900, Rosa Luxemburg wrote Social Reform or Revolution, a polemic against Bernsteins position, the work of reforms, Luxemburg argued, could only be carried on, in the framework of the social form created by the last revolution. From the first appearance of class societies, having class struggle as the content of their history. Here is the point and end of every historic period…In modern times. Vladimir Lenin attacked Bernstein’s position in his What is to be Done, when Bernstein first put forward his ideas the majority of the SPD rejected them. The 1899 Congress of the SPD reaffirmed the Erfurt programme, as did the 1901 congress, the 1903 congress denounced revisionist efforts. However, on 4 August 1914 the SPD members of the Reichstag voted for the war budget, while the French
Revolutionary socialism
–
Karl Marx, 1875.
44.
Social democracy
–
In this period, social democrats embraced a mixed economy based on the predominance of private property, with only a minority of essential utilities and public services under public ownership. By 1868–1869, Marxism had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, in this period, social democracy became associated with reformist socialism. The origins of social democracy have been traced to the 1860s, with the rise of the first major party in Europe. 1864 saw the founding of the International Workingmens Association, also known as the First International, another issue in the First International was the role of reformism. Although Lassalle was not a Marxist, he was influenced by the theories of Marx and Engels, however unlike Marxs and Engelss The Communist Manifesto, Lassalle promoted class struggle in a more moderate form. While Marx viewed the state negatively as an instrument of class rule that should only exist temporarily upon the rise to power of the proletariat and then dismantled, Lassalle accepted the state. Lassalle viewed the state as a means through which workers could enhance their interests, Lassalles strategy was primarily electoral and reformist, with Lassalleans contending that the working class needed a political party that fought above all for universal adult male suffrage. The ADAVs party newspaper was called Der Sozialdemokrat, Marx and Engels responded to the title Sozialdemocrat with distaste, Engels once writing, But what a title, Sozialdemokrat. Why dont they simply call it The Proletarian. Marx agreed with Engels that Sozialdemokrat was a bad title, there was a Marxist faction within the ADAV represented by Wilhelm Liebknecht who became one of the editors of the Die Sozialdemokrat. Friction in the ADAV arose over Lassalles policy of an approach to Bismarck that had assumed incorrectly that Bismarck in turn would be friendly towards them. This approach was opposed by the partys Marxists, including Liebknecht, opposition in the ADAV to Lassalles friendly approach to Bismarcks government resulted in Liebknecht resigning from his position as editor of Die Sozialdemokrat and leaving the ADAV in 1865. Though the SDAP was not officially Marxist, it was the first major organization to be led by Marxists and Marx. The party adopted stances similar to those adopted by Marx at the First International, there was intense rivalry and antagonism between the SDAP and the ADAV, with the SDAP being highly hostile to the Prussian government while the ADAV pursued a reformist and more cooperative approach. In spite of such militant rhetoric to appeal to the working class, in 1875 Marx attacked the Gotha Program that became the program of Social Democratic Party of Germany in the same year in his Critique of the Gotha Program. Marx was not optimistic that Germany at the time was not open to a means to achieve socialism. In addition he noticed a change over the relations between the two classes. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 make an approach to universal suffrage. The Fabian Society was founded as a group from the Fellowship of the New Life due to opposition within that group to socialism
Social democracy
–
Ferdinand Lassalle
Social democracy
–
The
red rose is a symbol of Social democracy.
Social democracy
–
A barricade in Paris in March 1871, set up by revolutionary forces of the
Paris Commune
Social democracy
–
George Bernard Shaw
45.
Left-wing nationalism
–
Left-wing nationalism, or leftist nationalism, describes a form of nationalism based upon social equality, popular sovereignty, and national self-determination. It has its origins in the Jacobinism of the French Revolution, Marxism identifies the nation as a socioeconomic construction created after the collapse of the feudal system, which was utilized to create the capitalist economic system. Classical Marxists have unanimously claimed that nationalism is a phenomenon that is not associated with Marxism. Marxists have evaluated certain nations to be progressive and other nations to be reactionary, Joseph Stalin supported interpretations of Marx tolerating the use of proletarian nationalism that promoted class struggle within an internationalist framework. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels interpreted issues concerning nationality on a social evolutionary, Marx and Engels claim that the creation of the modern nation state is the result of the replacement of feudalism with the capitalist mode of production. Marx described this in detail in The German Ideology, saying, on the issue of nations and the proletariat, the Communist Manifesto says, The working men have no country. We cannot take from them what they have not got, the supremacy of the proletariat will cause them to vanish still faster. United action, of the civilised countries at least, is one of the first conditions for the emancipation of the proletariat. Joseph Stalin promoted a civic patriotic concept called revolutionary patriotism in the Soviet Union, when Stalin joined Georgian Marxists, the Marxism in Georgia was heavily influenced by Noe Zhordania, who evoked Georgian patriotic themes and opposition to Russian imperial control of Georgia. Stalin defined the nation as being neither racial nor tribal, but a historically formed community of people, Stalin believed that the assimilation of primitive nationalities like Abkhazians and Tartars into the Georgian and Russian nations was beneficial. Stalin claimed that all nations were assimilating foreign values and that the nationality as a community was diluting under the pressures of capitalism, in 1913 Stalin rejected the concept of national identity entirely and advocated in favour of a universal cosmopolitan modernity. Stalin identified Russian culture as having greater universalist identity than that of other nations, stalins view of vanguard and progressive nations such as Russia, Germany, and Hungary in contrast to nations he deemed primitive is claimed to be related to Friedrich Engels views. Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia under the rule of Josip Broz Tito, titos Yugoslavia was overtly nationalistic in its attempts to promote unity between the Yugoslav nations within Yugoslavia and asserting Yugoslavias independence. This Yugoslav nationalism was opposed to assimilation, as had been carried out by the previous Yugoslav monarchy. The League of Communists of Yugoslavia blamed the factional division and conflict between the Yugoslav nations on foreign imperialism, Tito built strong relations with states that had strong socialist and nationalist governments in power, such as Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser and India under Jawaharlal Nehru. Left-wing nationalists have historically led the separatism and autonomist movements in the Basque Country, Catalonia, Galicia, Poland, in late 19th century Polish labour movement split into two factions. Minor one that proposed communist revolution and Polish autonomy within Russian Empire established Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania and those activists established Polish Socialist Party. During World War I PPS leader Józef Piłsudski became a leader of German dominated puppet Poland, then he broke an alliance with Central Powers and claimed an independent Second Polish Republic
Left-wing nationalism
–
A republican mural in Belfast showing solidarity with the
Basque nationalism.
46.
Syndicalism
–
Syndicalism is a proposed type of economic system, considered a replacement for capitalism. It suggests that workers, industries, and organisations be systematized into confederations or syndicates and it is a system of economic organization in which industries are owned and managed by the workers. Its theory and practice is the advocacy of multiple cooperative productive units composed of specialists and representatives of workers in each field to negotiate, industry in a syndicalist system would be run through co-operative confederations and mutual aid. Local syndicates may communicate with other syndicates through the Bourse du Travail which would cooperatively determine distributions of commodities, Syndicalism is also used to refer to the political movement and the tactic of bringing about this social arrangement, typically expounded by anarcho-syndicalism and De Leonism. It aims to achieve a strike, a workers outward refusal of their current modes of production, followed by organisation into federations of trade unions. Throughout its history, the reformist section of syndicalism has been overshadowed by its revolutionary section, although the terms anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism are often used interchangeably, the anarcho-syndicalist label was not widely used until the early 1920s. Traditionally the revolutionary syndicalism of figures such as Rudolph Rocker has overshadowed the more reformist or economically-focused syndicalism. Related theories include anarchism, socialism, national syndicalism, Marxism, Leninism and communism, syndicalisme/Sindicalismo is a French/Spanish word meaning trade unionism. The earliest expressions of syndicalist structure and methods were formulated in the International Workingmens Association or First International, in 1895, the Confédération Générale du Travail in France expressed fully the organisational structure and methods of revolutionary syndicalism influencing labour movements the world over. Through a general strike, workers would take control of industry and services and self-manage society, the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden, formed in 1910, are a notable example of an anarcho-syndicalist union influenced by the CGT. Today, the SAC is one of the largest anarcho-syndicalist unions in the world in proportion to the population, the International Workers Association, formed in 1922, is an international syndicalist federation of various labour unions from different countries. At its peak, the International Workers Association represented millions of workers and competed directly for the hearts and minds of the class with social democratic unions. The Spanish Confederación Nacional del Trabajo played a role in the Spanish labour movement. Another Spanish anarcho-syndicalist union, the Confederacion General del Trabajo de España, is now the fourth largest union in Spain, the Industrial Workers of the World, although explicitly not syndicalist, were informed by developments in the broader revolutionary syndicalist milieu at the turn of the twentieth-century. An emphasis on industrial organisation was a feature of syndicalism when it began to be identified as a distinct current at the beginning of the 20th century. Although all syndicalists emphasise industrial organisation, not all political action altogether. Much of Spains economy was put under control, in anarchist strongholds like Catalonia. Their eventual defeat and World War II led to the prominent theory being repressed
Syndicalism
–
Syndicalism
47.
Trotskyism
–
Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Leon Trotsky. Trotskyists are critical of Stalinism, as they oppose Stalins theory of Socialism in One Country in favor of Trotskys theory of Permanent Revolution, Trotskyists also criticize the bureaucracy that developed in the Soviet Union under Stalin. Vladimir Lenin and Trotsky were close both ideologically and personally during the Russian Revolution and its aftermath, and some call Trotsky its co-leader, Trotsky was the paramount leader of the Soviet Red Army in the direct aftermath of the Revolutionary period. Trotsky originally opposed some aspects of Leninism, later, he concluded that unity between the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks was impossible, and joined the Bolsheviks. Trotsky played a role with Lenin in the revolution. Assessing Trotsky, Lenin wrote, Trotsky long ago said that unification is impossible, Trotsky understood this and from that time on there has been no better Bolshevik. Trotsky was exiled from the USSR to Alma Ata in Kazakhstan on 31 January 1928 under Stalins orders, almost all of the Partys Trotskyists were executed in the Great Purges of 1937–1938 effectively removing all of Trotskys internal influence on the USSR. In contemporary English language usage, an advocate of Trotskys ideas is called a Trotskyist. In the 1920s they called themselves the Left Opposition, although todays left communism is distinct, the terminological disagreement can be confusing because different versions of a left-right political spectrum are used. Anti-revisionists consider themselves the ultimate leftists on a spectrum from communism on the left to imperialist capitalism on the right, but given that Stalinism is often labeled rightist within the communist spectrum and left communism leftist, Anti-revisionists idea of left is very different from that of left communism. Trotsky was extremely critical of the Stalinist USSR for suppressing democracy, in 1905, Trotsky formulated a theory that became known as the theory of Permanent Revolution. It is one of the characteristics of Trotskyism. Until 1905, Marxism only claimed that a revolution in a European capitalist society would lead to a socialist one, according to the original theory it was impossible for such to occur in more backward countries such as early 20th century Russia. Russia in 1905 was widely considered to have not yet established a capitalist society, the theory of Permanent Revolution addressed the question of how such feudal regimes were to be overthrown, and how socialism could be established given the lack of economic prerequisites. Trotsky argued that in Russia only the class could overthrow feudalism. Furthermore, he argued that the Russian working class would not stop there and they would win its own revolution against the weak capitalist class, establish a workers state in Russia, and appeal to the working class in the advanced capitalist countries around the world. As a result, the working class would come to Russias aid. Revolutions in Britain in the 17th century and in France in 1789 abolished feudalism, Trotsky argued that these revolutions would not be repeated in Russia
Trotskyism
–
The leaders of the Trotskyist
Left Opposition in Moscow, 1927. Sitting:
Leonid Serebryakov,
Karl Radek,
Leon Trotsky, Mikhail Boguslavsky, and
Yevgeni Preobrazhensky. Standing:
Christian Rakovsky, Yakov Drobnis, Alexander Beloborodov, and Lev Sosnovsky.
Trotskyism
–
Trotsky (raising hand) with troops at the Polish front, during the
Polish-Soviet War, 1919.
Trotskyism
–
Leon Trotsky in exile in Siberia 1900
Trotskyism
–
Lenin speaking at a meeting in Sverdlov Square in Moscow on 5 May 1920. Original photo with Trotsky and Kamenev standing on the steps of the platform. Later, this photo was censored, under Stalin's orders, to
remove Trotsky and Kamenev.
48.
Utopian socialism
–
Utopian socialism is a label used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Étienne Cabet, and Robert Owen. Later socialists and critics of utopian socialism viewed utopian socialism as not being grounded in actual material conditions of existing society and these visions of ideal societies competed with Marxist-inspired revolutionary social democratic movements. A similar school of thought emerged in the early 20th century is ethical socialism. Utopians believe that people of all classes can voluntarily adopt their plan for society if it is presented convincingly, the thinkers identified as utopian socialist did not use the term utopian to refer to their ideas. This distinction was made clear in Engels work Socialism, Utopian, Utopian socialists were seen as wanting to expand the principles of the French revolution in order to create a more rational society. Marx accused Proudhon of wanting to rise above the bourgeoisie, in the history of Marxs thought and Marxism, this work is pivotal in the distinction between the concepts of utopian socialism and what Marx and the Marxists claimed as scientific socialism. Although utopian socialists shared few political, social, or economic perspectives, Marx and they want to improve the condition of every member of society, even that of the most favored. Hence, they appeal to society at large, without distinction of class, nay, by preference. For how can people, when once they understand their system, Marx and Engels used the term scientific socialism to describe the type of socialism they saw themselves developing. Since the mid-19th century, Marxism and Marxism-Leninism overtook utopian socialism in terms of intellectual development, at one time, almost half of the worlds population was governed by self-proclaimed Marxists. It has been noted that they exerted a significant influence on the emergence of new movements such as Spiritualism and Occultism. Perhaps the first utopian socialist was Thomas More, who wrote about an imaginary socialist society in his book Utopia, the contemporary definition of the English word utopia derives from this work. Many aspects of Mores description of Utopia was influenced by life in monasteries, saint-Simonianism was a French political and social movement of the first half of the 19th century, inspired by the ideas of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon. His ideas influenced Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Robert Owen was a successful Welsh businessman who devoted much of his profits to improving the lives of his employees. He wrote about his ideas in his book A New View of Society, which was published in 1813 and he also set up an Owenite commune called New Harmony in Indiana, USA. This collapsed when one of his business partners ran off all the profits. Charles Fourier was by far the most utopian of socialists, rejecting the industrial revolution altogether and thus the problems that arose with it, he made various fanciful claims about the ideal world he envisioned. Despite some clearly non-socialist inclinations, he contributed significantly - if indirectly - to the socialist movement and his writings about turning work into play influenced the young Karl Marx and helped him devise his theory of alienation
Utopian socialism
–
Utopian socialist pamphlet of Swiss social medical doctor
Rudolf Sutermeister (1802-1868)
Utopian socialism
–
Robert Owen was one of the founders of Utopian socialism.
49.
Socialism with Chinese characteristics
–
Socialism with Chinese characteristics, meaning socialism adapted to Chinese conditions, is the official ideology of the Communist Party of China, claimed to be based upon scientific socialism. This ideology supports the creation of a socialist market economy dominated by the sector since China is, as claimed by the CPC. The Peoples Republic of China government maintains that it has not abandoned Marxism but has developed many of the terms, the CPC argues that socialism is compatible with these economic policies. In current Chinese Communist thinking, China is in the stage of socialism—a view which explains the PRC governments flexible economic policies to develop into an industrialized nation. The concept of a stage of socialism was conceived before China introduced economic reforms. It is said that the article was written on the orders of Deng Xiaoping, so as to criticize and repudiate the beliefs of the communist left. The term reappeared at the 6th plenum of the 11th Central Committee on 27 June 1981 in the document, hu Yaobang, the CPCs general secretary, used the term in his report to the 12th CPC National Congress on 1 September 1982. He wrote that China was a socialist society, but that socialism in China was in its primary stage, during this phase of development, Zhao recommended introducing a planned commodity economy on the basis of public ownership. The main failure of the communist right, according to Zhao, was that they failed to acknowledge that China could reach socialism by bypassing capitalism. The main failure of the communist left was that held the utopian position that China could bypass the primary stage of socialism. According to Jiang, the 3rd plenum of the 11th Central Committee correctly analyzed and formulated a scientifically correct program for the problems facing China, in Jiangs words, the primary stage of socialism was an undeveloped stage. The fundamental task of socialism is to develop the productive forces, the primary contradiction in Chinese society during the primary stage of socialism is the growing material and cultural needs of the people and the backwardness of production. This contradiction will remain until China has completed the process of primary stage of socialism, Jiang elaborated on three points to develop the primary stage of socialism. The first—to develop a socialist economy with Chinese characteristics—meant developing the economy by emancipating and modernizing the forces of production while developing a market economy, when asked how long the primary stage of socialism would last, Zhao replied, t will be at least 100 years. Socialist modernization will have been in the main accomplished, the state constitution states that China will be in the primary stage of socialism for a long time to come. As with Zhao, Jiang believed that it would take at least 100 years to reach an advanced stage. Deng Xiaoping, the architect of the Chinese economic reforms, did not believe that the economy was synonymous with capitalism or that planning was synonymous with socialism. During his southern tour, he said, planning and market forces are not the difference between socialism and capitalism
Socialism with Chinese characteristics
–
China
50.
Labor Zionism
–
Labor Zionism or Socialist Zionism is the left wing of the Zionist movement. It was, for years, the most significant tendency among Zionists. It saw itself as the Zionist sector of the historic Jewish labor movements of Eastern and Central Europe, Moses Hesss 1862 work Rome and Jerusalem. The Last National Question argued for the Jews to settle in Palestine as a means of settling the national question, ber Borochov, continuing from the work of Moses Hess, proposed the creation of a socialist society that would correct the inverted pyramid of Jewish society. Jewish society, he argued, would not be healthy until the pyramid was righted. This, he held, could only be accomplished by Jews in their own country, another Zionist thinker, A. D. Gordon, was influenced by the völkisch ideas of European romantic nationalism, and proposed establishing a society of Jewish peasants. Gordon made a religion of work and these two figures, and others like them, motivated the establishment of the first Jewish collective settlement, or kibbutz, Degania, on the southern shore of the Sea of Galilee, in 1909. Joseph Trumpeldor is also considered to be one of the icons of the Labor Zionist movement in Palestine. When discussing what it is to be a Jewish pioneer, Trumpeldor stated What is a pioneer, the pioneers should be workers but that is not all. We shall need people who will be everything – everything that the land of Israel needs, a worker has his labor interests, a soldier his esprit de corps, a doctor and an engineer, their special inclinations. A generation of iron-men, iron from which you can forge everything the national machinery needs, a nail, a screw, a block. You need a man to till the soil, policeman, doctor, lawyer, artist, teacher, water carrier. I have no feeling, no name. Ready to do everything, not bound to do anything, I have only one aim – creation. Trumpeldor, a Socialist Zionist, gave his life in 1920 defending the community of Tel Hai in the Upper Galilee, trumpeldors heroic death made him not only a martyr for Zionists Left but also for the Revisionist Zionist movement who named its youth movement Betar after the fallen hero. Albert Einstein was a prominent supporter of both Labor Zionism and efforts to encourage Jewish–Arab cooperation, instead, he preferred a bi-national state with continuously functioning, mixed, administrative, economic, and social organizations. However Ami Isseroff in his article Was Einstein a Zionist argues that Einstein was not opposed to the state of Israel given that Einstein declared it the fulfillment of our dreams. Perceiving its vulnerability after independence, he set aside his pacifism in the name of human preservation
Labor Zionism
–
Concepts
Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), "François-Noel Babeuf", Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 179
Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), "
Quotations related to François-Noël Babeuf at Wikiquote
