1.
Frank Leslie
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Frank Leslie was an English-born American engraver, illustrator, and publisher of family periodicals. Leslie was born on March 29,1821, in Ipswich, England as Henry Carter, the son of Joseph Carter and he was educated in Ipswich and he then trained for commerce in London. He took note of the tools that were used and the manner of using them, at the age of 13, he did his first wood engraving of the coat of arms of his home town. His father, uncle and relatives so discouraged his artistic aspirations and he contributed sketches to the Illustrated London News, signing them as Frank Leslie to insure his anonymity. These were so welcomed that he eventually gave up commerce and was made superintendent of engraving on that journal. He made himself an expert and inventor in his new work and he was first married in England, and had three sons with his first wife, Harry, Alfred and Scipio. He and she separated in 1860 and he legally changed his name to Frank Leslie in 1857. In 1848 he came to the United States, in 1852 working for Gleasons Pictorial in Boston and he discovered he could accelerate the engraving process significantly by dividing a drawing into many small blocks and distributing the work among many engravers. A job on a wood engraving which might have taken a month for a single wood engraver to complete. In 1853, he arrived in New York City to engrave woodcuts for P. T. Barnums short-lived Illustrated News, the New York Journal soon followed, with Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper, The Boys and Girls Weekly, The Budget of Fun, and many others. Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper, which included news as well as fiction, illustrations made by Leslie and his artists on the battlefield during the American Civil War are well regarded for their historical value. He was commissioner to the Paris Exhibition of 1867 and received a prize there for his artistic services, when the editor of Frank Leslies Ladys Magazine had fallen ill, the then Miriam Folline Squier volunteered to fill in, and the ill editor still received the salary. The editor died, and Mrs. Squier took on the position permanently, shortly thereafter, about 1874, she and it was his second marriage, and her third. Their summer home, Interlaken, was in Saratoga Springs, New York, in 1877, they undertook a lavish train trip from New York to San Francisco in the company of many friends. Miriam Leslie wrote her book From Gotham to the Golden Gate telling the story of this trip, the expense of this trip, and a business depression left Leslies business badly in debt. When Frank Leslie died in 1880, the debts amounted to $300,000, Miriam Leslie took the business in hand and put it on a paying basis, even going so far as to having her name legally changed to Frank Leslie in June 1881. She was a notable feminist and author in her own right, both his and her remains are interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City. Frank Leslies Weekly Die Weltausstellung in Philadelphia 1876, Leslie, New York 1876 digital This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C
2.
Wood engraving
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Wood engraving is a printmaking and letterpress printing technique, in which an artist works an image or matrix of images into a block of wood. Functionally a variety of woodcut, it uses relief printing, where the artist applies ink to the face of the block and prints using relatively low pressure. By contrast, ordinary engraving, like etching, uses a metal plate for the matrix, and is printed by the method, where the ink fills the valleys. As a result, wood engravings deteriorate less quickly than copper-plate engravings, Thomas Bewick developed the wood engraving technique at the end of the 18th century. His work differed from earlier woodcuts in two key ways, first, rather than using woodcarving tools such as knives, Bewick used an engravers burin. With this, he could create thin delicate lines, often creating large areas in the composition. Second, wood engraving traditionally uses the woods end grain—while the older technique used the side grain. The resulting increased hardness and durability facilitated more detailed images, wood-engraved blocks could be used on conventional printing presses, which were going through rapid mechanical improvements during the first quarter of the 19th century. The blocks were made the same height as, and composited alongside, the combination of this new wood engraving method and mechanized printing drove a rapid expansion of illustrations in the 19th century. Further, advances in stereotype let wood-engravings be reproduced onto metal, by the mid-19th century, many wood engravings rivaled copperplate engravings. In 15th and 16th-century Europe, woodcuts were a technique in printmaking and printing. They were still made for printing press work such as newspapers or almanacs. The beginnings of modern wood engraving techniques developed at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, Bewick generally engraved harder woods, such as boxwood, rather than the woods used in woodcuts, and he engraved the ends of blocks instead of the side. Finding a woodcutting knife not suitable for working against the grain in harder woods, Bewick used a burin, from the beginning of the nineteenth century Bewicks techniques gradually came into wider use, especially in Britain and the United States. Alexander Anderson introduced the technique to the United States, Bewicks work impressed him, so he reverse engineered and imitated Bewicks technique—using metal until he learned that Bewick used wood. This was, in ways a unnatural application, since engravers had to cut away almost all the surface of the block to produce the printable lines of the artists drawing. Nonetheless, it became the most common use of wood engraving, in the United States, wood-engraved publications also began to take hold, such as Harpers Weekly. A single design was divided into a grid, and each worked on a square
3.
Daguerreotype
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Daguerreotype process, or daguerreotypy, was the first publicly available photographic process, and for nearly twenty years it was the one most commonly used. During the past few decades, there has been a revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver, lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture, the surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal, the name daguerreotype correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. Since the Renaissance era, artists and inventors had searched for a method of capturing visual scenes. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in art from China, Japan. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Daguerre met with Niépce, Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved,15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin,34 - a camera obscura,74 - sulphuric acid. Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography, Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was named the physautotype. Niépces early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, the asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépces experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt, after Niépces death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. It would bear Daguerres name alone and this was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Everyone says it is superb, but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre
4.
John Brown (abolitionist)
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John Brown was an American abolitionist who believed armed insurrection was the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the United States. Brown first gained attention when he led groups of volunteers during the Bleeding Kansas crisis of 1856. Dissatisfied with the pacifism of the organized abolitionist movement, he said, during the Kansas campaign, Brown commanded forces at the Battle of Black Jack and the Battle of Osawatomie. He and his supporters killed five pro-slavery supporters in the Pottawatomie massacre of May 1856 in response to the sacking of Lawrence by pro-slavery forces, in 1859, Brown led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, to start a liberation movement among the slaves there. During the raid, he seized the armory, seven people were killed and he intended to arm slaves with weapons from the arsenal, but the attack failed. Within 36 hours, Browns men had fled or been killed or captured by local farmers, militiamen. Marines led by Robert E. Lee and he was tried for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, the murder of five men and inciting a slave insurrection. He was found guilty on all counts and was hanged, Historians agree that the Harpers Ferry raid escalated tensions that, a year later, led to the Souths secession and Civil War. David Potter has said the effect of Browns raid was greater than the philosophical effect of the Lincoln–Douglas debates. Some writers, including Bruce Olds, describe him as a zealot, others. Oates, regard him as one of the most perceptive human beings of his generation, David S. John Browns Body was a popular Union marching song during the Civil War and made him a martyr. Browns actions prior to the Civil War as an abolitionist, and he is sometimes memorialized as a heroic martyr and a visionary, and sometimes vilified as a madman and a terrorist. John Brown was born May 9,1800, in Torrington and he was the fourth of the eight children of Owen Brown and Ruth Mills and grandson of Capt. Brown could trace his ancestry back to 17th-century English Puritans, in 1805, the family moved to Hudson, Ohio, where Owen Brown opened a tannery. Browns personal religion is well documented in the papers of the Rev Clarence Gee. Browns father had as an apprentice Jesse R. Grant, father of Ulysses S. Grant, at 16, Brown left his family and went to Plainfield, Massachusetts, where he enrolled in a preparatory program. Shortly afterward, he transferred to the Morris Academy in Litchfield and he hoped to become a Congregationalist minister, but money ran out and he suffered from eye inflammations, which forced him to give up the academy and return to Ohio. In Hudson, he worked briefly at his fathers tannery before opening a successful tannery of his own outside of town with his adopted brother, in 1820, Brown married Dianthe Lusk
5.
Harpers Ferry, West Virginia
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Harpers Ferry is a historic town in Jefferson County, West Virginia, United States. It was formerly spelled Harpers Ferry with an apostrophe and that continues to appear in some references. It is situated at the confluence of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers where the U. S. states of Maryland, Virginia and it is the easternmost town in West Virginia. The towns original, lower section is on a plain created by the two rivers and surrounded by higher ground. Historically, Harpers Ferry is best known for John Browns raid on the Armory in 1859, the population was 286 at the 2010 census. The lower part of Harpers Ferry is within Harpers Ferry National Historical Park, most of the remainder, which includes the more highly populated area, is included in the separate Harpers Ferry Historic District. Two other National Register of Historic Places properties adjoin the town, the Appalachian Trail Conservancy headquarters is in Harpers Ferry and the town is one of only a few through which the Appalachian Trail passes directly. Other popular outdoor activities include white water rafting, fishing, mountain biking, tubing, canoeing, hiking, zip lining, and rock climbing. In 1733, Peter Stephens, a squatter, had settled on land near The Point, fourteen years later, while traveling from Maryland to Virginia, Robert Harper passed through the area which was named The Hole. Harper recognized the potential for industry, given the power the two rivers could generate, and the traffic he could ferry across the Potomac River, Harper paid Stephens 30 British guinea for what was essentially Stephens squatting rights, since the land actually belonged to Lord Fairfax. In April 1751, Harper purchased 126 acres of land from Lord Fairfax, in 1761, the Virginia General Assembly granted Harper the right to establish and maintain a ferry across the Potomac River. In 1763, the Virginia General Assembly established the town of Shenandoah Falls at Mr. Harpers Ferry, on October 25,1783, Thomas Jefferson visited Harpers Ferry. He viewed the passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge from a rock that is now named for him and this stop took place as Jefferson was traveling to Philadelphia and passed through Harpers Ferry with his daughter Patsy. Jefferson called the site one of the most stupendous scenes in nature. George Washington, as president of the Patowmack Company, traveled to Harpers Ferry during the summer of 1785 to determine the need for bypass canals, in 1794, Washingtons familiarity with the area led him to propose the site for a new United States armory and arsenal. In 1796, the government purchased a 125-acre parcel of land from the heirs of Robert Harper. Construction began on the United States Armory and Arsenal at Harpers Ferry in 1799 and this was one of only two such facilities in the U. S. the other being Springfield, Massachusetts. Together they produced most of the arms for the U. S. Army
6.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
7.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
8.
Pseudonym
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A pseudonym or alias is a name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which can differ from their original or true name. Historically, they have taken the form of anagrams, Graecisms. Pseudonyms should not be confused with new names that replace old ones, actors, musicians, and other performers sometimes use stage names, for example, to mask their ethnic backgrounds. A collective name or collective pseudonym is one shared by two or more persons, for example the co-authors of a work, such as Ellery Queen, the term is derived from the Greek ψευδώνυμον, literally false name, from ψεῦδος, lie, falsehood and ὄνομα, name. A pseudonym is distinct from an allonym, which is the name of another person and this may occur when someone is ghostwriting a book or play, or in parody, or when using a front name, such as by screenwriters blacklisted in Hollywood in the 1950s and 1960s. See also pseudepigraph, for falsely attributed authorship, sometimes people change their name in such a manner that the new name becomes permanent and is used by all who know the person. This is not an alias or pseudonym, but in fact a new name, in many countries, including common law countries, a name change can be ratified by a court and become a persons new legal name. He then changed his name again to Malik El-Shabazz when he converted to Islam, likewise some Jews adopted Hebrew family names upon immigrating to Israel, dropping surnames that had been in their families for generations. The politician David Ben-Gurion, for example, was born David Grün in Poland and he adopted his Hebrew name in 1910, when he published his first article in a Zionist journal in Jerusalem. Criminals may use aliases, fictitious business names, and dummy corporations to hide their identity, a pen name, or nom de plume, is a pseudonym adopted by an author. Some female authors used male pen names, in particular in the 19th century, the Brontë family used pen names for their early work, so as not to reveal their gender and so that local residents would not know that the books related to people of the neighbourhood. The Brontës used their neighbours as inspiration for characters in many of their books, anne Brontë published The Tenant of Wildfell Hall under the name Acton Bell. Charlotte Brontë published Shirley and Jane Eyre under the name Currer Bell, emily Brontë published Wuthering Heights as Ellis Bell. A well-known example of the former is Mary Ann Evans, who wrote as George Eliot, Another example is Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin, a 19th-century French writer who used the pen name George Sand. In contrast, some twentieth and twenty first century male romance novelists have used pen names. A few examples of male authors using female pseudonyms include Brindle Chase, Peter ODonnell and Christopher Wood. A pen name may be used if a real name is likely to be confused with the name of another writer or notable individual. Authors who write both fiction and non-fiction, or in different genres, may use different pen names to avoid confusing their readers, in some cases, an author may become better known by his pen name than his real name
9.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
10.
P. T. Barnum
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Phineas Taylor P. T. Barnum was an American politician, showman, and businessman remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and for founding the Barnum & Bailey Circus. Barnum is widely, but erroneously, credited with coining the phrase Theres a sucker born every minute, born in Bethel, Connecticut, Barnum became a small-business owner in his early twenties, and founded a weekly newspaper, before moving to New York City in 1834. Barnum used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the Feejee mermaid, in 1850 he promoted the American tour of singer Jenny Lind, paying her an unprecedented $1,000 a night for 150 nights. After economic reversals due to bad investments in the 1850s, and years of litigation and public humiliation, he used a lecture tour, mostly as a temperance speaker and his museum added Americas first aquarium and expanded the wax-figure department. While in New York, he converted to Universalism and was a member of the Church of the Divine Paternity, Barnum served two terms in the Connecticut legislature in 1865 as a Republican for Fairfield. It may tenant the body of a Chinaman, a Turk, elected in 1875 as Mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut, he worked to improve the water supply, bring gas lighting to streets, and enforce liquor and prostitution laws. Barnum was instrumental in starting Bridgeport Hospital, founded in 1878, the circus business was the source of much of his enduring fame. He established P. T. Barnums Grand Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan & Hippodrome, a circus, menagerie and museum of freaks. Barnum died in his sleep at home in 1891, and was buried in Mountain Grove Cemetery, Bridgeport, Barnum was born in Bethel, Connecticut, the son of inn keeper, tailor and store-keeper Philo Barnum and second wife Irene Taylor. He was the great grandson of Thomas Barnum, the English immigrant ancestor of the Barnum family in North America. His maternal grandfather Phineas Taylor was a Whig, legislator, landowner, justice of the peace, and lottery schemer, Barnum was adept at arithmetic but hated physical work. He started as a store-keeper, and he learned haggling and using deception to make a sale and he was involved with the first lottery mania in the United States. At the age of 19, he married Charity Hallett, the young husband had several businesses, a general store, a book auctioning trade, real estate speculation, and a statewide lottery network. He became active in politics and advocated against blue laws promulgated by Calvinists who sought to restrict gambling. Barnum started a paper in 1829, The Herald of Freedom, in Danbury. His editorials against church elders led to libel suits and a prosecution which resulted in imprisonment for two months, but he became a champion of the movement upon his release. In 1834, when lotteries were banned in Connecticut, cutting off his income, Barnum sold his store. Joice Heth died in 1836, no more than 80 years old, Barnum improved the attraction, renamed Barnums American Museum, upgrading the building and adding exhibits, and it became a popular showplace
11.
Jenny Lind
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Johanna Maria Lind, better known as Jenny Lind, was a Swedish opera singer, often known as the Swedish Nightingale. She was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music from 1840, Lind became famous after her performance in Der Freischütz in Sweden in 1838. Within a few years, she had suffered damage. She was in demand in opera roles throughout Sweden and northern Europe during the 1840s. After two acclaimed seasons in London, she announced her retirement from opera at the age of 29, in 1850, Lind went to America at the invitation of the showman P. T. Barnum. She gave 93 large-scale concerts for him and then continued to tour under her own management and she earned more than $350,000 from these concerts, donating the proceeds to charities, principally the endowment of free schools in Sweden. With her new husband, Otto Goldschmidt, she returned to Europe in 1852 where she had three children and gave occasional concerts over the two decades, settling in England in 1855. From 1882, for years, she was a professor of singing at the Royal College of Music in London. Born in Klara, in central Stockholm, Lind was the daughter of Niclas Jonas Lind, a bookkeeper, and Anne-Marie Fellborg. Linds mother had divorced her first husband for adultery but, for religious reasons, Linds parents married when she was fourteen. Linds mother ran a day school for girls out of her home, when Lind was about nine years old, her singing was overheard by the maid of Mademoiselle Lundberg, the principal dancer at the Royal Swedish Opera. Lind began to sing onstage when she was ten and she had a vocal crisis at the age of 12 and had to stop singing for a time, but recovered. Her first great role was Agathe in Webers Der Freischütz in 1838 at the Royal Swedish Opera, at age 20 she was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music and court singer to the King of Sweden and Norway. Her voice became seriously damaged by overuse and untrained singing technique, so damaged was her voice that he insisted that she should not sing at all for three months, to allow her vocal cords to recover, before he started to teach her a secure vocal technique. After Lind had been with García for a year, the composer Giacomo Meyerbeer, an early and faithful admirer of her talent, arranged an audition for her at the Opéra in Paris, but she was rejected. The biographer Francis Rogers concludes that Lind strongly resented the rebuff, Lind returned to the Royal Swedish Opera, greatly improved as a singer by Garcías training. She toured Denmark where, in 1843, Hans Christian Andersen met, although the two became good friends, she did not reciprocate his romantic feelings. She is believed to have inspired three of his tales, Beneath the Pillar, The Angel and The Nightingale
12.
Harper's Weekly
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Harpers Weekly, A Journal of Civilization was an American political magazine based in New York City. Published by Harper & Brothers from 1857 until 1916, it featured foreign and domestic news, fiction, essays on many subjects and it carried extensive coverage of the American Civil War, including many illustrations of events from the war. During its most influential period, it was the forum of the political cartoonist Thomas Nast, along with his brothers James, John, and Wesley, Fletcher Harper began the publishing company Harper & Brothers in 1825. Following the successful example of the Illustrated London News, Harper started publishing Harpers Magazine in 1850, in 1857, his company began publishing Harpers Weekly in New York City. By 1860 the circulation of the Weekly had reached 200,000, among the recurring features were the political cartoons of Thomas Nast, who was recruited in 1862 and worked with the Weekly for more than 20 years. Nast was a feared caricaturist, and is called the father of American political cartooning. He was the first to use an elephant as the symbol of the Republican Party and he also drew the legendary character of Santa Claus, his version became strongly associated with the figure, who was popularized as part of Christmas customs in the late nineteenth century. Harpers Weekly was the most widely read journal in the United States throughout the period of the Civil War, so as not to upset its wide readership in the South, Harpers took a moderate editorial position on the issue of slavery. Publications that supported abolition referred to it as Harpers Weakly, the Weekly had supported the Stephen A. Douglas presidential campaign against Abraham Lincoln, but as the American Civil War broke out, it fully supported Lincoln and the Union. The photograph inspired many free blacks in the North to enlist, some of the most important articles and illustrations of the time were Harpers reporting on the war. Besides renderings by Homer and Nast, the magazine also published illustrations by Theodore R. Davis, Henry Mosler, and the brothers Alfred and William Waud. In 1863, George William Curtis, one of the founders of the Republican Party, became the editor of the magazine. His editorials advocated civil service reform, low tariffs, and adherence to the gold standard, after the war, Harpers Weekly more openly supported the Republican Party in its editorial positions, and contributed to the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868 and 1872. It supported the Radical Republican position on Reconstruction, in the 1870s, the cartoonist Thomas Nast began an aggressive campaign in the journal against the corrupt New York political leader William Boss Tweed. Nast turned down a $500,000 bribe to end his attack, Tweed was arrested in 1873 and convicted of fraud. Nast and Harpers also played an important part in securing Rutherford B. Hayes 1876 presidential election, later on Hayes remarked that Nast was the most powerful, single-handed aid had. After the election, Nasts role in the magazine diminished considerably, since the late 1860s, Nast and George W. Curtis had frequently differed on political matters and particularly on the role of cartoons in political discourse. Harpers publisher Fletcher Harper strongly supported Nast in his disputes with Curtis, in 1877, Harper died, and his nephews, Joseph W. Harper Jr. and John Henry Harper, assumed control of the magazine
13.
Buxus
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Buxus is a genus of about 70 species in the family Buxaceae. Common names include box or boxwood, centres of diversity occur in Cuba, China and Madagascar. They are slow-growing evergreen shrubs and small trees, growing to 2–12 m tall. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate, and leathery, they are small in most species, typically 1. 5–5 cm long and 0. 3-2.5 cm broad, the flowers are small and yellow-green, monoecious with both sexes present on a plant. The fruit is a small capsule 0. 5-1.5 cm long, containing small seeds. The African and American sections are genetically closer to other than to the Eurasian section. Europe, northwest Africa, Asia Africa, Madagascar Americas Box plants are grown as hedges. In Great Britain and Mainland Europe box is subject to damage from caterpillars of Diaphania perspectalis which can devastate a box hedge within a short time and this is a recently introduced species first noticed in Europe in 2007 and in the UK in 2008 but spreading. There were 3 UK reports of infestation in 2011,20 in 2014 and 150 in the first half of 2015, owing to its fine grain it is a good wood for fine wood carving, although this is limited by the small sizes available. It is also resistant to splitting and chipping, and thus useful for decorative or storage boxes, formerly, it was used for wooden combs. As a timber or wood for carving it is boxwood in all varieties of English. Owing to the high density of the wood, boxwood is often used for chess pieces, unstained boxwood for the white pieces and stained boxwood for the black pieces. The extremely fine endgrain of box makes it suitable for printing and woodcut blocks. In the 16th century, boxwood was used to create intricate decorative carvings, as of 2016, high quality wooden spoons have usually been carved from box, with beech being the usual cheaper substitute. Boxwood was once called dudgeon, and was used for the handles of dirks, due to its high density and resistance to chipping, boxwood is a relatively economical material, and has been used to make parts for various stringed instruments since antiquity. It is mostly used to make tailpieces, chin rests and tuning pegs, other woods used for this purpose are rosewood and ebony. General Thomas F. Meagher decorated the hats of the men of the Irish Brigade with boxwood during the American Civil War, Boxwood blight Cydalima perspectalis - box tree moth Box / Royal Horticultural Society American Boxwood Society Revision of the genus Buxus in Madagascar
14.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
15.
Miriam Leslie
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Miriam Florence Squier Leslie was an American publisher and author. She was the wife of Frank Leslie and the heir to his business which she developed into a paying concern from a state of precarious indebtedness. After her husbands death, she changed her own name to his and she was born in New Orleans, Louisiana and described her own childhood as starved and pinched as far as love and merriment go. Leslie was the descendant of a noble Huguenot family, after a trip to France, in 1901, she claimed the title Baroness de Bazus. She apparently grew up in New York City, and was educated in the French, Spanish. Her first marriage, March 25,1854, was to David Charles Peacock and that marriage was annulled two years later, and she married her second husband, the anthropologist Ephraim Squier. When the editor of Frank Leslies Ladys Magazine had fallen ill, probably in the late 1860s, she volunteered to fill in while the ill editor still received the salary. The editor died, and she took on the position permanently, during their honeymoon, the couple met Western poet and author Joaquin Miller. The new Mrs. Leslie and Miller began an affair and the character in his book The One Fair Woman was modeled after her. The Leslies summer home was in Saratoga Springs, New York, where they entertained many notables, in 1877, they took a lavish train trip with a numerous retinue from New York City to San Francisco. She wrote her recollections of this trip in her book From Gotham to the Golden Gate, the expense of the trip, and a business depression left Leslies business badly in debt. When Frank Leslie died in 1880, the debts amounted to $300,000, Miriam Leslie took the business in hand and put it on a paying basis, even going so far as to having her name legally changed to Frank Leslie in June 1881. She later effected a reorganization of the business, and became its president, the circulation of the Popular Monthly increased 200,000 in four months under her management. While abroad in 1891, Miriam Leslie married Willie Wilde, the brother of Oscar Wilde. In 1902 she sold out all her publishing interests, by her will she made Carrie Chapman Catt residuary legatee, in the expectation that most of her fortune would be devoted to womens suffrage. Her remains are buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. The 1915 edition of this source gives 1828 as her birthdate, the Record of the Leslie Woman Suffrage Commission, Inc. New York, The Leslie Woman Suffrage Commission, Inc, richard Reinhardt,1967, Out West on the Overland, The Frank Leslie Party,1877, The American West Publishing Company, Palo Alto CA Smithsonian Magazine, November 1997
16.
Patriotism
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Patriotism is an attachment to a homeland. This attachment can be viewed in terms of different features relating to ones own homeland, including ethnic and it encompasses a set of concepts closely related to those of nationalism. An excess of patriotism in the defense of a nation is called chauvinism, the abstract noun patriotism appears in the early 18th century. The general notion of virtue and group dedication has been attested in culture globally throughout the historical period. For the Enlightenment thinkers of 18th-century Europe, loyalty to the state was considered in contrast to loyalty to the Church. It was argued that clerics should not be allowed to teach in schools since their patrie was heaven. One of the most influential proponents of this notion of patriotism was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Enlightenment thinkers also criticized what they saw as the excess of patriotism, in 1774, Samuel Johnson published The Patriot, a critique of what he viewed as false patriotism. On the evening of 7 April 1775, he made the famous statement, however, there is no direct evidence to contradict the widely held belief that Johnsons famous remark was a criticism of patriotism itself. Patriotism is the will of the members of a country to support the country, Patriotism may be strengthened by adherence to a national religion. This is the opposite of the separation of church and state demanded by the Enlightenment thinkers who saw patriotism and faith as similar and opposed forces. Michael Billig and Jean Bethke Elshtain have both argued that the difference between patriotism and faith is difficult to discern and relies largely on the attitude of the one doing the labelling. Wellman calls this position patriotist rather than nationalist to single out the members of territorial, political units rather than cultural groups, marxists have taken various stances regarding patriotism. On one hand, Karl Marx famously stated that The working men have no country, the same view is promoted by present-day Trotskyists such as Alan Woods, who is in favour of tearing down all frontiers and creating a socialist world commonwealth. On the other hand, Stalinists and Maoists are usually in favour of socialist patriotism based on the theory of socialism in one country. Several surveys have tried to measure patriotism for various reasons, such as the Correlates of War project which found some correlation between war propensity and patriotism, the results from different studies are time dependent. For example, patriotism in Germany before World War I ranked at or near the top, since 1981, the World Values Survey explores peoples national values and beliefs and refer to the average answer for high income residents of a country to the question Are you proud to be. Charles Blatberg, From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics, Putting Practice First, craig Calhoun, Is it Time to Be Postnational. in Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights, Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires
17.
Klondike Gold Rush
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The Klondike Gold Rush was a migration by an estimated 100,000 prospectors to the Klondike region of the Yukon in north-western Canada between 1896 and 1899. Gold was discovered there by miners on August 16,1896 and. Some became wealthy, but the majority went in vain and it has been immortalized in photographs, books, films, and artifacts. To reach the fields most took the route through the ports of Dyea. Here, the Klondikers could follow either the Chilkoot or the White Pass trails to the Yukon River, each of them was required to bring a years supply of food by the Canadian authorities in order to prevent starvation. In all, their equipment weighed close to a ton, which for most had to be carried in stages by themselves, together with mountainous terrain and cold climate this meant that those who persisted did not arrive until summer 1898. Once there, they found few opportunities and many left disappointed, mining was challenging as the ore was distributed in an uneven manner and digging was made slow by permafrost. As a result, some chose to buy and sell claims, building up huge investments. To accommodate the prospectors, boom towns sprang up along the routes and at their end Dawson City was founded at the confluence of the Klondike, from a population of 500 in 1896, the town grew to house around 30,000 people by summer 1898. Built of wood, isolated and unsanitary, Dawson suffered from fires, high prices, despite this, the wealthiest prospectors spent extravagantly gambling and drinking in the saloons. The Native Hän people, on the hand, suffered from the rush, being moved into a reserve to make way for the stampeders. From 1898, the newspapers that had encouraged so many to travel to the Klondike lost interest in it. In the summer of 1899, gold was discovered around Nome in west Alaska, the boom towns declined and the population of Dawson City fell. Gold mining activity lasted until 1903 when production peaked after heavier equipment was brought in, since then the Klondike has been mined on and off, and today the legacy draws tourists to the region and contributes to its prosperity. The indigenous peoples in north-west America had traded in copper prior to European expansion. Most of the tribes were aware that gold existed in region, in the second half of the 19th century, American prospectors began to spread into the area. Making deals with the Native Tlingit and Tagish tribes, the early prospectors opened the important routes of Chilkoot and White Pass, here, they encountered the Hän people, semi-nomadic hunters and fishermen who lived along the Yukon and Klondike Rivers. The Hän did not appear to know about the extent of the deposits in the region
18.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
19.
Louisa May Alcott
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Louisa May Alcott was an American novelist and poet best known as the author of the novel Little Women and its sequels Little Men and Jos Boys. Alcotts family suffered financial difficulties, and while she worked to support the family from an early age. She began to receive critical success for her writing in the 1860s, early in her career, she sometimes used the pen name A. M. Barnard, under which she wrote novels for young adults. The novel was well received and is still a popular childrens novel today. Alcott was an abolitionist and a feminist and remained unmarried throughout her life and she died in Boston on March 6,1888. Louisa May Alcott was born on November 29,1832, in Germantown, the family moved to Boston in 1834, where Alcotts father established an experimental school and joined the Transcendental Club with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Bronson Alcotts opinions on education and tough views on child-rearing shaped young Alcotts mind with a desire to achieve perfection and his attitudes towards Alcotts wild and independent behavior, and his inability to provide for his family, created conflict between Bronson Alcott and his wife and daughters. In 1840, after several setbacks with the school, the Alcott family moved to a cottage on 2 acres of land, situated along the Sudbury River in Concord, the three years they spent at the rented Hosmer Cottage were described as idyllic. By 1843, the Alcott family moved, along six other members of the Consociate Family. After the collapse of the Utopian Fruitlands, they moved on to rented rooms and finally, with Abigail May Alcotts inheritance and financial help from Emerson and they moved into the home they named Hillside on April 1,1845. She also received instruction from writers and educators such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne. She later described these years in a newspaper sketch entitled Transcendental Wild Oats. The sketch was reprinted in the volume Silver Pitchers, which relates the familys experiment in plain living, poverty made it necessary for Alcott to go to work at an early age as a teacher, seamstress, governess, domestic helper, and writer. Her sisters also supported the family, working as seamstresses, while their mother took on work among the Irish immigrants. Only the youngest, May, was able to attend public school, due to all of these pressures, writing became a creative and emotional outlet for Alcott. Her first book was Flower Fables, a selection of tales written for Ellen Emerson. In 1847, she and her family served as station masters on the Underground Railroad, the 1850s were hard times for the Alcotts. At one point in 1857, unable to work and filled with such despair
20.
Norman Rockwell
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Norman Perceval Rockwell was a 20th-century American author, painter and illustrator. His works enjoy a broad appeal in the United States for their reflection of American culture. Rockwell is most famous for the illustrations of everyday life he created for The Saturday Evening Post magazine over nearly five decades. Among the best-known of Rockwells works are the Willie Gillis series, Rosie the Riveter, The Problem We All Live With, Saying Grace, and the Four Freedoms series. He also is noted for his 64-year relationship with the Boy Scouts of America, during which he produced covers for their publication Boys Life, calendars, and other illustrations. These works include images that reflect the Scout Oath and Scout Law such as The Scoutmaster, A Scout is Reverent and A Guiding Hand. Norman Rockwell was born on February 3,1894, in New York City, to Jarvis Waring Rockwell and Anne Mary Nancy Rockwell and he had one brother, Jarvis Waring Rockwell, Jr. older by a year and a half. Jarvis Waring, Sr. was the manager of the New York office of a Philadelphia textile firm, George Wood, Sons & Company, Rockwell transferred from high school to the Chase Art School at the age of 14. He then went on to the National Academy of Design and finally to the Art Students League, as a student, Rockwell was given small jobs of minor importance. His first major breakthrough came at age eighteen with his first book illustration for Carl H. Claudys Tell Me Why, after that, Rockwell was hired as a staff artist for Boys Life magazine. In this role, he received 50 dollars compensation each month for one completed cover and it is said to have been his first paying job as an artist. At 19, he became the art editor for Boys Life and he held the job for three years, during which he painted several covers, beginning with his first published magazine cover, Scout at Ships Wheel, which appeared on the Boys Life September edition. Rockwells family moved to New Rochelle, New York, when Norman was 21 years old and they shared a studio with the cartoonist Clyde Forsythe, who worked for The Saturday Evening Post. With Forsythes help, Rockwell submitted his first successful cover painting to the Post in 1916 and he followed that success with Circus Barker and Strongman, Gramps at the Plate, Redhead Loves Hatty Perkins, People in a Theatre Balcony, and Man Playing Santa. Rockwell was published eight times on the Post cover within the first year, ultimately, Rockwell published 323 original covers for The Saturday Evening Post over 47 years. His Sharp Harmony appeared on the cover of the issue dated September 26,1936, it depicts a barber, the image was adopted by SPEBSQSA in its promotion of the art. During World War I, he tried to enlist into the U. S. Navy but was refused entry because, at 140 pounds, to compensate, he spent one night gorging himself on bananas, liquids and doughnuts, and weighed enough to enlist the next day. He was given the role of a military artist, however, in 1943, during World War II, Rockwell painted the Four Freedoms series, which was completed in seven months and resulted in his losing fifteen pounds
21.
Fernando Miranda y Casellas
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Fernando Miranda y Casellas was a Spanish-American sculptor, architectural sculptor and illustrator. He was born in Valencia, Spain, the son of an illustrator of the same name and he moved to the United States prior to the 1876 Centennial Exposition, and settled in New York City. For several years he worked as an illustrator for the Spanish-language magazine La Ilustración Española y Americana, in 1878, he designed a 30-foot monument honoring Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes to be erected in Central Park. The project was abandoned due to lack of funding. Alternate sites for the fountain were proposed at Battery Park and Harlem, instead of an original work by Miranda, Central Park commissioned a copy of sculptor Jeronimo Suñols Columbus statue in Madrid, which was dedicated in 1894. The Spirit of Research was a figure of a gowned woman lifting a veil—a metaphor for education. It was installed at the center of the fountain in 1898, a copy of MacMonniess statue was restored to the fountain in 1993. He was a member of the National Sculpture Society, and served as first president of the American Sculpture Society, king Alfonso XIII of Spain made him a Knight in 1890. Bust of Ignacio Vergara Gimeno, Plaza Temple, Valencia, Spain, a posthumous 1965 cast from a student work by Miranda. The bust was stolen in 1996, and a new cast was made in 1999, Cervantes Monument, proposed for Central Park. Bust of Miguel de Cervantes, installed in Central Park by 1892, removed after 1918. Columbus Fountain, proposed for Central Park, sketch of Columbus and the Brothers Pinzon. Four terra-cotta Angels, American Tract Society Building,150 Nassau Street, New York City, Robert H. Robertson, the 20-foot angels adorn the buildings penthouse. They were restored in 2013-14 by Boston Valley Terra Cotta, the Spirit of Research, made for the Boston Public Library. Equestrian statue of George Washington proposed for Newark, New Jersey, a colossal female figure made for the 1904 St. Louis Worlds Fair. City Hall Fountain, City Hall Rotunda, Savannah, Georgia, the Primitive Marksman – Indian Shooting at a Soaring Eagle, New York Historical Society, New York City. Theodore Dreiser, The Sculpture of Fernando Miranda, Ainslees Magazine 2, pp. 113–18
22.
Cathedral of All Saints (Albany, New York)
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The Cathedral of All Saints, Albany, New York, is located on Elk Street in central Albany, New York, United States. It is the church of the Albany and the seat of the Episcopal Bishop of Albany. Built in the 1880s in the Gothic style and designed by Robert W. Gibson, previously it had been recognized as a contributing property to the Lafayette Park Historic District, listed on the Register in 1970. The church was unable to complete the cathedral and the planned complex in the early 20th century. Because the commissioner of the State Education Department had his headquarters built on the remainder of the block, some foundations for planned expansions remain, however, for instance, for spires. The cathedral is located on the corner of the intersection of Elk. The terrain slopes gently toward the Hudson River a half-mile to the east, the cathedrals 2-acre lot is in the northern corner of the Lafayette Park Historic District, at the edge of central Albanys developed area. On three sides the cathedral has as its neighbors larger state government buildings, some of them also historic, the neoclassical State Education Department Building, also listed on the National Register, occupies the rest of the block, exceeding the cathedral in height. Beyond it is the capitol, a contributing property to the Lafayette Park Historic District. Across South Swan are the offices of New Yorks Department of State, South of it is the 34-story Alfred E. Smith State Office Building, a contributing property to the Center Square/Hudson–Park Historic District. Other than one group of rowhouses, the space across the Elk is all parking lots. The cathedral was designed in the shape of a modified Greek cross with short transepts and it is largely finished in split-cut Potsdam sandstone, with decorative trim in brownstone. The east end has the greatest level of finish, a parking lot is in the southwest corner. At the southeast corner, in the space between the cathedral and the SED building, is a chapter house. Inside, the interior is finished in the same East Longmeadow brownstone as the outside trim. The nave is laid out with two side aisles, separated from the main section by large sets of engaged stone columns as much as 7 feet wide. Six large stained glass windows provide light, supplemented by sunlight through the clear glass in the clerestory windows. The wooden floor of the nave gives way to mosaic in the choir, sanctuary, underneath it is supported by steel beams and brick arches
23.
Mary Todd Lincoln
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Mary Ann Todd Lincoln was the wife of the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, and was First Lady of the United States from 1861 to 1865. She dropped the name Ann after her sister, Ann Todd, was born. A member of a large, wealthy Kentucky family, Mary was well educated, after living in the Todd House and finishing school during her teens, she moved to Springfield, Illinois, where she lived with her married sister Elizabeth Edwards. Before she married Abraham Lincoln, Mary was courted by his political opponent Stephen A. Douglas. She and Lincoln had four sons together, only one of whom outlived her and their home of about 17 years still stands at Eighth and Jackson Streets in Springfield, Illinois. She supported her throughout his presidency. She witnessed his fatal shooting when they were together in the Presidents Box at Fords Theatre on Tenth Street in Washington, Mary was involuntarily institutionalized for psychiatric disease ten years after her husbands murder. She also complained of physical symptoms during her adult life. Mary was born in Lexington, Kentucky as the fourth of seven children of Robert Smith Todd, a banker and her family were slaveholders, and Mary was raised in comfort and refinement. When Mary was six, her mother died, two years later, her father married Elizabeth Betsy Humphreys and they had nine children together. Mary had a relationship with her stepmother. From 1832, Mary and her family lived in what is now known as the Mary Todd Lincoln House, Marys paternal great-grandfather, David Levi Todd, was born in County Longford, Ireland, and immigrated through Pennsylvania to Kentucky. Her great-great maternal grandfather Samuel McDowell was born in Scotland, other Todd ancestors came from England. At an early age Mary was sent to Madame Mantelles finishing school and she learned to speak French fluently and studied dance, drama, music, and social graces. By age 20, she was regarded as witty and gregarious, like her family, she was a Whig. Mary began living with her sister Elizabeth Porter Edwards in Springfield, Elizabeth, married to Ninian W. Edwards, son of a former governor, served as Marys guardian. Mary Todd married Abraham Lincoln on November 4,1842, at her sister Elizabeths home in Springfield and she was 23 years old and he was 33 years of age. Their four sons, all born in Springfield, were, Robert Todd Lincoln, -– lawyer, diplomat, businessman
24.
Stephen G. Burbridge
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Stephen Gano Burbridge, also known as Butcher Burbridge or the Butcher of Kentucky, was a controversial Union major general during the American Civil War. Burbridge was born in Georgetown, Kentucky and he attended college at Georgetown College and the Kentucky Military Institute in Frankfort, and subsequently became a lawyer. Upon the outbreak of the American Civil War, Burbridge formed his own Union regiment and this began an extended period of military siege that would last through early 1865, beginning with martial law authorized by President Abraham Lincoln. On July 16,1864, Burbridge issued Order No, during Burbridges rule in Kentucky, he directed the execution and imprisonment of numerous people, including public figures, on charges of treason and other high crimes, many of which were baseless. While continuing in charge of Kentucky, in October 1864, Burbridge led Union assaults against the works near the town of Saltville. Burbridge controversially led black troops into battle, which ultimately failed, wounded troops left behind were killed by Confederate soldiers, with special ire directed toward the black troops. During the 1864 presidential campaign, Burbridge tried to ensure re-election of Lincoln and his actions included arresting prominent persons favoring the candidate, including Lieutenant Governor Richard T. Jacob, and Judge Bullitt, both of whom he deported to Richmond, Virginia. Lincoln revoked Burbridges order, and decided to replace the general with Major General John Palmer, Burbridge soon resigned from the army. Burbridge later moved to Brooklyn, New York, where he died and he is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. C. Odis Lee Harris, Union General Burbridge Brought Hate and Terror to His Kentucky, The Kentucky Explorer, historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War. Bush, Bryan S. Butcher Burbridge, Union General Stephen Burbridge, Bryan S. Bush, Major General Stephen Gano Burbridge, The Scourge of Kentucky, at authors official website Stephen G. Burbridge
25.
Union (American Civil War)
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The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
26.
Battle of Arkansas Post
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Although a Union victory, it did not move their army any closer to Vicksburg. The fort commanded a view up and downriver. It was a base for disrupting shipping on the Mississippi River, the fort was named Fort Hindman in honor of General Thomas C. It was manned by approximately 5,000 men, primarily Texas cavalry, dismounted and redeployed as infantry, by the winter of 1862–63, disease and their life at the end of a tenuous supply chain had left the garrison at Fort Hindman in a poor state. This plan was at odds with those of Army of the Tennessee commander, Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. McClernand ordered Grants subordinate, Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman, to join the troops of his corps with McClernands, on January 4, he launched a combined army-navy movement on Arkansas Post, rather than Vicksburg, as he had told Lincoln. Union boats began landing troops near at Notrebes Plantation,3 miles below Arkansas Post in the evening of January 9, the troops started up river towards Fort Hindman and Shermans corps overran the Confederate trenches. The enemy retreated to the protection of the fort, anchored on the east by the Arkansas River, by 11,00 am the following morning the remainder of the Union army had gone ashore. Churchill was stunned by the size of the Union force and immediately requested reinforcements from his superior. Hold out till help arrived or until all dead. ”On January 10 the Union army moved upriver to fully invest the Confederate garrison, two brigades from Peter J. Osterhaus division of George W. Morgans corps were detached from the main movement of the army. Colonel Daniel W. Lindseys brigade was put ashore on the riverbank opposite the fort, Morgan advanced Osterhaus along the levee of the river following by his remaining division under Andrew J. Smith. Sherman followed with David Stuarts division along the river and sent his division under Frederick Steele inland to find a flanking route but failed due to swampy land. The advance of Morgans column overran the first line of Confederate trenches manned largely by dismounted Texas cavalry, as McClernands soldiers moved against the fort, Porters gunboats, Baron DeKalb, Louisville and Cincinnati, moved against the fort. The Navy pounded the fort at a range of 400 yards, the Union tinclad Rattler moved in too close, ran aground and took heavy fire at point blank range from the fort. After several hours the Naval bombardment had inflicted heavy losses to the Confederate artillery, meanwhile, McClernand sent an army lieutenant up a tree to observe if Morgan and Shermans troops were in place. The lieutenant reported they were in place and ready to assault, by the time the Navys attack concluded it was too dark for the infantry to assault although some skirmishing had taken place. On the morning of January 11 McClernands forces were deployed in an arc facing Fort Hindman, running West to East were the divisions of Steele, Stuart, Smith with Osterhaus achored on the Arkansas River. Churchills defenses were manned by Colonel James Deshlers brigade on the left, McClernands infantry attacked around 1, 00pm and made little progress at first
27.
Arkansas Post
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The French and Spanish traded with the Quapaw for years, and the post was of strategic value to the French, Spanish, and Americans. It was designated as the first capital of the Arkansas Territory in 1819, during the years of fur trading, Arkansas Post was protected by a series of forts. The forts and associated settlements were located at three sites and possibly a fourth, as the waterfront area was prone to erosion. The land encompassing the second Arkansas Post site was designated as a park in 1929. Three archeological excavations have been conducted at the site, beginning in the 1950s, experts say the most extensive cultural resources at the site are archeological, both for the 18th and 19th-century settlements, and the earlier Quapaw villages. Due to changes in the river and navigation measures, the level has risen closer to the height of the bluffs. The site is now considered low lying, erosion and construction on the river have resulted in the remains of three of the historic forts being under water in the river channel. The post was established on land given to De Tonti for his service in René-Robert Cavelier, the agreement with the local Quapaw consisted of trading French goods for beaver furs, although this arrangement did not yield much profit, as the Quapaw had little interest in hunting beaver. Even so, trade and friendly relations with the Quapaw and other native peoples, such as the Caddo. The French settlers initially called the post Aux Arcs, the first structures erected at the site were a simple wooden house and fence. The small settlement was the first permanent French holding west of the Mississippi, there the French conducted the first documented Christian services in Arkansas. The importance of the post was fully realized in 1699, when King Louis XIV began to invest more resources into French Louisiana, john Laws Mississippi Company made a venture from 1717 to 1724 recruiting German settlers to turn the surrounding area into a major agricultural hub. The plan was to grow crops on the lower Arkansas for trade with Arkansas Post, New Orleans, about 100 slaves and indentured servants were brought to the area as workers, and land grants were offered to German settlers. However, this failed when the company withdrew from Arkansas Post due to the burst of the Mississippi Bubble. Most of the slaves and indentured servants were relocated elsewhere along the Lower Mississippi, but a few remained in or near the post, becoming hunters, farmers, and traders. By 1720, the post had lost much of its significance to the French because of the lack of profit in trading with the Quapaw, in 1723, the post was occupied by thirteen French soldiers and Lieutenant Avignon Guérin de La Boulaye was the commander. Father Paul du Poisson was priest at the post from July 1727 until his death in 1729, on May 10,1749, during the Chickasaw Wars, the post experienced its first military engagement. Chief Payamataha of the Chickasaw attacked the areas of the post with 150 of his warriors
28.
Joseph Keppler
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Joseph Ferdinand Keppler was an Austrian-born American cartoonist and caricaturist who greatly influenced the growth of satirical cartooning in the United States. His parents were bakers, and his talent is said to have first manifested itself in his cake decorations and he studied art at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna and later contributed comic drawings to the Vienna humor magazine Kikeriki. Unable to make a living from his art in Vienna he joined a troupe as a scene painter and then as a comedian, traveling with them in the Tyrol. His ability to restore old paintings gained for him the good will and he was a charming companion, an excellent story-teller, and immediately popular wherever he went. In 1864, he married the Viennese actress Minna Rubens, meanwhile, his father, who had come to the States to escape the European Revolutions of 1848, had established himself as the proprietor of a general store in a little town in northern Missouri. Hearing glowing accounts from America, young Keppler and his wife decided to emigrate, after visiting his father, Keppler made his way to St. Louis in 1867 and renewed his career as an actor. In 1869, he helped launch the German-American cartoon weekly, Die Vehme and it was followed by Frank und Frei, which lasted six months. In March 1871, he attempted another cartoon weekly, Puck, after the death of his wife in 1870, Keppler married Pauline Pfau in 1871, the union producing three children, Udo, Irma and Olga. In the fall of 1872, he moved with his wife, starting in 1874, he began contributing political cartoons to Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper. In September 1876 he and fellow Frank Leslie employee Adolph Schwarzmann resurrected Puck for the New York German-American audience, kepplers main delight was in producing cartoons criticizing President Ulysses S. Grant, and the political corruption of his administration. His cartoons were famous for their wit, generating much publicity for Puck. Much of his success was due to an adaptation of classical and historical subjects to his criticisms of modern life. Kepplers opinions and wit endeared him to large sections of the American public and his illustrations cast light on complex politics, making issues clear to the average voter. Puck did not shy away from criticism of the administration and by influencing the perceptions of the voting public, initially Keppler drew all the Puck cartoons. When his workload became too much, he use of several talented artists including Frederick Burr Opper, James A. Wales, Bernhard Gillam, Eugene Zimmerman, C. J. Taylor. In 1893, he took charge of a special Worlds Fair Puck published weekly for six months on the grounds of the Worlds Columbian Exposition, the stress and exhaustion of that experience damaged his health, and he died the next year in New York. Kepplers son, Udo J. Keppler, was also a political cartoonist and co-owner for Puck magazine, a collector of Indian artifacts and he had his name changed to Joseph Keppler, Jr. in honor of his father. He was a chief of the Seneca nation
29.
Meeker Massacre
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Nathanial Cook Nathan Meeker was a 19th-century United States journalist, homesteader, entrepreneur, and Indian agent for the federal government. He is noted for his founding in 1870 of the Union Colony, in 1878, he was appointed U. S. Agent at the White River Indian Agency in western Colorado, the next year, he was killed by Ute warriors in what became known as the Meeker Massacre, during the White River War. His wife and adult daughter were taken captive for three weeks. The town of Meeker, Colorado and Mount Meeker in Rocky Mountain National Park are named for him, Nathan Cook Meeker was born in Euclid, Ohio on July 12,1817, to Enoch and Lurana Meeker. Meeker was a writer and submitted articles to area publications when he was a boy and he left home at 17 years-of-age for New Orleans, where he worked as a copy boy for the New Orleans Picayune. In the late 1830s, Meeker returned to Ohio, where he attended and graduated from Oberlin College, after college, Meeker worked as a school teacher in Cleveland and Philadelphia. He saved up his money to move to New York, hoping to fulfill a desire to become a poet, in New York, he became a contributor to the Mirror, which was owned by N. P. Willis. Unable to support himself, he moved back to Euclid and was a traveling salesman, Meeker married Arvilla Delight Smith, a Congregationalist, on April 8,1844. He was baptized a Disciple of Christ to address her concern about his lack of faith, Smith was concerned that Meeker was younger than her. So, he stated that his year of birth was 1814 on their marriage certificate, the couple settled in the Trumbull Phalanx colony in Ohio. The colony was based upon the theories of Charles Fourier. Arvilla taught kindergarten and Nathan was a teacher, historian, auditor, librarian, secretary, in 1845, their son Ralph Lovejoy was born. Two years later George Columbus was born at the colony, the Trumbull Phalanx colony failed due to financial and health issues in the fall of 1847. In 1847, Meeker opened a store with his brothers in Cleveland, rozene was born in 1849 in Munson. Meeker opened another store in Hiram in 1852 and he was asked to help found the Western Reserve Institute by the Disciples of Christ, but he was furious when his claim was held up because he sold whiskey. He only sold whiskey by prescription, but was so angry over the misunderstanding that he left the church, in 1854, Mary was born in Hiram, and three years later Josephine was born there. Meeker lost his store and property during the Great Panic of 1857 and he moved to Dongola, Illinois, where he opened a small store and grew fruit
30.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
31.
United States presidential election, 1920
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The United States presidential election of 1920 was the 34th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1920. The Republicans nominated newspaper publisher and Senator Warren G. Harding from Ohio, while the Democrats chose newspaper publisher, incumbent President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, in poor health, chose not to run for a third term. Former President Theodore Roosevelt had been the front runner for the Republican nomination and he died in January 1919 without leaving an obvious heir to his progressive legacy. With both Wilson and Roosevelt out of the running, the parties turned to little-known dark horse candidates from state of Ohio. As his running mate, Cox chose Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harding virtually ignored Cox in the race and essentially campaigned against Wilson by calling for a return to normalcy. With a spending advantage of almost 4-to-1, Harding won a victory by winning 37 states, including the first Republican victories in Arizona, New Mexico. The wartime economic boom had collapsed, at home, the year 1919 was marked by major strikes in the meatpacking and steel industries and large-scale race riots in Chicago and other cities. Anarchist attacks on Wall Street produced fears of radicals and terrorists, harding’s victory margin of 26. 2% in the popular vote remains the largest popular-vote percentage margin in presidential elections after the unopposed election of James Monroe in 1820. Hardings percentage of the vote, however, was later exceeded by Franklin Roosevelt in 1936, Lyndon Johnson in 1964. As a result, the popular vote increased dramatically, from 18.5 million in 1916 to 26.8 million in 1920. The election is notable for being the first of three in which a sitting U. S. senator was elected president. Republican candidates, On June 8, the Republican National Convention met in Chicago, the race was wide open, and soon the convention deadlocked between Major General Leonard Wood and Governor Frank Orren Lowden of Illinois. Other names placed in nomination included Senators Warren G. Butler, la Follette from Wisconsin was not formally placed in nomination, but received the votes of his state delegation nonetheless. Harding was nominated for president on the ballot, after some delegates shifted their allegiances. At that decisive time, the friends of Harding will suggest him, Daughertys prediction described essentially what occurred, but historians Richard C. Bain and Judith H. Parris argue that Daughertys prediction has been too much weight in narratives of the convention. The Tally, Source for convention coverage, Richard C, bain and Judith H. Parris, Convention Decisions and Voting Records, pp. 200–208. Early favorites for the nomination had included McAdoo and Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, others placed in nomination included New York Governor Al Smith, United Kingdom Ambassador John W. Davis, New Jersey Governor Edward I
32.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
33.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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