1.
Antwerp
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Antwerp is a city in Belgium, the capital of Antwerp province in the region of Flanders. With a population of 510,610, it is the most populous city proper in Belgium and its metropolitan area houses around 1,200,000 people, which is second behind Brussels. Antwerp is on the River Scheldt, linked to the North Sea by the Westerschelde estuary, the Port of Antwerp is one of the biggest in the world, ranking second in Europe and within the top 20 globally. Antwerp has long been an important city in the Low Countries, the inhabitants of Antwerp are nicknamed Sinjoren, after the Spanish honorific señor or French seigneur, lord, referring to the Spanish noblemen who ruled the city in the 17th century. The city hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics, according to folklore, notably celebrated by a statue in front of the town hall, the city got its name from a legend about a giant called Antigoon who lived near the Scheldt river. He exacted a toll from passing boatmen, and for those who refused, he severed one of their hands, eventually the giant was killed by a young hero named Silvius Brabo, who cut off the giants own hand and flung it into the river. Hence the name Antwerpen, from Dutch hand werpen, akin to Old English hand and wearpan, a longstanding theory is that the name originated in the Gallo-Roman period and comes from the Latin antverpia. Antverpia would come from Ante Verpia, indicating land that forms by deposition in the curve of a river. Note that the river Scheldt, before a period between 600 and 750, followed a different track. This must have coincided roughly with the current ringway south of the city, however, many historians think it unlikely that there was a large settlement which would be named Antverpia, but more something like an outpost with a river crossing. However, John Lothrop Motley argues, and so do a lot of Dutch etymologists and historians, aan t werp is also possible. This warp is a hill or a river deposit, high enough to remain dry at high tide. Another word for werp is pol hence polders, historical Antwerp allegedly had its origins in a Gallo-Roman vicus. Excavations carried out in the oldest section near the Scheldt, 1952–1961, produced pottery shards, the earliest mention of Antwerp dates from the 4th century. In the 4th century, Antwerp was first named, having been settled by the Germanic Franks, the name was reputed to have been derived from anda and werpum. The Merovingian Antwerp was evangelized by Saint Amand in the 7th century, at the end of the 10th century, the Scheldt became the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. Antwerp became a margraviate in 980, by the German emperor Otto I, in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years known as the marquis of Antwerp. In the 12th century, Norbert of Xanten established a community of his Premonstratensian canons at St. Michaels Abbey at Caloes
2.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries
3.
Spanish Netherlands
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Spanish Netherlands, French, Pays-Bas espagnols) was the collective name of States of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries, held in personal union by the Spanish Crown from 1581 to 1714. This region comprised most of modern Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as parts of northern France, the Imperial fiefs of the former Burgundian Netherlands had been inherited by the Austrian House of Habsburg from the extinct House of Valois-Burgundy upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482. The Seventeen Provinces formed the core of the Habsburg Netherlands which passed to the Spanish Habsburgs upon the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1556. When part of the Netherlands separated to form the autonomous Dutch Republic in 1581 and his granddaughter Mary had confirmed a number of privileges to the States by the Great Privilege signed in 1477. After the government takeover by her husband Archduke Maximilian I of Austria, Maximilian prevailed with the support of Duke Albert III of Saxony and his son Philip the Handsome could assume the rule over the Habsburg Netherlands in 1493. The Habsburgs often used the term Burgundy to refer to their lands, actually until 1795. In 1522 Emperor Charles V concluded a treaty with his younger brother Archduke Ferdinand I of Habsburg, whereby the House of Habsburg split into an Austrian. By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles declared the Seventeen Provinces a united, the Seventeen Provinces, de jure still fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, from that time on de facto were ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs as part of the Burgundian heritage. Philips despotism and his stern Counter-Reformation measures sparked the Dutch Revolt in the mainly Calvinist Netherlandish provinces, the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs could only retain the rule over the partly Catholic Southern Netherlands, completed after the Fall of Antwerp in 1585. Better times came, when in 1598 the Spanish Netherlands passed to Philips daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia, in the early 17th century, there was a flourishing court at Brussels. Among the artists who emerged from the court of the Archdukes, by the Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659 the French annexed Artois and Cambrai, and Dunkirk was ceded to the English. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and Nijmegen, further territory up to the current Franco-Belgian border was ceded, including Walloon Flanders, later, in the War of the Reunions and the Nine Years War, France annexed other parts of the region. During the War of the Spanish Succession, in 1706 the Habsburg Netherlands became an Anglo-Dutch condominium for the remainder of the conflict. By the peace treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt in 1713/14 ending the war, the Southern Netherlands fell back to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy forming the Austrian Netherlands
4.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
5.
Haarlem
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Haarlem is a city and municipality in the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of North Holland and is situated at the edge of the Randstad. Haarlem had a population of 155,758 in 2014 and it is a 15-minute train ride from Amsterdam, and many residents commute to the countrys capital for work. Haarlem was granted city status or stadsrechten in 1245, although the first city walls were not built until 1270, the modern city encompasses the former municipality of Schoten as well as parts that previously belonged to Bloemendaal and Heemstede. Apart from the city, the municipality of Haarlem also includes the part of the village of Spaarndam. Newer sections of Spaarndam lie within the municipality of Haarlemmerliede en Spaarnwoude. The city is located on the river Spaarne, about 20 km west of Amsterdam and it has been the historical centre of the tulip bulb-growing district for centuries and bears the nickname Bloemenstad, for this reason. Haarlem has a history dating back to pre-medieval times, as it lies on a thin strip of land above sea level known as the strandwal. The people on this strip of land struggled against the waters of the North Sea from the west, and the waters of the IJ. Haarlem became wealthy with toll revenues that it collected from ships, however, as shipping became increasingly important economically, the city of Amsterdam became the main Dutch city of North Holland during the Dutch Golden Age. The town of Halfweg became a suburb, and Haarlem became a bedroom community. Nowadays many of them are on the Dutch Heritage register known as Rijksmonuments, the list of Rijksmonuments in Haarlem gives an overview of these per neighbourhood, with the majority in the old city centre. The oldest mentioning of Haarlem dates from the 10th century, the name probably comes from Haarlo-heim. This name is composed of three elements, haar, lo and heim, there is not much dispute about the meaning of lo and heim, in Old Dutch toponyms lo always refers to forest and heim to home or house. Haar, however, has several meanings, one of them corresponding with the location of Haarlem on a sand dune, the name Haarlem or Haarloheim would therefore mean home on a forested dune. There was a stream called De Beek, dug from the peat grounds west of the river Spaarne as a drainage canal, over the centuries the Beek was turned into an underground canal, as the city grew larger and the space was needed for construction. Over time it began to silt up and in the 19th century it was filled in, the location of the village was a good one, by the river Spaarne, and by a major road going south to north. By the 12th century it was a town, and Haarlem became the residence of the Counts of Holland
6.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
7.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
8.
The Gypsy Girl
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The Gypsy Girl is a painting by the Dutch Golden Age painter Frans Hals, painted in 1628 and now in the Louvre Museum. It is a tronie, a study of expression and unusual costume. The display of cleavage was certainly not a feature of costume seen in public in Hals time. This painting was catalogued by Hofstede de Groot in 1910, who wrote 119,41, M.263 - Half-length, life size. A laughing gipsy girl, seen almost in full face, looks down towards the right and her brown hair falls on her shoulders. She wears a red bodice over a chemise which exposes her breast. Hofstede de Groot noticed that the dress of the sitter in this painting is similar to two paintings by Hals, and he included them on either side of this one. This painting was first documented in a Paris sale in 1782, the song celebrates the girls lusty, vibrant sexuality. The raunchy song became a Dutch hit for Rob de Nijs in 1975 and is immensely popular in versions by different artists. Today the painting is sometimes referred to as Malle Babbe for this reason. No name has been discovered in the archives, but various art historians have assumed she was a prostitute, there is no real reason to assume the model was a gypsy. Girls painted by Hals who are wearing similar chemises, Information in the Web Gallery of Art
9.
Laughing Cavalier
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The Laughing Cavalier is a portrait by the Dutch Golden Age painter Frans Hals in the Wallace Collection in London, which has been described as one of the most brilliant of all Baroque portraits. The unknown subject is in fact not laughing, but can be said to have an enigmatic smile, art historian Pieter Biesboer has theorised the painting possibly depicts Dutch cloth merchant Tieleman Roosterman, the subject of another of Hals portraits. The composition is lively and spontaneous, and despite the apparent labour involved in the gorgeous, the turning pose and low viewpoint are found in other portraits by Hals and here allow emphasis on the embroidered sleeve and lace cuff. In general, commissioned portraits such as this rarely showed adults smiling until the late 18th century, though smiling is often seen in tronies and figures in genre painting. But Hals is an exception to the rule and often showed sitters with broader smiles than here. The paintings provenance only goes back to a sale in The Hague in 1770, after further Dutch sales it was bought by the Franco-Swiss banker and collector the Comte de Pourtalès-Gorgier in 1822. The exhibition was a success and A Cavalier a particular hit with both public and the critics, it played a considerable part in raising the critical estimation of Hals in England. By 1888, when it was exhibited at the Royal Academy, it had become Laughing Cavalier. The critic in the Athenaeum noted a brighter appearance, but also that The man smiles rather than laughs, hertfords collection was bequeathed to his natural son Sir Richard Wallace Bt. whose widow donated it and his London house to the nation as the Wallace Collection. The Laughing Cavalier is used by McEwans beer as its logo and it has been modified showing the Laughing Cavalier enjoying the beer. The Laughing Cavalier on the official Wallace collection website
10.
Dutch Golden Age painting
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The new Dutch Republic was the most prosperous nation in Europe, and led European trade, science, and art. Most work, including that for which the period is best known, a distinctive feature of the period is the proliferation of distinct genres of paintings, with the majority of artists producing the bulk of their work within one of these. The full development of specialization is seen from the late 1620s. A distinctive feature of the period, compared to earlier European painting, was the amount of religious painting. Dutch Calvinism forbade religious painting in churches, and though biblical subjects were acceptable in private homes, the development of many of these types of painting was decisively influenced by 17th-century Dutch artists. The widely held theory of the hierarchy of genres in painting, whereby some types were regarded as more prestigious than others, however this was the hardest to sell, as even Rembrandt found. Many were forced to produce portraits or genre scenes, which much more easily. In descending order of status the categories in the hierarchy were, history painting, including allegories, most paintings were relatively small – the only common type of really large paintings were group portraits. Painting directly onto walls hardly existed, when a wall-space in a public building needed decorating fitted framed canvas was normally used, painted delftware tiles were very cheap and common, if rarely of really high quality, but silver, especially in the auricular style, led Europe. With this exception, the best artistic efforts were concentrated on painting and printmaking, the volume of production meant that prices were fairly low, except for the best known artists, as in most subsequent periods there was a steep price gradient for more fashionable artists. In particular the French invasion of 1672, brought a depression to the art market. The distribution of pictures was very wide, yea many tymes, blacksmithes, cobblers etts. will have some picture or other by their Forge, such is the generall Notion, enclination and delight that these Countrie Native have to Painting reported an English traveller in 1640. There were for virtually the first time many professional art dealers, several significant artists, like Vermeer and his father, Jan van Goyen. Rembrandts dealer Hendrick van Uylenburgh and his son Gerrit were among the most important, typically workshops were smaller than in Flanders or Italy, with only one or two apprentices at a time, the number often being restricted by guild regulations. In many cases involved the artists extricating themselves from medieval groupings where they shared a guild with several other trades. Several new guilds were established in the period, Amsterdam in 1579, Haarlem in 1590, the Leiden authorities distrusted guilds and did not allow one until 1648. The Hague, with the court, was an early example, there were many dynasties of artists, and many married the daughters of their masters or other artists. Many artists came from families, who paid fees for their apprenticeships
11.
Painterliness
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It is the opposite of linear, plastic or formal linear design. An oil painting is painterly when there are visible brushstrokes, the result of applying paint in a less than completely controlled manner, works characterized as either painterly or linear can be produced with any painting media, oils, acrylics, watercolors, gouache, etc. Some artists whose work could be characterized as painterly are Pierre Bonnard, Francis Bacon, Vincent van Gogh, Rembrandt, Renoir, in watercolor it might be represented by the early watercolors of Andrew Wyeth. Contour and pattern are more in the province of the linear artists, the Impressionists, Fauvists and the Abstract Expressionists tended strongly to be painterly movements. Or based on styles like van Gogh or Monet, and so on, the resulting photographs are also called painterly. Expressionism Abstract expressionism Flatness Tachisme Action painting Lyrical Abstraction Neo-expressionism Western painting History of painting Painting Medium specificity
12.
Portrait painting
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See Portrait for more about the general topic of portraits. Portrait painting is a genre in painting, where the intent is to depict a human subject, the term portrait painting can also describe the actual painted portrait. Portraitists may create their work by commission, for public and private persons, portraits are often important state and family records, as well as remembrances. Historically, portrait paintings have primarily memorialized the rich and powerful, over time, however, it became more common for middle-class patrons to commission portraits of their families and colleagues. Today, portrait paintings are commissioned by governments, corporations, groups, clubs. In addition to painting, portraits can also be made in other such as etching, lithography, photography, video. A well-executed portrait is expected to show the essence of the subject or a flattering representation. As Aristotle stated, The aim of Art is to present not the appearance of things. In most cases, this results in a serious, closed lip stare, or as Charles Dickens put it, there are only two styles of portrait painting, the serious and the smirk. Even given these limitations, a range of subtle emotions is possible from quiet menace to gentle contentment. However, with the mouth relatively neutral, much of the facial expression needs to be created through the eyes, as author and artist Gordon C. Aymar states, the eyes are the place one looks for the most complete, reliable, and the eyebrows can register, almost single-handedly, wonder, pity, fright, pain, cynicism, concentration, wistfulness, displeasure, and expectation, in infinite variations and combinations. Portrait painting can depict the full length, half length, head and shoulders, or ‘head’, as well as in profile, three-quarter view, or full face, with varying directions of light. Occasionally, artists have created portraits with multiple views, as with Anthony van Dycks Triple Portrait of Charles I, there are even a few portraits where the front of the subject is not visible at all. Another example of the view in portraiture, in this case photography, can be found here. Among the other variables, the subject can be clothed or nude, indoors or out, standing, seated, reclining. Portrait paintings can be of individuals, couples, parents and children, families and they can be created in various media including oils, watercolor, pen and ink, pencil, charcoal, pastel, and mixed media. Artists may employ a wide-ranging palette of colors, as with Pierre-Auguste Renoirs Mme, charpentier and her children,1878 or restrict themselves to mostly white or black, as with Gilbert Stuarts Portrait of George Washington
13.
Fall of Antwerp
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The Siege of Antwerp took place during the Eighty Years War from July 1584 until August 1585. At the time Antwerp, in modern Belgium, was not only the largest Dutch city, on 4 November 1576, unpaid Spanish soldiery mutinied, they plundered and burnt the city during what was called the Spanish Fury. Thousands of citizens were massacred and hundreds of houses were burnt down, as a result, Antwerp became even more engaged in the rebellion against the rule of Habsburg Spain. The city joined the Union of Utrecht and became the capital of the Dutch Revolt, when the siege of Antwerp began most of the County of Flanders and the Duchy of Brabant, including Brussels, had been recaptured in the preceding year. The army of Flanders had been reinforced in the previous years, during the recapture of Flanders and Brabant, Parma improved the logistics of the Spanish army in Flanders by further investing in what is dubbed the Spanish Route. When the siege of Antwerp began Parmas army was well supplied, the first stage of the siege saw encirclement lines constructed around Antwerp and forts built along the Scheldt estuary. The second stage consisted of commencing a long siege of Antwerp and constructing a bridge across the Scheldt, effectively closing off the citys waterways. The bridge, a feat of siege engineering at its time. 800 Spaniards are said to have killed, Caspar de Robles being one of the casualties. At one time, the rebels sent the Finis Bellis, a floating platform into which they put great hope, against the bridge. In the end the Dutch abandoned their efforts, considering Antwerp a lost cause, on 17 August 1585, Antwerp surrendered. After the siege, the Dutch fleet on the river Scheldt was kept in position, blocking the access to the sea. Parma stationed experienced Castilian troops within Antwerp to make sure the city would not fall into enemy hands, some returned to Roman Catholicism but many moved north and ended what had been a golden century for the city. Of the pre-siege population of 100,000 people, only 40,000 remained, many of Antwerps skilled tradesmen were included in the Protestant migration to the north, laying the commercial foundation for the subsequent Dutch Golden Age of the northern United Provinces. Although the city returned to prosperity, the Dutch blockade of shipping in the Scheldt remained in place. The blockade was maintained for the two centuries and was an important and traumatic element in the history of relations between the Netherlands and what was to become Belgium. The Revolt of the Netherlands, 1555–1609
14.
Flemish people
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They are one of two principal ethnic groups in Belgium, the other being the French-speaking Walloons. Flemish people make up the majority of the Belgian population, historically, all inhabitants of the medieval County of Flanders were referred to as Flemings, irrespective of the language spoken. The contemporary region of Flanders comprises a part of historical county, as well as parts of the medieval duchy of Brabant. The sense of Flemish identity increased significantly after the Belgian Revolution, prior to this, the term Flemings in the Dutch language was in first place used for the inhabitants of the former County of Flanders. Flemish however had been used since the 14th century to refer to the language, the modern Belgian province of Limburg was not part of the treaty, and only came to be considered Flemish in the 19th century. In 1830 the southern provinces of the United Netherlands proclaimed their independence, under French rule, French was enforced as the only official language in public life, resulting in a Frenchification of the elites and, to a lesser extent, the middle classes. The Dutch King allowed the use of both Dutch and French dialects as administrative languages in the Flemish provinces and he also enacted laws to reestablish Dutch in schools. Lastly, Belgian liberals were dissatisfied with William for his despotic behaviour. Following the revolt, the reforms of 1823 were the first Dutch laws to be abolished. After the Hundred Years War many Flemings migrated to the Azores, by 1490 there were 2,000 Flemings living in the Azores. Willem van der Haegen was the sea captain who brought settlers from Flanders to the Azores. Today many Azoreans trace their genealogy from present day Flanders, within Belgium the Flemings form a clearly distinguishable group, set apart by their language and customs. However, the perception of being a single polity varies greatly, depending on subject matter, locality. Generally, Flemings will seldom identify themselves as being Dutch and vice versa and this is partly caused by the popular stereotypes in the Netherlands as well as Flanders which are mostly based on the cultural extremes of both Northern and Southern culture. It is the majority language in Belgium, being spoken natively by three-fifths of the population and its various dialects contain a number of lexical and a few grammatical features which distinguish them from the standard language. As in the Netherlands, the pronunciation of Standard Dutch is affected by the dialect of the speaker. All Dutch dialects spoken in Belgium are spoken in adjacent areas of the Netherlands as well, at the same time East Flemish forms a continuum with both Brabantic and West Flemish. Standard Dutch is primarily based on the Hollandic dialect and to an extent on Brabantian
15.
Karel van Mander
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Karel van Mander or Carel van Mander I was a Flemish painter, poet, art historian and art theoretician, who established himself in the Dutch Republic in the latter part of his life. He is mainly remembered as a biographer of Early Netherlandish painters, as an artist and art theoretician he played a significant role in the spread and development of Northern Mannerism in the Dutch Republic. It is not certain who wrote this sketch and various candidates have been proposed. Most recently it has argued that it was written by his son Karel van Mander the Younger. His son would have relied on information that Karel van Mander had written himself as well as on his own recollections. The information in the sketch is not entirely reliable but is still regarded as the best source of information on van Manders life. Van Mander was born into a family in Meulebeke, in the County of Flanders. He studied under Lucas de Heere in Ghent, and in 1568-1569 under Pieter Vlerick in Kortrijk, the next five years he devoted to the writing of religious plays for which he also painted the scenery. Then followed three years in Rome and his biographical sketch refers to van Mander as the discoverer of caves in Rome. This may be a reference to the Catacombs of Rome although the meaning of the reference is unclear. In Rome he may also have come into contact with fellow Fleming Bartholomeus Spranger and his patrons in Rome included several cardinals. On his return journey he passed through Vienna, where, together with Spranger, van Mander settled in Meulebeke in 1578 where he was active as a painter and writer. He married an 18-year-old local girl, with whom he had a son, in 1580 he left for Kortrijk due to religious troubles caused by Catholic zealots in Meulebeke. Karel van Mander had at some point become a Mennonite and was therefore a target of these zealots. In Kortrijk he got a commission for an altar piece, in Kortrijk another son was born. He left Kortrijk for Bruges in 1582 because of an outbreak of the plague, in Bruges, he worked with the painter Paul Weyts. Here he worked for 20 years on a commission by the Haarlem city fathers to inventory their art collection, the city of Haarlem had confiscated all Catholic religious art after the satisfactie van Haarlem, which gave Catholics equal rights to Protestants, had been overturned in 1578. Van Mander used his work on the commission in his Schilder-boeck, while in Haarlem he continued to paint, concentrating his energy on his favourite genre, historical allegories
16.
Mannerism
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Mannerism is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, lasting until about 1580 in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century, stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial qualities. Mannerism favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting, Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication. The definition of Mannerism and the phases within it continue to be a subject of debate among art historians, for example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature and music of the 16th and 17th centuries. The term is used to refer to some late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530. Mannerism also has been applied by analogy to the Silver Age of Latin literature, the word mannerism derives from the Italian maniera, meaning style or manner. Like the English word style, maniera can either indicate a type of style or indicate an absolute that needs no qualification. Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he described the period in which he worked as la maniera moderna, james V. Mirollo describes how bella maniera poets attempted to surpass in virtuosity the sonnets of Petrarch. This notion of bella maniera suggests that artists thus inspired looked to copying and bettering their predecessors, in essence, bella maniera utilized the best from a number of source materials, synthesizing it into something new. As a stylistic label, Mannerism is not easily defined, “High Renaissance” connoted a period distinguished by harmony, grandeur and the revival of classical antiquity. The term Mannerist was redefined in 1967 by John Shearman following the exhibition of Mannerist paintings organised by Fritz Grossmann at Manchester City Art Gallery in 1965. The label “Mannerism” was used during the 16th century to comment on social behaviour, however, for later writers, such as the 17th-century Gian Pietro Bellori, la maniera was a derogatory term for the perceived decline of art after Raphael, especially in the 1530s and 1540s. From the late 19th century on, art historians have used the term to describe art that follows Renaissance classicism. By the end of the High Renaissance, young artists experienced a crisis, no more difficulties, technical or otherwise, remained to be solved. The young artists needed to find a new goal, and they sought new approaches, at this point Mannerism started to emerge. The new style developed between 1510 and 1520 either in Florence, or in Rome, or in both cities simultaneously and this period has been described as a natural extension of the art of Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Michelangelo from an early age had developed a style of his own, one of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his terribilità, a sense of awe-inspiring grandeur, and subsequent artists attempted to imitate it
17.
Haarlem Guild of St. Luke
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The Haarlem Guild of Saint Luke was first a Christian, and later a city Guild for a large number of trades falling under the patron saints Luke the Evangelist and Saint Eligius. During the lifetime of Geertgen tot Sint Jans, there was probably a painters guild in Haarlem, if one existed, it would probably have been associated with the Janskerk, where Geertgen was active as a respected painter. The earliest mention of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke and this is possibly also the year that the Guild switched its altar from the Janskerk to the Bavokerk. The guild was for painters and gold- and silversmiths, with St. Luke being the saint of the painters. The earliest charter for the no longer exists, but the earliest one still in the archives is from 1514. The Vrouwenbroerskerk was the church of the Carmelites, whose monastery is gone, of the original complex, only the entrance gate still stands on the Grote Houtstraat. These archives recorded that a kessophel was donated to this altar in 1575 by Elisabeth van Dorp, after Haarlem lost the Siege of Haarlem in 1573, it became a Catholic enclave that officially fell under the rule of Philip II of Spain. In 1576, a decision was made on September 28 to make a piece for St. Eligius. This referred to the painting by Martin van Heemskerck, which does not display St. Eligius, but shows St. Luke painting the Virgin. This painting was large, and though it shows a pottery baker as St. Luke and sculptures and woodcarvings abound in it. The signed paper attached at the bottom of the painting is recorded by Karel van Mander, heemskerk had painted this before he traveled to Italy, and when he came back he became charter master of the guild from 1550-1552. To protect the market, a new charter was issued in 1590, Luke had been donated for the altar by the painter Barthel Pons, who had gotten it from the cardinal Christoforo da Forli. This relic was accompanied by an indulgence of 100 days to whoever would say their Paternoster, apparently Pieter Fransz de Grebber gave this relic to the Franciscan monk Joannes Cloribus van Brugge in 1627 for safekeeping. In 1632 the St. Lucas guild masters were very upset about this and Salomon de Bray tried to get it back, in 1641 they tried once again to get the relic back, but it seems to have disappeared. Between 1605 and 1635 over 100,000 paintings were produced in Haarlem, the competition for commissions was very high, however, and the 1590 charter was apparently not considered protective enough. In 1631 a new charter was released again, and this charter is so detailed that it tells us more about the art of painting. It was prepared by Salomon de Bray, and he described a hierarchy of members that apparently met with a lot of opposition. His first petition to pass this charter was denied with the remark that it was too long, essentially the charter of 1590 held up until the guild was dissolved altogether in 1795 by Napoleonic decree
18.
Schilderboeck
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Het Schilder-Boeck or Schilderboek is a book written by the Flemish writer and painter Karel van Mander first published in 1604 in Haarlem in the Dutch Republic, where van Mander resided. The book is written in 17th century Dutch and its title is translated into English as The Book of Painters or The Book of Painting. Het Schilder-Boeck consists of six parts and is considered one of the sources on the history of art and art theory in the 15th and 16th century Low Countries. The book was well received and sold well. Karel van Mander died two years after its publication, a second posthumous edition, which included a brief, anonymous biography of van Mander was published in 1618. This second edition was translated by Hessel Miedema into English and published in 1994-1997 together with a facsimile of the original and 5 volumes of notes on the text, Het Schilder-Boeck is divided into six parts that have separate title pages and are indexed. This book formed a source for Giorgio Vasaris famous biographical accounts of painters in his book Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, often referred to as the Vite. That tradition took little account of the topology of the Low countries. Karel van Mander intended to correct this misconception by listing all the famous early Netherlandish painters and he encountered many difficulties in obtaining accurate information, due to the political and religious unrest at the time. The biographies in the Schilder-Boeck are similar in style and format to Vasaris Vite, the second edition includes a biography of van Mander himself that Miedema believes was written by his brother, who may have been with him on his deathbed. Other candidates have proposed as authors of the biography. Recently his son Karel van Mander the Younger was identified as a possible author and his son would have relied on biographical information that Karel van Mander had written himself as well as on his own recollections and notes. The information in the sketch is not entirely reliable but is still regarded as the best source of information on van Manders life. Van Mander was writing in a country where Calvinists where powerful, the market for religious subjects was quickly replaced in favor of genre scenes and historical allegories. It became fashionable to choose politically correct such as stories too old to be offensive to either Protestants or Catholics. The city of Haarlem needed to reinvent itself after losing its attraction as a site for St. Bavo. Its leaders commissioned paintings depicting the citys glorious past, such as in the story of the crusade against Damietta, artists and writers helped update the local source of inspiration for art. The book begins with a book on the foundation of the art of paintings and this introductory book has fourteen chapters on art theory listing such subjects as landscapes, animals, drapery, and arrangements of subjects
19.
Geertgen tot Sint Jans
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No contemporary documentation of his life has been traced, and the earliest published account of his life and work is from 1604, in Karel van Manders Schilder-boeck. According to van Mander, Geertgen was probably a pupil of Albert van Ouwater, both painters lived in the city of Haarlem, where Geertgen was attached to the house of the Knights of Saint John, perhaps as a lay brother, for whom he painted an altarpiece. In van Manders book he states that Geertgen took the name of St. John without joining the order, thus his last name tot Sint Jans was derived from the orders name and means unto Saint John. The assignment of Leiden as his birthplace is traceable to a 17th-century print by Jacob Matham, there is no known archival evidence for this claim by Matham. This print of The Lamentation of Christ from 1620, shows in the left corner Cum privil. M. – Gerardus Leydanus Pictor ad S. Ia Bapt, harlemi pinxit indicating he was a painter from Leiden at St John the Baptist in Haarlem. In the lower hand corner it says Theodorus Matham Sculpsit. Iac Matham excud. which means that son Theo made the sketch from the painting and it was printed in Haarlem in 1620, indicating that the painting was still there at that time. Both side panels are quite fragile and are located in museums today. Modern acceptance of Leiden as Geertgens birthplace is traceable to Johann Kesslers dissertation of 1930. He died, probably still in his twenties, around the year 1495, in Haarlem, modern scholars have attempted to calculate the artists death date with the information from The Painting-Book by Karel van Mander, published in 1604. Should he have gone to work for one or two years as a journeyman, then the age at which he began to live by his art correspondingly rises, accordingly, Geertgen worked a maximum of ten years independently. Though it seems a sleepy little community of Amsterdam today. It was the second largest city in historical Holland after Dordrecht and before Delft, Leiden, Amsterdam, Gouda, in 1429 the city gained the right to collect tolls, including ships passing the city on the Spaarne river. At the end of the Middle Ages Haarlem was a city with a large textile industry, shipyards. Around 1428 the city was put under siege by the army of Jacqueline, Haarlem had taken side with the Cods in the Hook and Cod wars, and thus against Jacoba of Bavaria. The entire Haarlemmerhout wood was burnt down by the enemy, in 1469 the commandry of St. John in Haarlem was promoted to a special status that fell directly under the grand Prior of Germany. Before that it was a commandry of the Balij of Utrecht
20.
Jan van Scorel
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Jan van Scorel was a Dutch painter, who played a leading role in introducing aspects of Italian Renaissance painting into Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting. Van Scorel was one of the painters of the Romanist style who had spent a number of years in Italy. His trip to Italy coincided with the reign of the only Dutch pope in history. The pope made him a painter and superintendent of his collection of antiquities. His stay in Italy lasted from 1518 to 1524 and he also visited Nuremberg, Venice and Jerusalem. Venetian art had an important impact on the development of his style and he differed from most Romanists in that he was a native of the northern Netherlands and not of Flanders and that he remained most of his life in the northern Netherlands. He settled permanently in Utrecht in 1530 and established a workshop on the Italian model. The workshop mainly produced altarpieces, many of which were destroyed in the Reformation iconoclasm in the years just after his death and this did not stop him from having a long-time relationship with a mistress who may have modelled for some of his female figures. Van Scorel was born in Schoorl, north of Alkmaar and close to Egmond Abbey, van Scorel is recorded in Haarlem in 1517 where he perhaps collaborated with his contemporary Maarten van Heemskerck, who like him, had been born close to Alkmaar. In 1524 Jan Gossaert is recorded at Duurstede Castle, near Utrecht, van Scorel began traveling through Europe in his early twenties after visiting Utrecht. In 1518-22 he is registered in Venice, and along the way, heading to Nuremberg, in the village of Obervellach in 1520, he completed his first representative work, the Sippenaltar in St. Martins church. Giorgione was an influence on van Scorel during his tenure in Venice. After leaving Venice, van Scorel was in Rome from 1522 to 1524 and his experiences in Jerusalem are depicted in many of his later works. Perhaps van Scorels example encouraged van Heemskerck to travel to Rome himself later, in 1521, van Scorel returned to Rome where he met the Dutch pope Pope Adrian VI, who he may have met earlier in Utrecht. The pope appointed him painter to the Vatican, the pope sat for a portrait by van Scorel. Van Scorel underwent the influence of Michelangelo and Raphael and succeeded Raphael as Keeper of the Belvedere, upon his return to the Netherlands in 1524, he settled in Utrecht where he began a successful career as a painter and a teacher. Van Scorel was an educated man and skilled as an engineer. He was also multi-lingual, no doubt as a result of his travels and he made the plans for building a polder in his native North Holland, called the Zijpe- en Hazepolder, that was later financed by his friend from Antwerp, the merchant Servaes de Haese
21.
Jan Mostaert
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According to Karel van Mander, Mostaert was born in Haarlem and had been a pupil of Jacob van Haarlem, the painter that painted the altarpiece of the Carriers guild there in the St. Bavochurch. He was handsome, eloquent and polite, and claimed to be descended from the Haarlem knights of the Crusade to Damietta and he worked eighteen years as portraitist for Margaret of Austria, governor of the Habsburg Netherlands. He died in Antwerp where he had awarded a pension for life. Mostaerts name first appeared in city records in 1498, the year he married and he is also mentioned in Haarlem archives from 1527 to 1554. In 1500 Mostaert was commissioned to paint the shutters for a housing the relics of Saint Bavo in the Groote Kerk. From this date he began to be listed in the records of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke and he became deacon of the painters guild in 1507, and again in 1543 and 1544. According to the Netherlands Institute for Art History he worked for the Regentess from 1503–1521, returned to Haarlem, Mostaerts teacher Jacob van Haarlem may have actually been the anonymous Master of the Brunswick Diptych. Karel van Mander described several works in detail, including his strange landscape of the West Indies, much of Mostaerts work was destroyed in the great fire of Haarlem in 1576, and some paintings once attributed to him are now attributed to Adriaen Isenbrant. His earliest works are influenced by Geertgen tot Sint Jans. Some believed that Mostaert was actually apprenticed to Geertgen but it is doubtful that the artist had any apprentices or workshop assistants during his career. From Geertgen, Mostaert adopted a style and thoughtful compositions for his works, as well as the stiff. Between 1510 and 1516 Mostaert developed a style where his doll-like figures inhabited bright, blue-skied landscapes. His refined brushwork is precise, with an almost religious attention to detail, also of note is the landscape, which demonstrates his leanings towards more romantic views with expansive hills. During the 1520s Mostaert was also influenced by Joachim Patinirs take on landscapes, Mostaerts St. Christopher, a painting with a landscape that features a river receding into an expansive and hilly background, was once even attributed to Patinir. Mostaerts portrait work of earlier period includes a piece entitled Portrait of Abel van den Coulster, in which an elegant. Mostaert was known for copying original portraits for some of his courtly commissions but, as is the case with the Portrait of Abel, he painted figures from life. He was known for presenting his portrait sitters in three-quarter-length and placing their hands on cushions, being an accomplished court painter allowed for Mostaert to make a living off his art and to gain a steady patronage. The last documented reference to him is in 1549 when he petitioned the Haarlem town council for permission to live in Hoorn so that he could complete an altarpiece there, in 1518, Margaret named Mostaert peintre dhonneur
22.
Janskerk, Haarlem
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The Janskerk or St. Johns Church is a former church in the Dutch city of Haarlem. Today it houses the North Holland Archives, gerard van Tetrode donated land in 1310 in the centre of Haarlem to build St. Johns monastery. Later the St. Barbara gasthuis was founded in 1435 by the Hugo van Assendelft, priest of the St. Johns monastery, the monasterys church and the old Gasthuis doorway are the only parts of the large complex that still exist today. It was a commandry of the Knights of Saint John and is the oldest church in Haarlem after the St. Bavochurch, the order of St. John was disbanded after the Protestant Reformation and the church reverted to the state in 1625. The Haarlem council sold most of the land, and much of the art during the following years. In 1936 it became the location of the Haarlem Archives, - Website of the North Holland Archives
23.
Cornelis Claesz van Wieringen
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Cornelis Claesz van Wieringen was a Dutch Golden Age painter. Van Wieringen was born and died in Haarlem and he was the son of a Haarlem captain, and drew, painted and etched with his friends Hendrick Goltzius and Cornelis van Haarlem. He also held important positions in the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke, the painters guild and he specialized in paintings depicting ships and sea battles, and received orders from the municipal councils of Haarlem and Amsterdam. This painting was such a success that it was reordered in tapestry form, the city of Haarlem archives still hold the original records of the 1629 order to Van Wieringen to make the tapestry, the largest made in the 17th century. This tapestry still hangs on the wall of the Haarlem City Hall council meeting room known as the vroedschapskamer and it is on public display once a year on Monument Day. Haarlem School of painting Deugd boven geweld, Een geschiedenis van Haarlem, 1245-1995
24.
Jacobus Zaffius
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Jacobus Zaffius, was a Catholic pastor in Haarlem. He was born in Amsterdam where he owned some property, from 1568 he was Prior of the Canons Regular monastery De Blinken in Heiloo. In May 1571 he became provost of the Grote Kerk, Haarlem and he witnessed the Satisfactie van Haarlem in 1577, as well as the Alteratie of Amsterdam on 26 May,1578. Three days after this, Calvinists plundered the Grote Kerk and two years later Zaffius went to jail for refusing to turn over Catholic property to the Haarlem city council. William the Silent granted him amnesty, and it was on occasion that he made his donation to the Frans Loenenhofje. In 1611 he had his painting made by Frans Hals as a memorial to this fact, according to Hofstede de Groot, who never saw it, the portrait was considered lost, as the original was only known from a print by Jan van de Velde. JACOBUS ZAFFIUS, Proctor for the Archbishop in Haarlem and he sits at a table, turned three-quarters right, and looks to the right past the spectator. His left hand rests on a skull, his right makes a gesture as if he were speaking and his right arm rests on the arm of the chair. He has a moustache and beard. He wears a cap and a fur cloak over dark clothes, at top to the right is a coat-of-arms, with a goat jumping to the right, and below it the inscription, AETA84, obiit 1618. See Moes, Iconographia Batava, No.9378, described from a print by J. van der Velde,1630, the original is lost. This portrait was discovered in 1919 and was purchased by Mr. in 1974 Seymour Slive included it as the earliest painting attributable to Hals and at that time it was considered the lost original, but a fragment cut down on all sides. Restoration activities have since proven that the panel was not cut down. Currently the painting is considered the original and the engraving extended on all sides
25.
Grote Kerk, Haarlem
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The Grote Kerk or St. -Bavokerk is a Protestant church and former Catholic cathedral located on the central market square in the Dutch city of Haarlem. Another Haarlem church called the Cathedral of Saint Bavo now serves as the cathedral for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Haarlem-Amsterdam. This church is an important landmark for the city of Haarlem and has dominated the city skyline for centuries and it is built in the Gothic style of architecture, and it became the main church of Haarlem after renovations in the 15th century made it significantly larger than the Janskerk. First mention of a church on this spot was made in 1307, the church was rebuilt and promoted to chapter church in 1479 and only became a cathedral in 1559. The main architects were Godevaert de Bosscher and Steven van Afflighem, the church was confiscated only 19 years later during the Haarlemse noon in 1578, when it was converted to Protestantism. Haarlem has had a Christian parish church since the 9th century and this first church was a daughter church of Velsen, which itself was founded in 695 by St. Willibrord. This early first church was a church on the same site of the current Sint-Bavokerk. Extensions and expansions over the centuries led to its consecration in 1559 when the first bishop Nicolaas van Nieuwland was appointed. Since the building of this new Cathedral of St. Bavo, there has been lots of confusion about the name of the Bavochurch, for this reason it is officially called Grote Kerk, which just means High Church. On May 22,1801 there was a fire caused by lightning which struck the tower, another disaster was prevented in 1839 by Martijn Hendrik Kretschman, the guard of the tower. He stopped Jan Drost who worked for the church, Drost had tried to set fire to the pipe organ and piano by throwing hot coals on top of it. Drost committed suicide and he was buried in the tower, in the church was a high sentry bos reserved for fire-watchers. If they saw a fire in the city then they would signal using red flags so that the guards in the guard house opposite could react. This sentry position was still in use in 1919, in the renovation of the 1930s an automatic sprinkler system was installed in the tower, that could extinguish a fire 70m high in the tower. This can be seen easily when comparing pictures made before and afterwards, around the church various low buildings have been built up against it, most notably the former fish market called De Vishal, which today is used for exhibiting modern art. On the south side a series of low buildings used as shops are built up against various church buildings such as the former librye or library, in 1630 the architect Salomon de Bray designed and built the consistory which still exists today. The interior of the church has changed little over the years, though the inner chapels suffered greatly during the Beeldenstorm. Fortunately, the interior has been painted many times by painters, most notably by Pieter Jansz Saenredam
26.
Harmen Hals
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Herman, or Harmen Hals, was a Dutch Golden Age painter. According to Houbraken he was the son of the painter Frans Hals and was like his brothers Jan and Frans II, good at music and he was a member of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke. According to the RKD he was the oldest son of Frans Hals, and spent most of his life in Haarlem, but is registered in Vianen from 1642–45, works previously attributed to Adriaen Brouwer, another pupil of his fathers, have since been attributed to him
27.
Seymour Slive
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Seymour Slive was an American art historian, who served as director of the Harvard Art Museums from 1975 to 1991. He is considered an eminent scholar of Dutch art and more specifically of Rembrandt, Frans Hals, a Chicago native and the son of Russian-Jewish immigrants Daniel Slive and Sonia Rapoport, Slive received his BA in 1943 and PhD in 1952, both from the University of Chicago. He served in the Naval Reserve during World War II, starting in his Junior year of college, while there, he published his first book, Rembrandt and His Critics, 1630–1730. In 1954, he joined Harvard University, where he became a full seven years later in 1961. He was appointed chair of the Department of Fine Arts in 1968 until 1971 and he lectured as Slade Professor at Oxford University during the 1972/1973 academic year. In 1973, Slive was appointed Gleason Professor of Fine Arts and he was the founded director under the museums creation and expansion of the Arthur M. Sackler Museum. He retired emeritus from Harvard in 1991 as the Elizabeth and John Moore Cabot Founding Director of the Harvard University Art Museums, in 2014, Slive was bestowed the honorary degree of Doctor of Arts from Harvard University for his contributions to the world of fine art. Jowell, Koos Levy-van Halm and Liesbeth Abraham, Bianca M. 320–21, Profile at Dictionary of Art Historians Profile at International Dictionary of Art Historians
28.
Arnold Houbraken
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Arnold Houbraken was a Dutch painter and writer from Dordrecht, now remembered mainly as a biographer of artists from the Dutch Golden Age. Houbraken was sent first to learn threadtwisting from Johannes de Haan, after two years he then studied art with Willem van Drielenburch, who he was with during the rampjaar, the year 1672. He then studied 9 months with Jacobus Leveck and finally, four years with Samuel van Hoogstraten, in 1685 he married Sara Sasbout, and around 1709 he moved from Dordrecht to Amsterdam. Arnold Houbraken painted mythological and religious paintings, portraits and landscapes and his first attempt at an instructive manual for artists was his Emblem book, Inhoud van t Sieraad der Afbeelding, which was meant as a guide of possible painting themes. His registered pupils were Matthijs Balen, Johan Graham, and his son Jacob and his son Jacobus Houbraken was an engraver of portraits and book illustrations, including books by his father. His daughter Antonina Houbraken also became an engraver for an Amsterdam publisher and his daughter Christina Houbraken was also an artist. Arnold Houbrakens books sold well during the entire 18th century. Jacob Campo Weyerman published his version in serial form that was published as a complete set in 1769. Houbrakens engravings of the artists are in cases the only surviving portraits of these people. The first to make a sequel to Houbrakens work was Johan van Gool in 1750-51. Houbraken was very careful to check and double check his sources, excepting those cases where the artist died quite young, or whose oeuvre was lost during various wars, very few artists were included in the Schouburg who do not hang in international museums today. The first modern art historian to publish an update of his work was Adriaan van der Willigen, since then he has remained a valuable resource for art historians. The Schouburgh is part of the Basic Library of the dbnl which contains the 1000 most important works in Dutch literature from the Middle Ages to today
29.
Spaarndam
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Spaarndam is a small village in the province of North Holland, the Netherlands, on the Spaarne and IJ rivers. The village is built around a dam in the river, which is also the line of the two municipalities. Spaarndam was created around a dam where the river Spaarne flows into the IJ and this dam was built here by count Floris V of Holland in 1285. The village collected toll at this dam, and people made their living from fishing, from 1812 to 1927, the western part of Spaarndam was an independent municipality. The village has some tourism, and many commute to Amsterdam. Spaarndam has always been connected to water. Now, besides the river and the fishing, it is now also famous because of a story within the 1865 American novel, Hans Brinker or the Silver Skates. The story within the book is about a Dutch boy, The Hero of Haarlem, the story became a popular legend in America, and in 1950 the local tourist bureau put a statue of this character in Spaarndam. Hans Brinker or the Silver Skates
30.
Rembrandt
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Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was a Dutch draughtsman, painter, and printmaker. A prolific and versatile master across three media, he is considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art. Having achieved youthful success as a painter, Rembrandts later years were marked by personal tragedy. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, Rembrandts portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form a unique and intimate biography, in which the artist surveyed himself without vanity and his reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime, and never questioned since. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic whilst he lived, but his prints were circulated throughout Europe, because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called one of the great prophets of civilization. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden, in the Dutch Republic and he was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. His family was quite well-to-do, his father was a miller, religion is a central theme in Rembrandts paintings and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Roman Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime. He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend, in 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit Dou in 1628. In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens, as a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, Saskia came from a good family, her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandts relatives. In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and he also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck. In 1635 Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat, in 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house in the upscale Breestraat, today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter, then a young upcoming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a cause for later financial difficulties. Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes, in 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month
31.
Meagre Company
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Hals was unhappy about commuting to Amsterdam to work on the painting and, unlike his previous group portraits, was unable to deliver it on time. The sitters contracted Pieter Codde to finish the work, the sergeants were shown, holding halberds to differentiate them from officers with spontoons. Since each sitter paid for his own portrait, it is presumed that Hals began with the most important sitters in order to sell canvas room to other paying officers. This was possibly to prove to the makers in Amsterdam that Hals was capable of painting a schutterstuk in the Amsterdam style. In Haarlem, the guards were traditionally portrayed in the kniestuk style of being cut off at the knee in three-quarter length portraits. The flag bearer is Nicolaes van Bambeeck, seated next to him are Captain Reael, with hat and commanders staff, and Lieutenant Cornelis Michielsz Blaeuw, balding and holding a spontoon. The further to the right, however, the less the two resemble each other. In 1636 Hals was called to Amsterdam to finish the painting and his offer was refused and Codde was hired to finish the piece. Because the men are thinner than the men portrayed in other, later, Amsterdam schutterstukken hanging near this painting, besides the ensign and the seated men, the names of the other officers are unknown today. The impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh was inspired by the painting, Codde,20 or so officers full length. In itself, that alone makes the trip to Amsterdam well worth while. There’s a figure in it, the figure of the standard-bearer in the left corner. Into that grey he now introduces blue and orange — and some white, the doublet has satin ribbons of a divine soft blue. Sash and flag orange — a white collar, orange, white, blue, as the national colours were then. The superb appearance of all those fellows, full length, but that orange, white, blue chap in the left corner — — …… I’ve seldom seen a more divinely beautiful figure — — it’s something marvellous. Delacroix would have adored it — just adored it to the utmost, the painting previously hung with others in the old Archers meeting hall called the Voetboogdoelen, located on the Singel. It was located there until the building was deconstructed to build the library of the University of Amsterdam and these paintings are both hung near Rembrandts The Night Watch, which was completed well over a decade after Hals commission, in 1642. Casual observers over the centuries have noticed how much fatter the officers became in that time, Van der Helst was probably a pupil of either Codde or Hals, as very little is documented about his training
32.
Pieter Codde
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Codde was a Dutch painter of genre works, guardroom scenes and portraits. Codde was a skilled painter. In 1623 he married the 18-year-old Marritje Arents, in the summer of 1625, on a party, organized by Van Someren on his estate, Codde got into a fight with his friend, the artist Cornelis Duyster. It ended with bloodshed as the two hit each other in the face with jars, by 1628 Codde was living in the Sint Antoniesbreestraat, then a fashionable street in Amsterdam with many painters. In 1636 the couple divorced after he was accused of raping the maid and his wife went to live with Pieter Potter, their neighbor and the father of the painter Paulus Potter. In 1657 he purchased a house on the Keizersgracht for 5,000 guilders, when Pieter Codde died his maid, Barendje Willems, inherited most of his property. His earliest known work is a piece from 1626, Portrait of a Young Man, most of his best-remembered works were executed in Amsterdam and are small-scale paintings. The other piece by Codde in the Uffizi is a genre work, Codde also painted historical religious works, such as his Adoration of the Shepherds, from 1645, in the Rijksmuseum of Amsterdam. Though it is whether he studied with Hals, his style is undoubtedly similar in some respects. While the choice of Codde to complete work by Hals was not an obvious selection at the time. It is thought that Hals completed only the half of the composition, with the third, fifth and seventh faces from the right. Coddes pupil was Willem Duyster, who was about the same age, adriaen Brouwer, Gerard Terborch, and Pieter Quast also belonged to this group of painters that developed the style of genre scene. Codde may have related to a poet with almost the same name. 1972, Willem Duyster and Pieter Codde, The Duystere Wereldt of Dutch Genre Painting, beguin, S.1952 Pieter Codde et Jacob Duck, Oud Holland 67, pp. 112–116. Benoit, F.1914 Un Petit Maitre Hollandais, Pieter Jacobsz, Codde, Revue de l’Art Ancien et Modern 35, pp. 15–32. Brandt, P. Jr.1947, Notities over het Leven en Werk van den Amsterdamschen Schilder Pieter Codde, Historia 12, dozy, C. M.1884, Pieter Codde, de Schilder and de Dichter, Oud Holland 2, pp. 34–67. Eeghen, I. H. van,1974, Pieter Codde en Frans Hals, Amstelodamum 61, moes, E. W.1912, Codde, Pieter, Allgemeines Lexikon der Bildenden Kunstler, vol. Thieme and F. Becker, Leipzig, p.156, rosen, J.2010, Soldiers at Leisure, The Guardroom Scene in Dutch Genre Painting of the Golden Age, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press
33.
Restoration (cultural heritage)
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Restoration is a process that attempts to return cultural heritage to some previous state that the restorer imagines was the original. This was commonly done in the past, restoration is controversial, since it often involves some irreversible change to the original material of the artwork with the goal of making it look good. The attitude that has developed in recent years with the development of conservation is to attempt to make all restoration reversible, Art conservation can involve the cleaning and stabilization of art work. Ideally, any process used is reversible, departures from that ideal not being undertaken lightly, michelangelos statue of David has undergone two cleanings to remove dirt that had accumulated on the statues surface. Art restoration is vital to the survival of classical paintings and is part of the application of chemistry. It often involves research to determine the colors and materials of a work. The use of paints to inpaint damages on fresco is an example of a technique utilized to achieve almost complete reversibility. This is the used in the 20 year restoration of Da Vincis The Last Supper in Milan. One of the most popular inpainting techniques used today is the Tinted Varnish Treatment and this process is done once the piece is fully cleaned and varnished. This last step in the process is to then go into spots where original paint may be missing, or where patched holes. The restorer then goes in with tinted varnish over the top of the non-tinted varnish and this gives the illusion that the spots have been re-painted, while in fact it is just a spot of tinted varnish. Most commonly stippling is used while using tinted varnish, in order for light to reflect similar to paint and this is done by using tiny dots in a row for variance. In 2014, Harvard Art Museums exhibited murals by Mark Rothko from 1961 and 1962 which had faded due to their display in a dining room. An important event in the history of art restoration is the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes. The patent was filed in 1937
34.
Mattress
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A mattress is a large pad for supporting the reclining body, used as a bed or as part of a bed. Mattresses may consist of a quilted or similarly fastened case, usually of heavy cloth, mattresses may also be filled with air or water. Mattresses are usually placed on top of a bed base which may be solid, as in the case of a bed, or elastic, e. g. with an upholstered wood. Popular in Europe, a divan incorporates both mattress and foundation in a single upholstered, footed unit, divans have at least one innerspring layer as well as cushioning materials. They may be supplied with a secondary mattress and/or a removable topper, mattresses may also be filled with air or water, or a variety of natural fibers, such as in futons. Kapok is a common material in Southeast Asia, and coir in South Asia. The word mattress derives from the Arabic matrah, which means something thrown down or place where something is thrown down and hence mat, cushion. During the Crusades Europeans adopted the Arabic method of sleeping on cushions on the floor, the oldest known mattress dates to around 77,000 years ago. Early mattresses contained a variety of materials including straw, feathers or horse hair. In the first half of the 20th century, a typical mattress sold in North America had an innerspring core, modern mattresses usually contain either an inner spring core or materials such as latex, viscoelastic or other flexible polyurethane foams. In 1899 James Marshall introduced the first individually wrapped pocketed spring coil now commonly known as Marshall coils. In Europe, polyurethane foam cores and latex cores have long been popular, a conventional mattress consists of two primary sections – a core or support layer and the upholstery or comfort layer – wrapped in a thick fabric called the ticking. Upholstery layers cover the mattress and provide cushioning and comfort, the upholstery layer consists of three parts, the insulator, the middle upholstery, and the quilt. Mattresses are typically made to conform to bed sizing standards that vary by market, innerspring mattresses commonly consist of just the spring core, and the top and bottom upholstery layers. The core of the mattress supports the sleeper’s body, modern spring mattress cores, often called innersprings, are made up of steel coil springs, or coils. The gauge of the coils is another factor which determines firmness, coils are measured in quarter increments. The lower the number, the thicker the spring, in general, higher-quality mattress coils have a 14-gauge diameter. Coils of 14 to 15. 5-gauge give more easily under pressure, while a 12. 5-gauge coil, connections between the coils help the mattress retain its shape
35.
Maarten van Heemskerck
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Maerten van Heemskerck or Marten Jacobsz Heemskerk van Veen was a Dutch portrait and religious painter, who spent most of his career in Haarlem. He was a pupil of Jan van Scorel, and adopted his teachers Italian-influenced style and he spent the years 1532–6 in Italy. He produced many designs for engravers, and is known for his depictions of the Wonders of the World. Heemskerck was born in the village of Heemskerk, North Holland and he was the son of a farmer called Jacob Willemsz. According to his biography by Karel van Mander, he began his training with the painter Cornelius Willemsz in Haarlem. Heemskerck then went to lodge at the home of the curate of the Sint-Bavokerk. They knew each other because Foppesz owned land in Heemskerk, the artist painted him in a now famous family portrait, considered the first of its kind in a long line of Dutch family paintings. His other works for Foppesz included two life size figures symbolising the Sun and the Moon on a bedstead, and a picture of Adam and his next home was in the house of a goldsmith, Justus Cornelisz, on the edge of Haarlem. Before setting off for Italy on a Grand Tour in 1532 and he travelled around the whole of northern and central Italy, stopping at Rome, where he had letters of introduction from van Scorel to the influential Dutch cardinal William of Enckenvoirt. Giorgio Vasari, who saw the battle-pieces which Heemskerk then produced, said they were well composed, while in Rome where he made numerous drawings of classical sculpture and architecture, many of which survive in two sketchbooks now in the Kupferstichkabinett Berlin. He was to use them as source material throughout the rest of his career, among these are the Capitoline Brutus, van Heemskerck being the first known artist to make a sketch of this now famous bust. On his return to the Netherlands in 1536, he settled back at Haarlem, where he became president of the Haarlem Guild of Saint Luke, married twice, the alteration in his style, brought about by his experience of Italy was not universally admired. According to van Mander, in the opinion of some of the best judges he had not improved it, except in one particular and he painted large altarpieces for his friend, the art maecenas and later martyr of the Protestant Reformation, Cornelis Muys. Muys had returned from a period in France to the Netherlands in 1538 and this lucrative and high-profile work in Delft earned Heemskerck a commission for an altarpiece in the Nieuwe Kerk for their Guild of St. Luke. In 1553 he became curate of the Sint-Bavokerk, where he served for 22 years, in 1572 he left Haarlem for Amsterdam, to avoid the siege of Haarlem which the Spaniards laid to the place. He was one of the first Netherlandish artists to make drawings specifically for reproduction by commercial printmakers and he employed a technique incorporating cross-hatching and stippling, intended to aid the engraver. Heemskerck produced designs for a set of engravings, showing eight and they were engraved by Philip Galle and published in 1572. Many works by van Heemskerck survive, an altar-piece executed for the St
36.
Eighty Years' War
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The Eighty Years War or Dutch War of Independence was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces against the political and religious hegemony of Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands. After the initial stages, Philip II deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces, under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent, the northern provinces continued their resistance. They eventually were able to oust the Habsburg armies, and in 1581 they established the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, after a 12-year truce, hostilities broke out again around 1619 which can be said to coincide with the Thirty Years War. An end was reached in 1648 with the Peace of Münster, in the decades preceding the war, the Dutch became increasingly discontented with Habsburg rule. A major cause of discontent was heavy taxation imposed on the population, while support. At that time, the Seventeen Provinces were known in the empire as De landen van herwaarts over, the presence of Spanish troops, under the command of the Duke of Alba, brought in to oversee order, further amplified this unrest. Spain also attempted a policy of religious uniformity for the Catholic Church within its domains. The Reformation meanwhile produced a number of Protestant denominations, which gained followers in the Seventeen Provinces and these included the Lutheran movement of Martin Luther, the Anabaptist movement of the Dutch reformer Menno Simons, and the Reformed teachings of John Calvin. This growth lead to the 1566 Beeldenstorm, the Iconoclastic Fury which saw many churches in northern Europe stripped of their Catholic statuary, in October 1555, Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire began the gradual abdication of his several crowns. The balance of power was heavily weighted toward the local and regional governments, Philip did not govern in person but appointed Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy as governor-general to lead the central government. When Philip left for Spain in 1559 political tension was increased by religious policies, not having the liberal-mindedness of his father Charles V, Philip was a fervent enemy of the Protestant movements of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and the Anabaptists. Towards the end of Charles reign enforcement had become lax. Philip, however, insisted on rigorous enforcement, which caused widespread unrest, the new hierarchy was to be headed by Granvelle as archbishop of the new archdiocese of Mechelen. The reform was unpopular with the old church hierarchy, as the new dioceses were to be financed by the transfer of a number of rich abbeys. Granvelle became the focus of the opposition against the new governmental structures, after the recall of Granvelle, Orange persuaded Margaret and the Council to ask for a moderation of the placards against heresy. Philip delayed his response, and in this interval the opposition to his religious policies gained more widespread support, Philip finally rejected the request for moderation in his Letters from the Segovia Woods of October 1565. This Compromise of Nobles was supported by about 400 nobles, both Catholic and Protestant, and was presented to Margaret on 5 April 1566, impressed by the massive support for the compromise, she suspended the placards, awaiting Philips final ruling. The first half of the Eighty Years War between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic was fought between 1566 and 1609, when the Twelve Years Truce was signed in 1609, ending this first phase of war, the northern Netherlands had achieved de facto independence
37.
Schutterij
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Schutterij refers to a voluntary city guard or citizen militia in the medieval and early modern Netherlands, intended to protect the town or city from attack and act in case of revolt or fire. Their training grounds were often on open spaces within the city, near the city walls, but and they are mostly grouped according to their district and to the weapon that they used, bow, crossbow or gun. Together, its members are called a Schuttersgilde, which could be translated as a shooters guild. It is now a title applied to ceremonial shooting clubs and to the countrys Olympic rifle team, the schutterij, civic guard, or town watch, was a defensive military support system for the local civic authority. Its officers were wealthy citizens of the town, appointed by the city magistrates and its captain was usually a wealthy inhabitant of the district, and the groups ensign was a wealthy young bachelor. Joining as an officer for a couple of years was often a stepping-stone to other important posts within the city council, the members were expected to buy their own equipment, this entailed the purchase of a weapon and uniform. Each night two men guarded their district in two shifts, from 10,00 p. m. until 2,00 a. m. at a set time each month, the schutters would parade under the command of an officer. The ideal was that, for every hundred inhabitants, three would belong to the schutterij, the Dutch Mennonites were excluded from a position in the schutterij in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries and paid a double tax in lieu of service. Roman Catholics were permitted in the lower regions, persons in the service of the city, and the citys Jews, did not need to serve. The beer and peat bearers had to serve as the towns firefighters instead, the schutters or cloveniers met at target practice grounds called Doelen. These fields were generally adjoining a building where they met indoors for gymnastic exercises. It was in great halls where the large group portraits hung for centuries. These locations were not the place the schutters met each other. These guilds also kept altars in churches, where they met for religious reasons. Most schutterij guilds had as patron saints Saint Sebastian, Saint Anthony, Saint George and these religious duties were a significant part of the guild membership since that is also where they paid their dues. After the Protestant Reformation, all the altars were disbanded in the Dutch Reformed churches in the Northern Netherlands, and membership dues were no longer paid in church, but at the city hall. After 1581, the schutterij were officially prohibited from influencing city politics, but since the ruling regenten were all members of these guilds, once a year they held a banquet, with beer and a roasted ox. Whenever a changeover of the leading officers occurred, a painter was invited to paint the members
38.
Guild
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A guild /ɡɪld/ is an association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a particular town. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of tradesmen and they were organized in a manner something between a professional association, trade union, a cartel, and a secret society. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting places, an important result of the guild framework was the emergence of universities at Bologna, Oxford and Paris, they originated as guilds of students as at Bologna, or of masters as at Paris. Usually the founders were free independent master craftsmen who hired apprentices, there were several types of guilds, including the two main categories of merchant guilds and craft guilds but also the frith guild and religious guild. In many cases became the governing body of a town. The Freedom of the City, effective from the Middle Ages until 1835, gave the right to trade, Trade guilds arose in the 14th century as craftsmen united to protect their common interest. The occasion for these oaths were drunken banquets held on December 26, gregory of Tours tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship, in France, guilds were called corps de métiers. According to Viktor Ivanovich Rutenburg, Within the guild itself there was little division of labour. Thus, according to Étienne Boileaus Book of Handicrafts, by the century there were no less than 100 guilds in Paris. In Catalan towns, specially at Barcelona, guilds or gremis were a basic agent in the society, a shoemakers guild is recorded in 1208. In England, specifically in the City of London Corporation, more than 110 guilds, referred to as companies, survive today. Other groups, such as the Worshipful Company of Tax Advisers, have been formed far more recently, membership in a livery company is expected for individuals participating in the governance of The City, as the Lord Mayor and the Remembrancer. The guild system reached a state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in German cities into the 19th century. In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, the latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the gremios of Spain, e. g. Valencia or Toledo. Not all city economies were controlled by guilds, some cities were free, in order to become a Master, a Journeyman would have to go on a three-year voyage called Journeyman years. The practice of the Journeyman years still exists in Germany and France, in Ghent, as in Florence, the woolen textile industry developed as a congeries of specialized guilds. The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money economy, before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as commodity money was the normal way of doing business
39.
Chamber of rhetoric
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Chambers of rhetoric were dramatic societies in the Low Countries. Their members were called Rederijkers, from the French word rhétoricien and these societies were closely connected with local civic leaders and their public plays were a form of early public relations for the city. Most Dutch cities sponsored a chamber of rhetoric, and many cities had more than one, the building that currently houses the Frans Hals Museum was built with the proceeds of a lottery in which chambers of rhetoric participated from all over the country. The Haarlem society Trou moet Blycken still has many of the blazoens that it kept as host of that lottery. At the start of the 16th century, Antwerp had three societies, the Violieren, the Olyftack, and the Goudbloem, while Brussels. An important chamber of rhetoric in the Netherlands was De Egelantier in Amsterdam, Coster, Bredero, Hooft, during the Protestant Reformation the society sided with the reformers against the city government and enjoyed its most blooming period despite receiving very little funding from official sources. Because many of the rederijkers were by definition amateurs, the quality of their work was often rather low. One work of historical importance that came from the Rederijkers is the play Elckerlijc. List of chambers of rhetoric Medieval Dutch literature Dutch literature Flemish literature Conformisten en rebellen, Literature of the Low Countries, A Short History of Dutch Literature in the Netherlands and Belgium. Van Bruaene, A. L. Repertorium van de Rederijkerskamers in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden Overview of the Chambers of Rhetoric in the Southern Netherlands
40.
Rijksmuseum
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The Rijksmuseum is a Dutch national museum dedicated to arts and history in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, and the Concertgebouw. The Rijksmuseum was founded in The Hague in 1800 and moved to Amsterdam in 1808, the current main building was designed by Pierre Cuypers and first opened its doors in 1885. On 13 April 2013, after a renovation which cost €375 million. In 2013 and 2014, it was the most visited museum in the Netherlands with record numbers of 2.2 million and 2.47 million visitors and it is also the largest art museum in the country. The museum also has a small Asian collection, which is on display in the Asian pavilion, in 1795, the Batavian Republic was proclaimed. The Minister of Finance Isaac Gogel argued that a museum, following the French example of The Louvre. On 19 November 1798, the government decided to found the museum, on 31 May 1800, the National Art Gallery, precursor of the Rijksmuseum, opened its doors in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The museum exhibited around 200 paintings and historic objects from the collections of the Dutch stadtholders, in 1805, the National Art Gallery moved within The Hague to the Buitenhof. In 1806, the Kingdom of Holland was established by Napoleon Bonaparte, on the orders of king Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, the museum moved to Amsterdam in 1808. The paintings owned by city, such as The Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the museum opened its doors in the Royal Palace in Amsterdam, in 1817, the museum moved to the Trippenhuis. The Trippenhuis turned out to be unsuitable as a museum, in 1820, the historical objects were moved to the Mauritshuis in The Hague, and in 1838 the 19th-century paintings were moved to Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. In 1863, there was a design contest for a new building for the Rijksmuseum, Pierre Cuypers also participated in the contest and his submission reached the second place. In 1876 a new contest was held and this time Pierre Cuypers won, the design was a combination of gothic and renaissance elements. The construction began on 1 October 1876, on both the inside and the outside, the building was richly decorated with references to Dutch art history. Another contest was held for these decorations, the winners were B. van Hove and J. F. Vermeylen for the sculptures, G. Sturm for the tile tableaus and painting and W. F. Dixon for the stained glass. The museum was opened at its new location on 13 July 1885, in 1890 a new building was added a short distance to the south-west of the Rijksmuseum
41.
Pieter van den Broecke
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Pieter van den Broecke was a Dutch cloth merchant in the service of the Dutch East India Company, and one of the first Dutchmen to taste coffee. He also went to Angola three times and he was one of the first Europeans to describe societies in West and Central Africa and in detail trade strategies along the African coast. His parents, Pieter van den Broecke Sr and Maiken de Morimont, the family lived in Hamburg for a while and left around 1597 for Amsterdam. At the time the VOC began to develop, the younger Pieter joined it as a tradesman, in 1611 he brought in a cargo of 65,000 pounds of ivory to Amsterdam from a captured Portuguese ship. In 1614 he visited Mocha and drank something hot and black, obtaining some of the closely guarded arabica coffee bushes in 1616 and taking them back to Amsterdam, where they began to thrive in the Amsterdam Botanical Garden. He was made the VOCs manager in Dutch Suratte and he described the Ethiopian slave Malik Ambar. From 1616 the establishment there blossomed, with new minor establishments being set up in the hinterland, though in 1617 the Duyfken, under his command, was wrecked on the Surat coast. He operated in Maritime Southeast Asia beside Jan Pieterszoon Coen and was present at the battle of Jakarta in 1619, Pieter van den Broecke took over from Coen as head of the Banda Islands. So many inhabitants were killed on Banda that the island had to be deliberately repopulated, on his retirement he was honoured with a gold chain, which he wears in the portrait by his friend Frans Hals. His son was a perkenier on the Banda Islands, descendants of the Van den Broecke family continue to live on Banda. Pieter van den Broecke, Willem Philippus Coolhaas, Pieter van den Broecke in Azië, Nijhoff, Pieter van den Broecke, Station Azoren, Boer, Bussum 1970 Pieter van den Broecke, J. D. La Fleur, Pieter van den Broeckes journal of voyages to Cape Verde, Guinea and Angola, Hakluyt Society, Pieter van den Broecke in Masulipatnam
42.
Isaac Massa
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Isaac Abrahamszoon Massa was a Dutch grain trader, traveller and diplomat, the envoy to Muscovy. He wrote memoirs related to the Time of Troubles and created some of the earliest maps of Eastern Europe, due to Massas experience in and knowledge of Muscovy, he was considered a Dutch Kremlinologist. The Isaac Massa Foundation was established in his honor in Groningen and it aims to stimulate scientific and cultural contacts between the Russian Federation and the Netherlands. Isaac Massa was born into a wealthy silk merchants family, his father Abraham Massa had relocated the family from Liège to Haarlem before Isaac was born and his ancestors could have been French Huguenots who fled their homeland in the beginning of the Reformation. The family surname was also known as Massart, Massaert, suggesting French origins, under religious persecution, they generally relocated to Protestant countries, such as England and those of northern Europe. In 1601 Massa left Haarlem for Moscow to assist the family trade, Isaac was witness to the second half of Boris Godunovs reign, during which a civil war broke out, now known as the Time of Troubles. He survived the capture of Moscow by False Dmitriy I and left Russia in 1609, Massa compiled an account of the 1601–1609 events, which he presented to Stadtholder Maurice. It was reproduced in print in the nineteenth century, in 1612–1613 Massa published two articles on Russian events and the geography of the Land of Samoyeds, accompanied by a map of Russia, which were published in an almanac edited by Hessel Gerritsz. His notes on his various travels have been published in conjunction with maps made by the explorer Henry Hudson and these articles were translated and reproduced anonymously in European languages, because the authors name was removed in early Dutch reissues. The most complete translations were published in Russian in 1937 and in English in 1982, Massas writing was based on an underlying religious concept of punishment for sins being indispensable. He believed that Godunov, False Dimitri, and the nation itself paid for their mortal sins, Russian sources consider him the least biased of contemporary Western witnesses, and very well informed. Retrieving original maps of the city could have been dangerous for Massa himself, Massas rendition of the Siberian coast represented an advance in geography, for decades it was the only map of this region. It was subsequently copied by Gerardus Mercator and Jodocus Hondius, Jan Janssonius, not only had the Dutch been keen to purchase grains but also Persian silks. These had, equally so, been exported via Archangelsk, at the time Russian people showed great interest in artillery compounds such as lead and gunpowder. Additionally, upon his return Massas ship encountered a storm near Lapland. In April 1622 he married Beatrix van der Laen, the daughter of a Remonstrant burgomaster, when Hals had a child baptized, Massa was a witness. In 1623/24 Massa was called upon by the Dutch Parliament to become an agent for Moscovia, however, his appointment proved to be a controversial one and drew serious opposition. He then made efforts to gain the interest of Gustaf II Adolf of Sweden to pursue trading grains with Russia
43.
Haarlem schutterij
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The Haarlem schutterij refers to a collective name for the voluntary civic guard of Haarlem, from medieval times up to the Batavian Revolution in 1794, when the guilds of Haarlem were disbanded. During the Hook and Cod wars in 1402, Haarlem formed a hand bow schutterij under the patronage of St. George of 120 citizen volunteers to support the court of Justice. The guild-like group had its own altar in the St. Bavochurch, the town suffered from uprisings in 1417 and 1422. After another uprising in 1425, a New schutterij was formed to educate young men in the use of the crossbow and they defended the city in 1426 against Jacoba of Beieren. The New crossbow schutterij had a new meeting hall built for them near the Spaarne river, around 1500 Haarlem had three schutterij groups, two under the patronage of St. George, and one under the patronage of St. Sebastian, all with their own altars in church. Though the St. Sebastian group was still active, by 1560 all were using muskets. They still kept up their activities in church, though the Protestant reformation began to cause various problems with their political support for the court of Justice. The most heroic deeds of the Haarlem schutterij occurred during the Spanish siege of Haarlem, after the changeover to the Dutch Republic in 1581, the Haarlem schutters, or shooters, were reorganized into two groups, one keeping the name St. The activities of groups around their church altars, including the yearly processions, were discontinued. Today many of the shooters have been immortalized in the portraits by Frans Hals. The split into two groups was more for convenience sake than for tradition, as the two groups were split geographically into a north of the Bavochurch and a group south of the Bavochurch. The term Cloveniers, or Cluveniers, just means musket bearers, the group name changed over time according to the fashions and locations of the guild. Until the siege of Haarlem they were under the patronage of the Saint Adrian, after the siege, since all Catholic saints were banned, and they had a new meeting hall built in 1612, they became known as the Nieuwe schuts, or New shoots. That meeting hall in the Gasthuisstraat is still called the Doelen building after them, today it is a study hall and part of the Haarlem Public Library. The paintings by Hals and others hung in the hall of the building in the Gasthuisstraat. Today all of the schutterstukken that once hung here have been transferred to the Frans Hals Museum. In 1577, the city refurbished the main buildings of the old St. Michiels cloister to house the schutterij called the Oude schuts. Though they officially no longer had a patron saint, they were referred to as the St. Jorisdoelen
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Dutch Golden Age
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The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first half is characterized by the Eighty Years War which ended in 1648, the Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century. The Netherlandss transition from a possession of the Holy Roman Empire in the 1590s to the foremost maritime, in 1568, the Seven Provinces that later signed the Union of Utrecht started a rebellion against Philip II of Spain that led to the Eighty Years War. Antwerp fell on August 17,1585 after a siege, the United Provinces fought on until the Twelve Years Truce, which did not end the hostilities. Under the terms of the surrender of Antwerp in 1585, the Protestant population were given four years to settle their affairs before leaving the city, similar arrangements were made in other places. Protestants were especially well-represented among the craftsmen and rich merchants of the port cities of Bruges, Ghent. More moved to the north between 1585 and 1630 than Catholics moved in the direction, although there were also many of these. Many of those moving north settled in Amsterdam, transforming what was a port into one of the most important ports. The Pilgrim Fathers also spent time there before their voyage to the New World, Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke contribute part of the Dutch ascendancy to its Calvinistic ethic, which promoted thrift and education. This contributed to the lowest interest rates and the highest literacy rates in Europe, several other factors also contributed to the flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences in the Netherlands during this time. A necessary condition was a supply of energy from windmills and from peat. The invention of the sawmill enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company was founded and it was the first-ever multinational corporation, financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange. This company received a Dutch monopoly on Asian trade and would keep this for two centuries and it became the worlds largest commercial enterprise of the 17th century. Spices were imported in bulk and brought huge profits, due to the efforts and risks involved and this is remembered to this day in the Dutch word peperduur, meaning something is very expensive, reflecting the prices of spices at the time. To finance the trade within the region, the Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1609. According to Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke, geography favored the Dutch Republic and they write, The foundations were laid by taking advantage of location, midway between the Bay of Biscay and the Baltic. The Dutch share of European shipping tonnage was enormous, well over half during most of the period of their ascendancy, from here the Dutch traded between China and Japan and paid tribute to the Shogun
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Hals' Singing Boy with Flute, Smarthistory[16]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hals, Frans". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
