1.
Austria-Hungary
–
The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
Austria-Hungary
–
Franz Joseph I. (1885)
Austria-Hungary
–
Civil Ensign
Austria-Hungary
–
Austrian Parliament Building
Austria-Hungary
–
Hungarian Parliament Building
2.
Czech Republic
–
The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres with mostly temperate continental climate and it is a unitary parliamentary republic, has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague, with over 1.2 million residents. The Czech Republic includes the territories of Bohemia, Moravia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire, after the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, reimposed Roman Catholicism, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, and was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections. Following the 1948 coup détat, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence, in 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed, on 6 March 1990, the Czech Socialistic Republic was renamed to the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, it is a member of the United Nations, the OECD, the OSCE, and it is a developed country with an advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development, the Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union, the traditional English name Bohemia derives from Latin Boiohaemum, which means home of the Boii. The current name comes from the endonym Čech, spelled Cžech until the reform in 1842. The name comes from the Slavic tribe and, according to legend, their leader Čech, the etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning member of the people, kinsman, thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk. The country has traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the southeast, and Czech Silesia in the northeast. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992, the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English, the name Czechia /ˈtʃɛkiə/ was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Czech Republic
–
Přemysl Ottokar II,
King of Bohemia (1253–1278) and
Duke of Austria (1251–1278)
Czech Republic
–
Flag
Czech Republic
–
The
Crown of Saint Wenceslas is the 4th oldest in Europe
Czech Republic
–
The
Defenestration of Prague sparked the
Thirty Years' War
3.
Puteaux
–
Puteaux is a commune in the western suburbs of Paris, France. It is located in the heart of the Hauts-de-Seine department 8.7 kilometres from the center of Paris, La Défense, Paris business district hosting the tallest buildings in the metropolitan area, spreads over the northern part of Puteaux and parts of the neighbouring communes Courbevoie and Nanterre. The inhabitants of Puteaux are called Putéoliens, the creation of the city dates from 1148, by Abbot Suger and gave him the name Putiauz. The foundation of Puteaux part of other towns in the region by Abbot Suger, as Carrières-sur-Seine, Vaucresson or Villeneuve-la-Garenne. This appeal was reinforced by certain privileges granted by the Abbot Suger, the name Putiauz comes from the old French Putel, which means a quagmire or swamp and was certainly making reference to the condition of the area before its reorganization. But another etymology exists, hence the name Puteaux would come from Latin puteoli, the name of Puteaux in turn appears to the sixteenth century or seventeenth century. Legend has it that Puteaux inspired the story of the gadfly from La Fontaine, located on the left bank of the river Seine, Puteaux borders Courbevoie to the north, Nanterre to the west and Suresnes to the south. In the east, Puteaux is connected to Paris by the bridge of Puteaux near Neuilly, the territory of the commune of Puteaux also includes the largest part of the Île de Puteaux, on the Seine. Within Puteaux several districts can be distinguished, the district Bas de Puteaux, located between the railway line and the Seine, is the oldest urbanized district. Notable in particular are the old church, the Théâtre des Hauts-de-Seine, the town hall, the town hall was built in 1934 and is a typical example of the architecture of this time. The boulevard Richard Wallace is the Champs-Élysées of Puteaux, the district La Défense is located in the north, separated by the circular boulevard. The district, developed since the end of the 1950s, is one of the business districts in Europe. It mainly consists of buildings, but some notable dwellings can be found within the district as well. Two thirds of the territory of La Défense is located within Puteaux, thus, the CNIT, the Arche de la Défense and the Quatre Temps shopping mall are in Puteaux. The district Île de Puteaux, on there are no dwellings besides some barges. A sporting complex, the Palais des sports, opened in July 2006, tour Pascal B in La Défense and in Puteaux has the head offices of the Bureau dEnquêtes sur les Événements de Mer and of the Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Sea. The tax revenue of La Défense makes Puteaux one of the richest communes of France, Puteaux receives forty million euros per year coming from the companies within the district alone. Puteaux does not have a debt and its reserves, placed in Treasury bills
Puteaux
–
The town hall (1931-1933) built by Jean Niermans
4.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
5.
Academy of Fine Arts in Prague
–
The Academy of Fine Arts, Prague was founded in 1799 and is the Czech Republics oldest art college. The school offers twelve Masters degree programs and one Doctoral program, starting in the early 18th century a series of organizations were formed in Prague with an interest in promoting art and education. Thanks in part to their efforts, the Academy of Fine Arts was founded by Imperial Decree on September 10,1799 and it began with instruction in drawing. The academy was expanded to include programs in architecture, painting, printmaking. In 1990 drastic reforms were undertaken by rector Milan Knížák to reorganize the concept, by 1991 new media related study programs including film and computer animation were added. Today it is an accredited university offering an education in modern. As an exclusively graduate school there are no student housing or on campus eating options offered, international programs are offered in Czech, with a limited number of classes offered in English. Current departments include, Painting Drawing and Printmaking Sculpture Intermedia Studies New Media Restoration of Artworks Architecture
Academy of Fine Arts in Prague
–
Academy of Fine Arts in Prague - headquarters
6.
Academy of Fine Arts Vienna
–
The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna is a public art school of higher education in Vienna, Austria. In 1701 he was ennobled by Emperor Joseph I as Freiherr of the Empire, with his death in 1714, the academy temporarily closed. On 20 January 1725, Emperor Charles VI appointed the Frenchman Jacob van Schuppen as Prefect and Director of the Academy, hofakademie der Maler, Bildhauer und Baukunst. Upon Charles death in 1740, the academy at first declined, however during the rule of his daughter Empress Maria Theresa, a new statute reformed the academy in 1751. The prestige of the academy grew during the deanships of Michelangelo Unterberger and Paul Troger, in 1772, there were further reforms to the organisational structure. Chancellor Wenzel Anton Kaunitz integrated all existing art schools into the k. k. vereinigten Akademie der bildenden Künste, the word vereinigten was later dropped. In 1822 the art cabinet grew significantly with the bequest of honorary member Anton Franz de Paula Graf Lamberg-Sprinzenstein and his collection still forms the backbone of the art on display. In 1872 Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria approved a statute making the academy the supreme government authority for the arts, a new building was constructed according to plans designed by the faculty Theophil Hansen in the course of the layout of the Ringstraße boulevard. On 3 April 1877, the building on Schillerplatz in the Innere Stadt district was inaugurated. In 1907 and 1908, young Adolf Hitler, who had come from Linz, was denied admission to the drawing class. He stayed in Vienna, subsisting on his allowance. Soon he had withdrawn into poverty and started selling amateur paintings, mostly watercolours, during the Austrian Anschluss to Nazi Germany from 1938–1945, the academy was forced to heavily reduce its number of Jewish staff. After World War II, the academy was reconstituted in 1955 and it has had university status since 1998, but retained its original name. It is currently the only Austrian university that doesnt have the university in its name. The Academy currently has about 900 students, almost a quarter of which are foreign students and its faculty includes stars such as Peter Sloterdijk. 110,000 volumes and its etching cabinet has about 150,000 drawings, the collection is one of the biggest in Austria, and is used for academic purposes, although portions are also open to the general public. Official website website of the Media Server Study in Austria, A Guide
Academy of Fine Arts Vienna
–
Main entrance on Schillerplatz
Academy of Fine Arts Vienna
–
Life drawing room at the Vienna academy,
Martin Ferdinand Quadal, 1787
Academy of Fine Arts Vienna
–
Anatomical room of the Akademie
7.
Painting
–
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
Painting
–
The
Mona Lisa, by
Leonardo da Vinci, is one of the most recognizable paintings in the world.
Painting
–
Chen Hongshou (1598–1652), Leaf album painting (
Ming Dynasty)
Painting
–
Circus Sideshow (
French: Parade de cirque),
Georges Seurat, 1887–88
Painting
–
Cave painting of aurochs, (
French: Bos primigenius primigenius),
Lascaux,
France,
prehistoric art
8.
Graphic artist
–
A graphic designer is a professional within the graphic design and graphic arts industry who assembles together images, typography, or motion graphics to create a piece of design. A graphic designer creates the graphics primarily for published, printed or electronic media, such as brochures and they are also sometimes responsible for typesetting, illustration, user interfaces, and web design. A core responsibility of the job is to present information in a way that is both accessible and memorable. A degree or certificate from a trade school is usually considered essential for a graphic design position. After a career history has been established, though, the designers experience. A portfolio, which is the method for demonstrating these qualifications, is usually required to be shown at job interviews. One can obtain an AAS, BA, BFA, BCA, degree programs available vary depending upon the institution, although typical U. S. graphic design jobs require at least some form of degree. Current graphic designer jobs demand proficiency in one or more graphic design software programs, a common software package used in the graphic design industry is Adobe Creative Cloud. This software package contains the three main programs used by designers, which are Photoshop, Illustrator and InDesign. Photoshop, InDesign, and Illustrator are the standard applications for many graphic design positions. Another example of a software package is CorelDraw Graphics Suite. Outside the graphic design industry, many people use Microsoft Word or Microsoft Publisher to create a layout or design, however, depending on the job at hand, most designers create the layout in either InDesign, CorelDRAW or QuarkXPress. Specifically, the designer will type or import the text in the program, also importing the graphics. There are a couple of reasons a designer builds a layout in this fashion, as a result, the file size can become very large, depending upon the photos and graphics used in it. By using a program and linking these graphics and images. When the designer is ready to go to press, s/he will either create a press-ready PDF, or use the Package function in InDesign, InDesign, CorelDRAW, or QuarkXPress make it possible to work with large multiple page layouts, such as catalogs and booklets. A web designer should understand how to work with XML, HTML, a print designer should understand the processes involved in printing to be able to produce press-ready artwork. Designers should be able to solve visual communication problems or challenges, in doing so, the designer must identify the communications issue, gather and analyze information related to the issue, and generate potential approaches aimed at solving the problem
Graphic artist
–
Graphic designers
Gabriel and Maxim Shamir
9.
Abstract art
–
Abstract art uses a visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective, the arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, Abstract art, non-figurative art, non-objective art, and nonrepresentational art are loosely related terms. They are similar, but perhaps not of identical meaning, Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be slight, partial, or complete, even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities, Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational art often contains partial abstraction, both geometric abstraction and lyrical abstraction are often totally abstract. It is at level of visual meaning that abstract art communicates. One can enjoy the beauty of Chinese calligraphy or Islamic calligraphy without being able to read it, in Chinese painting, abstraction can be traced to the Tang dynasty painter Wang Mo, who is credited to have invented the splashed-ink painting style. While none of his paintings remain, this style is seen in some Song Dynasty Paintings. A late Song painter named Yu Jian, adept to Tiantai buddhism and his paintings show heavily misty mountains in which the shapes of the objects are barely visible and extremely simplified. This type of painting was continued by Sesshu Toyo in his later years, another instance of abstraction in Chinese painting is seen in Zhu Deruns Cosmic Circle. The painting is a reflection of the Daoist metaphysics in which chaos, in Tokugawa Japan some zen monk-painters created Enso, a circle who represents the absolute enlightenment. Usually made in one spontaneous brush stroke, it became the paradigm of the minimalist aesthetic that guided part of the zen painting, three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. Artistic independence for artists was advanced during the 19th century, patronage from the church diminished and private patronage from the public became more capable of providing a livelihood for artists. Expressionist painters explored the use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations
Abstract art
–
Wassily Kandinsky,
Kandinsky's first abstract watercolor, 1910.
Abstract art
–
Robert Delaunay, 1912–13, Le Premier Disque, 134 cm (52.7 in.), Private collection.
Abstract art
–
James McNeill Whistler,
Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket (1874),
Detroit Institute of Arts. A near abstraction, in 1877 Whistler sued the art critic
John Ruskin for libel after the critic condemned this painting. Ruskin accused Whistler of "ask[ing] two hundred
guineas for throwing a pot of paint in the public's face."
Abstract art
–
Henri Matisse,
The Yellow Curtain, 1915. With his
Fauvist color and drawing Matisse comes very close to pure abstraction.
10.
Cubism
–
Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Other common threads between these movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization. Cubism began between 1907 and 1911, Pablo Picassos 1907 painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braques 1908 Houses at L’Estaque prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques, Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, english art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Douglas Coopers restrictive use of terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed, wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the Salle 41 artists, e. g. John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram, The diagram being a symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as not as imitations or recreations. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian, artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. Picassos paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as seen in Les Demoiselles dAvignon
Cubism
–
Pablo Picasso, 1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 x 73.6 cm,
Museum of Modern Art, New York
Cubism
–
Pablo Picasso,
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, considered to be a major step towards the founding of the Cubist movement
Cubism
–
Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm,
Tate Modern, London
Cubism
–
Paul Cézanne, Quarry Bibémus, 1898-1900,
Museum Folkwang,
Essen,
Germany
11.
Orphism (art)
–
The meaning of the term Orphism was elusive when it first appeared and remains to some extent vague. The Orphists were rooted in Cubism but moved toward a pure lyrical abstraction, more concerned with the expression and significance of sensation, this movement began with recognizable subjects but was rapidly absorbed by increasingly abstract structures. Orphism aimed to dispense with recognizable subject matter and to rely on form, the movement also aimed to express the ideals of Simultanism, the existence of an infinitude of interrelated states of being. The decomposition of spectral light expressed in Neo-Impressionist color theory of Paul Signac, Robert Delaunay, Albert Gleizes, and Gino Severini, all knew Henry personally. Henry would take the step in bringing emotional associational theory into the world of artistic sensation. The underlying theory behind Neo-Impressionsim would have an effect on the works produced in the coming years by the likes of Robert Delaunay. Indeed, the Neo-Impressionists had succeeded in establishing a scientific basis for their painting in the domain of color. The Cubists were to do so in both the domain of form and dynamics, and the Orphists would do so with color too, the Symbolists had used the word orphique in relation to the Greek myth of Orpheus, who they perceived as the ideal artist. Apollinaire had written a collection of quatrains in 1907 entitled Bestiaire ou cortège d’Orphée, within which Orpheus was symbolized as a poet, for both Apollinaire and the Symbolists who preceded him, Orpheus was associated with mysticism, something that would inspire artistic endeavors. The voice of light that Apollinaire mentioned in his poems was a metaphor for inner experiences, though not fully articulated in his poems, the voice of light is identified as a line that could be colored and become a painting. The Orphic metaphor thus represented the power to create new structures and color harmonies. The term Orphism was coined by poet and art critic Guillaume Apollinaire at the Salon de la Section dOr in 1912, during his lecture at the Section dOr exhibit Apollinaire presented three of Kupkas abstract works as perfect examples of pure painting, as anti-figurative as music. An Orphic painters works should convey an aesthetic pleasure, but at the same time a meaningful structure. According to Apollinaire Orphism represented a move towards a completely new art-form, kandinskys detailed theoretical essays described the correlations between color and sound. Fernand Léger and Marcel Duchamp, as they tended towards abstraction, were included as Orphists in the writings of Apollinaire. Apollinaire stayed with the Delaunays during the winter of 1912, becoming close friends, Apollinaire wrote several texts discussing their work to promote the concept of Orphism. In March 1913 Orphism was exhibited to the public at the Salon des Indépendants, and in Montjoie Apollinaire argued for the abolition of Cubism in favour of Orphism, ‘If Cubism is dead, long live Cubism. The kingdom of Orpheus is at hand and this exhibition marked a turning-point in Apollinaire’s relation with R. Delaunay, following some remarks in an argument with Umberto Boccioni about the ambiguity of the term ‘simultaneity’
Orphism (art)
–
Robert Delaunay, Simultaneous Windows on the City, 1912,
Kunsthalle Hamburg
Orphism (art)
–
František Kupka,
Katedrála (The Cathedral), 1912-13, oil on canvas, 180 x 150 cm,
Museum Kampa,
Prague,
Czech Republic
Orphism (art)
–
Robert Delaunay, Champs de Mars. La Tour rouge. 1911.
Art Institute of Chicago.
Orphism (art)
–
The last section of
La prose du Transsibérien et de la Petite Jehanne de France, 1913, a collaborative
artists' book by
Blaise Cendrars and
Sonia Delaunay-Terk.
12.
Realism (visual arts)
–
Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in part a matter of technique and training. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the depiction of lifeforms, perspective. Realist works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid, such as works of realism, regionalism. There have been various movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, the realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes. Realism in this sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism, realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan van Eyck, however such realism is often used to depict, for example, angels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever seen in real life. It is the choice and treatment of matter that defines Realism as a movement in painting. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions. However these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance, pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life
Realism (visual arts)
–
Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet, 1854. A Realist painting by
Gustave Courbet.
Realism (visual arts)
–
Realist or illusionistic detail of the
convex mirror in the
Arnolfini Portrait by
Jan van Eyck, 1434
Realism (visual arts)
–
Lord Leighton 's
Cimabue's Celebrated Madonna of 1853-55 is at the end of a long tradition of illusionism in painting, but is not Realist in the sense of Courbet's work of the same period.
Realism (visual arts)
–
Woodcutting, miniature from a set of
Labours of the Months by
Simon Bening, c. 1550
13.
Kingdom of Bohemia
–
The Kingdom of Bohemia, sometimes in English literature referred to as the Czech Kingdom, was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Central Europe, the predecessor of the modern Czech Republic. It was an Imperial State in the Holy Roman Empire, the kings of Bohemia, besides Bohemia ruled also the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, which at various times included Moravia, Silesia and parts of Saxony, Brandenburg and Bavaria. Numerous kings of Bohemia were also elected Holy Roman Emperors and the capital Prague was the seat in the late 14th century. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the became part of the Habsburg Austrian Empire. The Czech language was the language of the Diet and the nobility until 1627. German was then formally made equal with Czech and eventually prevailed as the language of the Diet until the Czech national revival in the 19th century. German was also used as the language of administration in many towns after Germans immigrated and populated some areas of the country in the 13th century. The royal court used the Czech, Latin, and German languages, depending on the ruler, following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I, both the Kingdom and Empire were dissolved. Bohemia became the part of the newly formed Czechoslovak Republic. In 1204 Ottokars royal status was accepted by Otto IV as well as by Pope Innocent III and it was officially recognized in 1212 by the Golden Bull of Sicily issued by Emperor Frederick II, elevating the Duchy of Bohemia to Kingdom status. Under these terms, the Czech king was to be exempt from all obligations to the Holy Roman Empire except for participation in the imperial councils. The imperial prerogative to ratify each Bohemian ruler and to appoint the bishop of Prague was revoked, the kings successor was his son Wenceslaus I, from his second marriage. Corresponding with the Pope, she established the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star in 1233, four other military orders were present in Bohemia, the Order of St. John of Jerusalem from c. 1160, the Order of Saint Lazarus from the late 12th century, 1200–1421, and the Knights Templar from 1232–1312. The 13th century was the most dynamic period of the Přemyslid reign over Bohemia, at the same time, the Mongol invasions absorbed the attention of Bohemias eastern neighbors, Hungary and Poland. Přemysl Ottokar II married a German princess, Margaret of Babenberg and he thereby acquired Upper Austria, Lower Austria, and part of Styria. He conquered the rest of Styria, most of Carinthia, and he was called the king of iron and gold. He campaigned as far as Prussia, where he defeated the natives and in 1256, founded a city he named Královec in Czech
Kingdom of Bohemia
–
Wenceslaus II as depicted in the
Codex Manesse
Kingdom of Bohemia
–
Flag
Kingdom of Bohemia
–
Prague Castle, the ancient seat of Bohemian dukes and kings, Roman kings and emperors, and after 1918 the office of the Czechoslovak and Czech presidents
Kingdom of Bohemia
–
Lands of the Bohemian Crown in 15th century
14.
Symbol
–
A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences, all communication is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to other ideas. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for STOP, on a map, a blue line might represent a river. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds, personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion, the variable x, in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space. In cartography, a collection of symbols forms a legend for a map The word derives from the Greek symbolon meaning token or watchword. It is an amalgam of syn- together + bole a throwing, a casting, the sense evolution in Greek is from throwing things together to contrasting to comparing to token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine. The meaning something which stands for something else was first recorded in 1590, later, expanding on what he means by this definition Campbell says, a symbol, like everything else, shows a double aspect. We must distinguish, therefore between the sense and the meaning of the symbol. The term meaning can only to the first two but these, today, are in the charge of science – which is the province as we have said, not of symbols. The ineffable, the unknowable, can be only sensed. Heinrich Zimmer gives an overview of the nature, and perennial relevance. Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. They are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own, in the book Signs and Symbols, it is stated that A symbol. Is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth, Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. This separates symbols from signs, as signs have only one meaning, human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture
Symbol
–
The square and compasses, symbol of the Freemasons
Symbol
–
A red
octagon symbolizes "stop" even without the word.
Symbol
–
Topics and terminology
15.
Allegorical
–
As a literary device, an allegory is a metaphor whose vehicle may be a character, place or event, representing real-world issues and occurrences. Many ancient religions are based on astrological allegories, that is, allegories of the movement of the sun, in classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the Cave in Platos Republic and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa. One of the examples of allegory, Platos Allegory of the Cave. In this allegory, Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained in an all of their lives. The people watch shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them and begin to ascribe forms to these shadows, using language to identify their world. He tries to tell the people in the cave of his discovery, also allegorical is Ezekiel 16 and 17, wherein the capture of that same vine by the mighty Eagle represents Israels exile to Rome. Allegory has an ability to freeze the temporality of a story, Mediaeval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as the facts of surface appearances, if, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ. This text also demonstrates the frequent use of allegory in religious texts during the Mediaeval Period, following the tradition, since meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories which the author may not have recognised. This is allegoresis, or the act of reading a story as an allegory. S, lewis and A Kingdom Far and Clear, The Complete Swan Lake Trilogy by Mark Helprin. The story of the apple falling onto Isaac Newtons head is another famous allegory and it simplified the idea of gravity by depicting a simple way it was supposedly discovered. It also made the scientific revelation well known by condensing the theory into a short tale. According to Henry Littlefields 1964 article, L. Yet, George MacDonald emphasised in 1893 that, A fairy tale is not an allegory, I much prefer history – true or feigned– with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse applicability with allegory, but the one resides in the freedom of the reader, and this further reinforces the idea of forced allegoresis, as allegory is often a matter of interpretation and only sometimes of original artistic intention. Like allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings – a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning, some unique specimens of allegory can be found in the following works, Edmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, The several knights in the poem actually stand for several virtues. Nathaniel Hawthorne – Young Goodman Brown, The Devils Staff symbolises defiance of God, the characters names, such as Goodman and Faith, ironically serve as paradox in the conclusion of the story. Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Scarlet Letter, The scarlet letter symbolises many things, the characters, while developed with interiority, are allegorical in that they represent ways of seeing the world. George Orwell – Animal Farm, The pigs stand for political figures of the Russian Revolution, lászló Krasznahorkai - The Melancholy of Resistance and the film Werckmeister Harmonies, It uses a circus to describe an occupying dysfunctional government
Allegorical
–
Allegory of Music by
Filippino Lippi (between 1475 and 1500): The "Allegory of Music" is a popular theme in painting. Lippi uses
symbols popular during the
High Renaissance, many of which refer to Greek mythology.
Allegorical
–
Salvator Rosa:
Allegory of Fortune, representing
Fortuna, the Goddess of luck, with the
horn of plenty
Allegorical
–
British School 17th century - Portrait of a Lady, Called Elizabeth, Lady Tanfield. Sometimes the meaning of an allegory can be lost, even if art historians suspect that the artwork is an allegory of some kind.
Allegorical
–
Allegory of
Arithmetic, by
Laurent de La Hyre, c. 1650
16.
Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach
–
Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach was a German painter and social reformer. Diefenbach was a pioneer of nudism and the peace movement and his country commune, Himmelhof, in Ober Sankt Veit near Vienna was one of the models for the reform settlement Monte Verità in Ascona. His ideas included life in harmony with nature and rejection of monogamy, turning away from any religion, when his commune went bankrupt, he moved to Capri and stayed there for the rest of his life. As a painter, Diefenbach was an independent representative of Symbolism, there has been a museum of his works in Certosa di San Giacomo on Capri since 1974. Selected words October 29,2009 to January 31,2010, Museum Villa Stuck in Munich Lebensreform Alisio, Giancarlo, entwürfe zur Neugestaltung von Leben und Kunst um 1900. Per aspera ad astra, Schattenfries und Dichtung Seines Lebens Traum & Bild Anmerkungen von Claudia Wagner, ISBN 978-3-937726-01-4 Eley, Geoff and Retallack, James, Wilhelminism and its Legacies. German Modernities, Imperialism, and the Meanings of Reform, 1890-1930, frecot, Janos, Geist, Johann Friedrich, Kerbs, Diethart, Fidus, 1868-1948. München, Rogner und Bernhard bei Zweitausendeins, Affoltern, Buch 2000, ISBN 3-8077-0359-4 Grisko, Michael, Freikörperkultur und Lebenswelt. Studien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte der Freikörperkultur, ISBN 3-933146-06-2 Hammer, Claudia, Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach, 1851-1913. Ausstellungskatalog der Galerie Konrad Bayer, München 2003, ein Künstler und Kulturrebell im Karwendel 1895/1896. ISBN 3-937726-00-4 Richter, Peter, Der Jesus von München, Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung vom 29, november 2009, S.23 Schiano, Manuela, Alla ricerca della Sonnenland, la missione di Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach, «Heliopolis»,1, settembre- dicembre 2002, pp. 89–103. Schiano, Manuela, Conoscere K. W. Diefenbach, «Conoscere Capri»,7,2008, un artista senza patria, Tesi di laurea in storia moderna, Università degli studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli 2001. Schiano, Manuela, Una stanza chiamata museo, «Nuova Museologia»,7, dicembre 2002, spaun, Paul von, Zum Fall Diefenbach. Wagner, Claudia, Der Künstler Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach - Meister und Mission, mit einem Werkkatalog aller bekannten Ölgemälde. Dissertation am Fachbereich Kunstgeschichte der Freien Universität Berlin,2005, Wagner, Claudia, Herrmann Müller, Noemi Smolik, and Marina Schuster, Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach, Lieber sterben, als meine Ideale verleugnen. Edition Minerva, München,239 pp. ISBN 978-3938832769 Media related to Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach at Wikimedia Commons Works by or about Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach at Internet Archive
Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach
–
Du sollst nicht töten (Thou shalt not kill), 1903
Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach
–
Il Tramonto (Sunset)
Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach
–
Frage an die Sterne (Asking the Stars), 1898
Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach
–
Sterbender Hirsch (Dying Deer), before 1913
17.
Theosophy
–
Theosophy is considered part of Western esotericism, which believes that hidden knowledge or wisdom from the ancient past offers a path to enlightenment and salvation. Theosophy comes from the Greek theosophia, which combines theos, God and sophia, wisdom, Blavatskys major work, The Secret Doctrine, was one of the foundational works of modern theosophy. As of 2015, organizations descended from, or related to, Modern Theosophy has also given rise to, or influenced, the development of other mystical, philosophical, and religious movements. The term theosophia appeared in the works of early Church Fathers, as a synonym for theology, the derived term theosophy was originally also a synonym for theology, however, it acquired various other meanings throughout its history. Therefore, the terms were the opposite of the present-day meaning, in Jewish mysticism, the theosophical doctrinal system of Kabbalah emerged in late 12th-century southern France, spreading to 13th-century Spain. Kabbalah became the basis of later Jewish mystical development, the theosophical Kabbalah in Judaism was recast into its second version, Lurianic Kabbalah, in 16th-century Ottoman Palestine. Gershom Scholem, the founder of Jewish mysticism academia, saw Medieval and Lurianic Kabbalah as the incorporation into Judaism of Gnostic motifs, at the centre of Kabbalah are the 10 Sephirot powers in the divine realm, their unification being the task of man. In Lurianism, man redeems the sparks of holiness in materiality, by the 16th century the word theosophy was being used in at least one of its current meanings. Christian theosophy arose in Germany in the 16th century, inspired to a considerable extent by the works of Paracelsus, theosophy flourished in the works of Aegidius Gutmann, Valentin Weigel, Heinrich Khunrath, Johann Arndt, and Kaspar Schwenckfeld. The term had not yet reached a settled meaning, however, the work of the 17th-century German Christian mystic Jakob Boehme strongly contributed to spread the use of the word theosophy, even though Boehme rarely used the word in his writings. It is on account of the title of some of his works, moreover, Boehme gave the word theosophy a limited meaning, making it clear that he was not conflating nature with God. There were relatively few theosophers in the 17th century, but many of them were prolific, outside of Germany, there were also theosophers from Holland, England, and France. This group is represented by Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Fludd, John Pordage, Jane Leade, Henry More, Pierre Poiret, in the 18th century, the word theosophy came into more widespread use among some philosophers. Theosophers themselves used the word theosophy sparingly, at least up until the middle of the nineteenth century, Johann Jakob Brucker included a long chapter on theosophy in his monumental work Historia critica philosophia. He included theosophers alongside other currents in esotericism in what was then a reference in the history of philosophy. German philosophers produced major works of Christian theosophy during this period, Theophilosophia theoritica et practica. by Samuel Richter, other notable theosophers of the period include Johann George Gichtel, Gottfried Arnold, Friedrich Christoph Oetinger, William Law, and Dionysius Andreas Freher. The term theosophy is more reserved for the reverse process of contemplating the divine in order to discover the content of the concrete universe. In England, Robert Hindmarsh, a printer with a Methodist background, formed a Theosophical Society in 1783 and this society was renamed in 1785 as The British Society for the Propagation of the Doctrines of the New Church, consisting of Swedenborgian based beliefs
Theosophy
–
The book
The Voice of the Silence presented by Blavatsky to Leo Tolstoy
18.
Eastern philosophy
–
This is because in Asia there is no single unified philosophical tradition with a single root. Some Western thinkers claim that philosophy as such is only characteristic of Western cultures, martin Heidegger is even reported to have said that only Greek and German languages are suitable for philosophizing. It is still commonplace in Western universities to teach only Western philosophy and to ignore Asian philosophy altogether, Hinduism is the dominant religion, or way of life, in South Asia. It includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism among numerous other traditions, and a spectrum of laws and prescriptions of daily morality based on karma, dharma. Hinduism is a categorisation of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, Hinduism, with about one billion followers is the worlds third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some refer to it as Sanātana Dharma. Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and it prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, compassion, among others. Nevertheless, the schools are in many ways related. The āstika schools are, Samkhya, an atheistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness, Yoga, a school emphasising meditation, contemplation and liberation. Nyaya or logic, explores sources of knowledge, vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism Mīmāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy Vedānta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the Jnan Kanda. Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period, in Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period golden age of Hinduism. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya Neo-Nyaya, while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga, Jain philosophy deals extensively with the problems of metaphysics, reality, cosmology, ontology, epistemology and divinity. Jainism is essentially a religion of ancient India. It continues the ancient Śramaṇa tradition, which co-existed with the Vedic tradition since ancient times, Jain philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of bondage and the means to achieve liberation. It has often described as an ascetic movement for its strong emphasis on self-control, austerities. Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for decisions. Throughout its history, the Jain philosophy remained unified and single, although as a religion, Jainism was divided into various sects, the contribution of Jain philosophy in developing the Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Moksa, Samsara, Buddhism is a system of religious beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama
Eastern philosophy
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
19.
Blaise Cendrars
–
Frédéric-Louis Sauser, better known as Blaise Cendrars, was a Swiss-born novelist and poet who became a naturalized French citizen in 1916. He was a writer of considerable influence in the European modernist movement and he was born in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Neuchâtel, Switzerland, rue de la Paix 27, to a bourgeois francophone family. They sent young Frédéric to a German boarding school, but he ran away, at the Realschule in Basel in 1902 he met his lifelong friend the sculptor August Suter. Next they enrolled him in a school in Neuchâtel, but he had little enthusiasm for his studies, finally, in 1904, he left school due to poor performance and began an apprenticeship with a Swiss watchmaker in Russia. While living in St. Petersburg, he began to write, there he wrote the poem, La Légende de Novgorode, which R. R. translated into Russian. Supposedly fourteen copies were made, but Cendrars claimed to have no copies of it, in 1907, Sauser returned to Switzerland, where he studied medicine at the University of Berne. During this period, he wrote his first verified poems, Séquences, influenced by Remy de Gourmonts Le Latin mystique. In many ways, he was an heir of Rimbaud, a visionary rather than what the French call un homme de lettres. Spontaneity, boundless curiosity, a craving for travel, and immersion in actualities were his hallmarks both in life and art, after a short stay in Paris, he traveled to New York, arriving on 11 December 1911. Between 6–8 April 1912, he wrote his poem, Les Pâques à New York. He signed it for the first time with the name Blaise Cendrars, in the summer of 1912, Cendrars returned to Paris, convinced that poetry was his vocation. With Emil Szittya, an anarchist writer, he started the journal Les hommes nouveaux, also the name of the press where he published Les Pâques à New York and Séquences. He became acquainted with the array of artists and writers in Paris, such as Chagall, Léger, Survage, Suter, Modigliani, Csaky, Archipenko, Jean Hugo. Most notably, he encountered Guillaume Apollinaire, the two poets influenced each others work. Cendrars poem Les Pâques à New York influenced Apollinaires poem Zone, Cendrars style was based on photographic impressions, cinematic effects of montage and rapid changes of imagery, and scenes of great emotional force, often with the power of a hallucination. Cendrars called the work first simultaneous poem, soon after, it was exhibited as a work of art in its own right and continues to be shown at exhibitions to this day. This intertwining of poetry and painting was related to Robert Delaunays, at the same time Gertrude Stein was beginning to write prose in the manner of Pablo Picassos paintings. Cendrars liked to claim that his poems first printing of one hundred fifty copies would, some were tributes to his fellow artists
Blaise Cendrars
–
Cendrars posing in the uniform of the
Légion étrangère in 1916, a few months after the amputation of his right arm.
Blaise Cendrars
–
Portrait bust of Blaise Cendrars by
August Suter (Paris 1911)
Blaise Cendrars
–
Blaise Cendrars, circa 1907.
20.
Illustrator
–
An illustrator is an artist who specializes in enhancing writing or elucidating concepts by providing a visual representation that corresponds to the content of the associated text or idea. The illustration may be intended to clarify complicated concepts or objects that are difficult to describe textually, illustration is the art of making images that work with something and add to it without needing direct attention and without distracting from the thing they illustrate. The other thing is the focus of the attention, and the role is to add personality. A cartoon illustration can add humor to stories or essays, use reference images to create scenes and characters. This can be as simple as looking at an image to inspire artwork, or creating character sketches. Some traditional illustration techniques include watercolor, pen and ink, airbrush art, oil painting, pastels, wood engraving, and linoleum cuts. Traditional illustration seems to have come full circle, from falling out of favor to photography in the early 1990s to being superseded by CGI, universities and art schools offer specific courses in illustration so this has become a new avenue into the profession. Many illustrators are freelance, commissioned by publishers or advertising agencies, most scientific illustrations and technical illustrations are also known as information graphics. Among the information graphics specialists are medical illustrators who illustrate human anatomy, often requiring years of artistic. A particularly popular medium with illustrators of the 1950s and 1960s was casein, the immediacy and durability of these media suited illustrations demands well. The artwork in both types of paint withstood the rigors of travel to clients and printers without damage, digital illustration is the technique of using a computer to produce original artwork. Digital illustrators use a combination of software and image editing software to create computer art. Digital illustration is not merely the manipulation of images with software, computer illustration or digital illustration is the use of digital tools to produce images under the direct manipulation of the artist, usually through a pointing device such as a tablet or a mouse. Computers dramatically changed the industry and today many cartoonists and illustrators create digital illustrations using computers, graphics tablets, software such as Adobe Illustrator or Adobe Photoshop are now widely used by those professionals
Illustrator
–
Jessie Willcox Smith 's 1923 illustration of the characters in
Alice in Wonderland.
Illustrator
–
A watercolor, by
John Simmons, depicting Hermia and Lysander, from A Midsummer Night's Dream (1870).
21.
Futurist Manifesto
–
The Manifesto of Futurism, Italian, Manifesto del Futurismo, is a manifesto written by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and published in 1909. Marinetti wrote the manifesto in the autumn of 1908 and it first appeared as a preface to a volume of his poems, published in Milan in January 1909. It was published in the Italian newspaper Gazzetta dellEmilia in Bologna on 5 February 1909, Man is reacting against the potentially overwhelming strength of progress, and shouts out his centrality. Man will use speed, not the opposite, poetry will help Man to consent his soul be part of all that, indicating a new concept of beauty that will refer to the human instinct of aggression. In article 9, war is defined as a necessity for the health of human spirit and their explicit glorification of war and its hygienic properties influenced the ideology of fascism. The Futurist Party, for example, became part of the Combatto Fascisti before the latters assuming power, F. T. Marinetti was very active in Fascist politics until he withdrew in protest of the Roman Grandeur which had come to dominate Fascist aesthetics. Article 10 states, We want to demolish museums and libraries, fight morality, feminism and all opportunist and this manifesto was published well before the occurrence of any of the 20th-century events which are commonly suggested as a potential meaning of this text. Many of them could not even be imagined yet, for example, the Russian Revolutions of 1917 were the first of the sort described by article 11, yet the first of those occurred eight years after the Manifestos publication. The effect of the manifesto is even evident in the Italian version. Not one of the words used is casual, if not the form, at least the roots of these words recall those more frequently used during the Middle Ages. The founding manifesto did not contain an artistic programme, which the Futurists attempted to create in their subsequent Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting. This committed them to a universal dynamism, which was to be represented in painting. The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, du Cubisme, the Cubist manifesto Art manifesto Fascist manifesto Futurist Painting, Technical Manifesto The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism The Futurist Manifesto - F. T. Marinetti
Futurist Manifesto
–
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, author of the Futurist Manifesto.
22.
Le Figaro
–
Le Figaro is a French daily morning newspaper founded in 1826 and published in Paris. The oldest national daily in France, Le Figaro is one of the two French newspapers of record, along with Le Monde, and is one of the most widely respected newspapers in the world. In 2012, the paper had a circulation of 330,952 copies per issue. The paper is published in the format, switching from a broadsheet in 2009. The newspaper is owned by Le Figaro Group, whose publications include TV Magazine and Evene, the companys chairman is Serge Dassault, whose Dassault Group has controlled the paper since 2004. Le Figaro was founded as a weekly in 1826, taking its name and motto from Le Mariage de Figaro. Its motto, from Figaros monologue in the final act, is Sans la liberté de blâmer. In 1833, editor Nestor Roqueplan fought a duel with a Colonel Gallois, who was offended by an article in Le Figaro, albert Wolff, Émile Zola, Alphonse Karr and Jules Claretie were among the papers early contributors. It was published irregularly until 1854, when it was taken over by Hippolyte de Villemessant. In 1866 Le Figaro became a daily newspaper and its first daily edition, that of 16 November 1866, sold 56,000 copies, having highest circulation of any newspaper in France. In 1922, Le Figaro was purchased by perfume millionaire François Coty, abel Faivre did cartoons for the paper. By the start of World War II, Le Figaro had become Frances leading newspaper, after the war it became the voice of the upper middle class, and continues to maintain a conservative position. In 1975, Le Figaro was bought by Robert Hersants Socpresse, in 1999, the Carlyle Group obtained a 40% stake in the paper, which it later sold in March 2002. Dassault owns 80% of the paper, in 2006, Le Figaro was banned in Egypt and Tunisia for publishing articles allegedly insulting Islam. Le Figaro switched to Berliner format in 2009, the paper has published The New York Times International Weekly on Friday since 2009, an 8-page supplement featuring a selection of articles from The New York Times translated into French. In 2010, Lefigaro. fr created a section called Le Figaro in English, Le Figaro has traditionally held a conservative editorial stance, becoming the voice of the French upper and middle classes. His son Olivier Dassault is a member of the French National Assembly, Dassault has remarked in an interview in 2004 on the public radio station France Inter that newspapers must promulgate healthy ideas and that left-wing ideas are not healthy ideas. They requested more pluralism and honesty and accused the paper of one-sided political reporting, mougeotte had previously said that Le Figaro would do nothing to embarrass the government and the right
Le Figaro
–
Front page of Le Figaro, August 4, 1914
Le Figaro
–
First issue, 15 January 1826
Le Figaro
–
Figaro Illustré 01-08-1906
Le Figaro
–
Logo during the 1820s
23.
Puteaux Group
–
The Section dOr, also known as Groupe de Puteaux, was a collective of painters, sculptors, poets and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism. Based in the Parisian suburbs, the group held meetings at the home of the Duchamp brothers in Puteaux. Active from 1911 to around 1914, members of the came to prominence in the wake of their controversial showing at the Salon des Indépendants in the spring of 1911. The Salon de la Section dOr, held October 1912—the largest and most important public showing of Cubist works prior to World War I—exposed Cubism to an audience still. After the war, with support given by the dealer Léonce Rosenberg, the Puteaux Group organized their first exhibition under the name Salon de la Section dOr at the Galerie La Boétie in Paris, October 1912. Following the 1911 Salon exhibitions the group formed by Le Fauconnier, Metzinger, Gleizes, Léger, francis Picabia was introduced to the circle, perhaps by Guillaume Apollinaire with whom he had recently become friendly. Most importantly was the contact established with Metzinger and the Duchamp brothers, the opening address was given by Apollinaire. The 1912 Salon de la Section dOr was arguably the most important pre-World War I Cubist exhibition, in the previous year the Cubists and a large number of their associates had exhibited at the Galerie de lArt Contemporain under the auspices of the Société Normande de Peinture Moderne. This exhibition had received attention in the press, though due to the diversity of the works presented it had been referred to as an exposition des fauves et cubistes. The Salon de la Section dOr, however, was accepted as being entirely Cubist in nature. Over 200 works were displayed, and the fact many of the artists showed artworks representative of their development from 1909 to 1912 gave the exhibition the allure of a Cubist retrospective. The inauguration was held from nine until midnight, for which the precedent was the opening of the 1903 Salon dAutomne. Invitations were widely diffused prior to the show, and many of the guests had to be turned away on opening night. Undoubtedly, due to the success of the exhibition, Cubism became recognized as a tendency, genre or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal. The idea of the Section dOr originated in the course of conversations between Gleizes, Metzinger and Jacques Villon, the groups title was suggested by Villon, after reading a 1910 translation of Leonardo da Vincis Trattato della Pittura by Joséphin Péladan. Peladan attached great significance to the golden section, and other similar geometric configurations. For Villon, this symbolized his belief in order and the significance of mathematical proportions, because it reflected patterns, jean Metzinger and the Duchamp brothers were passionately interested in mathematics. The name La Section dOr represented simultaneously a continuity with past traditions and current trends in related fields, the Section dOr group founded by some of the most prominent Cubists was in effect an homage to Georges Seurat
Puteaux Group
–
La Section d'Or, Numéro spécial, 9 Octobre 1912
Puteaux Group
–
Jean Metzinger, 1911-1912,
La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a horse), oil on canvas, 162 x 130 cm, Statens Museum for Kunst, National Gallery of Denmark. Published in Apollinaire's 1913 Les Peintres Cubistes, Exhibited at the 1912 Salon des Indépendants. Provenance: Jacques Nayral,
Niels Bohr
Puteaux Group
–
Albert Gleizes, 1911,
La Chasse (the Hunt), oil on canvas, 123.2 x 99 cm. Published in L'Intransigeant, 10 October 1911, "Les Peintre Cubistes" 1913, by G. Apollinaire, and ' Au Salon d'Automne', Revue d'Europe et d'Amerique, Paris, October 1911. Exhibited at the 1911 Salon d'Automne, Valet de Carreau (Jack of Diamonds), Moscow, 1912, and Galerie de la Boétie, Salon de la Section d'Or, Paris, 1912
Puteaux Group
–
Marcel Duchamp, 1912,
Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, oil on canvas, 147 x 89.2 cm (57.9 in × 35.1 in),
Philadelphia Museum of Art. Exhibited at the Salon de la Section d'Or, 1912, Armory Show, 1913, New York
24.
Prague
–
Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the 14th largest city in the European Union and it is also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters. Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its history and it was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire. Prague is home to a number of cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The city has more than ten major museums, along with theatres, galleries, cinemas. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city, also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe. Prague is classified as an Alpha- global city according to GaWC studies, Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016. Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination, and the city more than 6.4 million international visitors annually. Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul, the region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes, around the area where present-day Prague stands, the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis. In the following century, the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area, most notably in Levý Hradec, Butovice and in the Šárka valley. The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century, the first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest. The other prominent Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad, was founded in the 10th century, Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century. The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied, I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars. She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c.1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya. The region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia, under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973
Prague
–
Montage of Prague, clockwise from top: Panorama of
Prague Castle and
Charles Bridge,
Dancing House,
Star Villa,
Old Town Square,
Wenceslas Square,
Wallenstein Palace, Royal Garden at Prague Castle,
St. Vitus Cathedral and
Municipal House.
Prague
–
The mythological princess
Libuše prophesies the glory of Prague.
Prague
–
The
Prague astronomical clock was first installed in 1410, making it the third-oldest astronomical clock in the world and the oldest one still working.
Prague
–
A view of one of the bridge towers of the Charles Bridge
25.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
Museum of Modern Art
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Museum of Modern Art
Museum of Modern Art
Museum of Modern Art
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The entrance to The Museum of Modern Art
Museum of Modern Art
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Stairs in the Museum of Modern Art
26.
Czech people
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Ethnic Czechs were called Bohemians in English until the early 20th century, referring to the late Iron Age tribe of Celtic Boii and the land Bohemia. The Czech diaspora is found in numbers in the United States, Canada, Israel, Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Switzerland, Italy. The Czech ethnic group is part of the West Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group, the West Slavs have origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after East Germanic tribes had left this area during the migration period. The West Slavic tribe of Bohemians settled in the area of Bohemia during the migration period and they formed an independent principality in the 9th century, the Duchy of Bohemia, under the Přemyslid dynasty. According to mythology, the father of the Czech people were Forefather Čech. The Czech are closely related to the neighbouring Slovaks, the Czech–Slovak languages form a dialect continuum rather than being two clearly distinct languages. Czech cultural influence in Slovak culture is noted as having much higher than the other way around. Czech people have a history of coexistence with Germanic people. The Czech National Revival took place in the 18th and 19th centuries aiming to revive Czech language, culture, the Czech were the initiators of Pan-Slavism. The Czech ethnonym was the name of a Slavic tribe in central Bohemia that subdued the tribes in the late 9th century. The origin of the name of the tribe itself is unknown, according to legend, it comes from their leader Čech, who brought them to Bohemia. Research regards Čech as a derivative of the root čel-, the Czech ethnonym was adopted by the Moravians in the 19th century. The name Bohemia is Germanic, English used that name until after the establishment of Czechoslovakia, the population of the Czech lands has been influenced by different human migrations that wide-crossed Europe over time. In their Y-DNA haplogroups, which are inherited along the male line,34. 2% of Czech males belong to R1a, which is particularly common in a large region extending from South Asia and Southern Siberia to Central Europe and Scandinavia. The population of the Czech Republic descends from diverse peoples of Slavic, Celtic and Germanic origin, presence of West Slavs in the 6th century during the Migration Period has been documented on the Czech territory. Slavs settled in Bohemia, Moravia and Austria sometime during the 6th or 7th centuries, according to a popular myth, the Slavs came with Forefather Čech who settled at the Říp Mountain. The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century, in 880, Prague Castle was constructed by Prince Bořivoj, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty and the city of Prague was established. Vratislav II was the first Czech king in 1085 and the duchy was raised to a kingdom under Ottokar I in 1198
Czech people
–
Forefather Čech on the
Říp Mountain
Czech people
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An overview of the Celtic
Hallstatt (yellow), the preceding
La Tène (green) cultures and
Boii
Czech people
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Statue of
Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia, a saint patron of the Czech people at the
Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc
Czech people
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The brothers Lech and Czech, founders of
West Slavic lands of
Lechia (
Poland) and
Bohemia in " Chronica Polonorum " (1506)
27.
Alphonse Mucha
–
Alfons Maria Mucha, known as Alphonse Mucha, was a Czech Art Nouveau painter and decorative artist, known best for his distinct style. He produced many paintings, illustrations, advertisements, postcards, Alphonse Maria Mucha was born in the town of Ivančice, Moravia. In 1871, Mucha became a chorister at the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul, Brno and it is there that he had his first revelation, in front of the richness of Baroque art. During the four years of studying there, he formed a friendship with Leoš Janáček who would become the greatest Czech composer of his generation and he worked at decorative painting jobs in Moravia, mostly painting theatrical scenery. In 1879, he relocated to Vienna to work for a major Viennese theatrical design company, when a fire destroyed his employers business during 1881 he returned to Moravia, to do freelance decorative and portrait painting. Count Karl Khuen of Mikulov hired Mucha to decorate Hrušovany Emmahof Castle with murals and was impressed enough that he agreed to sponsor Muchas formal training at the Munich Academy of Fine Arts, Mucha moved to Paris in 1887, and continued his studies at Académie Julian and Académie Colarossi. In addition to his studies, he worked at producing magazine, bernhardt was so satisfied with the success of this first poster that she began a six-year contract with Mucha. Muchas works frequently featured beautiful women in flowing, vaguely Neoclassical-looking robes. In contrast with contemporary poster makers he used pale pastel colors, Muchas style was given international exposure by the 1900 Universal Exhibition in Paris, of which Mucha said, I think made some contribution toward bringing aesthetic values into arts and crafts. He decorated the Bosnia and Herzegovina Pavilion and collaborated with decorating the Austrian Pavilion and his Art Nouveau style was often imitated. Mucha married Maruška Chytilová on 10 June 1906, in Prague, the couple visited the U. S. from 1906 to 1910, during which time their daughter, Jaroslava, was born in New York City. They also had a son, Jiří, who became a journalist, writer, screenwriter, author of autobiographical novels. In the U. S. Mucha expected to earn money to fund his projects to demonstrate to Czechs that he had not sold out. He was assisted by millionaire Charles R. Crane, who used his fortune to help promote revolutions and, after meeting Thomas Masaryk, Slavic nationalism. When Czechoslovakia won its independence after World War I, Mucha designed the new stamps, banknotes. Mucha considered his publication Le Pater to be his printed masterpiece, printed on 20 December 1899, Le Pater was Muchas occult examination of the themes of The Lords Prayer and only 510 copies were produced. He had wanted to complete a series such as this, a celebration of Slavic history, from 1963 until 2012 the series was on display in the chateau in Moravský Krumlov in the South Moravian Region in the Czech Republic. Since 2012 the series has been on display at the National Gallerys Veletržní Palace in Prague, the rising tide of fascism during the late 1930s resulted in Muchas works and his Slavic nationalism being denounced in the press as reactionary
Alphonse Mucha
–
Mucha, in about 1906
Alphonse Mucha
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The artist's daughter
Jaraslava, 1920s
Alphonse Mucha
–
F. Champenois Imprimeur-Éditeur, lithograph, 1897
Alphonse Mucha
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Mucha-designed artwork on a 1920 Republic of Czechoslovakia 100
korun note.
28.
Jeu de Paume
–
Jeu de paume is a ball-and-court game that originated in France. It was a precursor of tennis played without racquets, though these were eventually introduced. It is a former Olympic sport, and has the oldest ongoing annual world championship in sport, originally spelled jeu de paulme, it is sometimes called courte paume or real tennis. In the earliest versions of the game, the hit the ball with their hands, as in palla, volleyball. Jeu de paume, or jeu de paulme as it was formerly spelled, in time, gloves replaced bare hands. Even when paddle-like bats, and finally racquets, became standard equipment for the game by the late 17th century and it became known as tennis in English, and later real tennis after the derived game of lawn tennis became the more widely known sport. The term is used in France today to denote the game of tennis on a court in which the ancient or modern game might be played. The indoor version is sometimes called jeu de courte paume or just courte paume to distinguish it from the version, longue paume. Jeu de paume at the 1908 Summer Olympics was a medal event, since 1740, jeu de paume has been the subject of an amateur world championship, held each year in September. It is the oldest active trophy in international sport, real tennis Lawn tennis Various other racquet games may be related to one degree or another. The painter Jacques-Louis Davids famous sketch, le Serment du jeu de paume now hangs in the court of the Palace of Versailles, le Jeu de Paume is a moral ode published in 1791 by André Chénier. In the 1981 film The French Lieutenants Woman, socialite Charles Smithson is seen playing jeu de paume in London, the 2014 Whitney Biennial exhibition featured the premiere of the the stop-motion film Jeu de Paume by Joshua Mosley
Jeu de Paume
–
Jeu de paume in the 17th century.
Jeu de Paume
–
Late 18th-century illustration of jeu de paume paddle-bats or battoirs, and (in various stages of construction) strung racquets.
Jeu de Paume
–
Earliest known picture of Jeu de Paume from a Book of Hours (c. 1300)
Jeu de Paume
–
A modernised court in the
Palace of Fontainebleau, Fontainebleau (1991).
29.
Robert Delaunay
–
Robert Delaunay was a French artist who, with his wife Sonia Delaunay and others, cofounded the Orphism art movement, noted for its use of strong colours and geometric shapes. His later works were abstract, reminiscent of Paul Klee. His key influence related to use of colour and a clear love of experimentation with both depth and tone. Robert Delaunay was born in Paris, the son of George Delaunay, while he was a child, Delaunays parents divorced, and he was raised by his mothers sister Marie and her husband Charles Damour, in La Ronchère near Bourges. When he failed his exam and said he wanted to become a painter. At age 19, he left Ronsin to focus entirely on painting and contributed six works to the Salon des Indépendants in 1904. He traveled to Brittany, where he was influenced by the group of Pont-Aven, and, in 1906, he contributed works he painted in Brittany to the 22nd Salon des Indépendants, where he met Henri Rousseau. Delaunay formed a friendship at this time with Jean Metzinger. The two of them were singled out by the art critic Louis Vauxcelles in 1907 as Divisionists who used large, mosaic-like cubes to construct small, Robert Herbert writes, Metzingers Neo-Impressionist period was somewhat longer than that of his close friend Delaunay. The height of his Neo-Impressionist work was in 1906 and 1907, piet Mondrian developed a similar mosaic-like Divisionist technique circa 1909. The Futurists later would incorporate the style, under the influence of Gino Severinis Parisian works, into their dynamic paintings, Delaunay is most closely identified with Orphism. From 1912 to 1914, he painted nonfigurative paintings based on the characteristics of brilliant colors that were so dynamic they would function as the form. Apollinaire was strongly influenced by Delaunay’s theories of color and often quoted from them to explain Orphism, Delaunay’s fixations with color as the expressive and structural means were sustained with his study of color. He believes painting is a visual art that depends on intellectual elements. The contrasts and harmonies of color produce in the eye simultaneous movements, vision becomes the subject of painting. His early paintings are deeply rooted in Neoimpressionism, night Scene for example has vigorous activity with the use of lively brushstrokes in bright colors against a dark background. It doesn’t define solid object but the areas that surround them, spectral colors of Neoimpressionism were later abandoned, the Eiffel Tower series, were fragmentation of solid objects and their merging with space was learned. Influences in this series were Cézanne, Analytical Cubism, and Futurism, in the Eiffel Tower the interpenetration of tangible objects and surrounding space is accompanies by intense movement of geometric plans that are more dynamic than static equilibrium of Cubist forms
Robert Delaunay
–
Simultaneous Windows on the City, 1912,
Hamburger Kunsthalle
Robert Delaunay
–
Robert Delaunay, Portrait de Jean Metzinger, 1906, oil on canvas, 55 x 43 cm
Robert Delaunay
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Robert Delaunay, Paysage au disque, 1906–07, oil on canvas, 55 x 46 cm, Musée national d'art moderne (MNAM), Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris
Robert Delaunay
–
Champs de Mars, La Tour rouge, 1911,
Art Institute of Chicago.
30.
Isaac Newton
–
His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. Newtons Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists view of the universe for the next three centuries. Newtons work on light was collected in his influential book Opticks. He also formulated a law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound. Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint and his father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a child, his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Newtons mother had three children from her second marriage. From the age of twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The Kings School, Grantham which taught Latin and Greek. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Henry Stokes, master at the Kings School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a bully, he became the top-ranked student. In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge and he started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valets duties—until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M. A. He set down in his notebook a series of Quaestiones about mechanical philosophy as he found it, in 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his B. A. degree in August 1665, in April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. Fellows were required to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years, however, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II. A and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. Newtons work has been said to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied and his work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newtons mathematical papers
Isaac Newton
–
Portrait of Isaac Newton in 1689 (age 46) by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
–
Newton in a 1702 portrait by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
–
Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
Isaac Newton
–
Replica of Newton's second
Reflecting telescope that he presented to the
Royal Society in 1672
,_210_x_200_cm,_Narodni_Galerie,_Prague.jpg)
