1.
Wilkes-Barre
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Wilkes-Barre is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Luzerne County. It is one of the cities in the Scranton–Wilkes-Barre–Hazleton, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. Located at the center of the Wyoming Valley, it is second in size to the city of Scranton. Wilkes-Barre and the surrounding Wyoming Valley are framed by the Pocono Mountains to the east, the Endless Mountains to the west, the Susquehanna River flows through the center of the valley and defines the northwestern border of the city. Wilkes-Barre was founded in 1769 and formally incorporated in 1806, the city grew rapidly in the 19th century after the discovery of nearby coal reserves and the arrival of hundreds of thousands of immigrants who provided a labor force for the local mines. The coal mining fueled industrialization in the city, which reached the height of its prosperity in the first half of the 20th century and its population peaked at more than 86,000. However, Following World War II, the economy declined due to the collapse of industry. The Knox Mine disaster accelerated this trend after large portions of the coal mines were flooded. Today the city has a population of 41,498, making it the the largest city in Luzerne County, in the early 18th century, the Wyoming Valley had been long inhabited by the Shawanese and Delaware Indian tribes. By 1769, a group led by John Durkee were the first recorded Europeans to reach the area and they established a frontier settlement named Wilkes-Barre after John Wilkes and Isaac Barré, two British members of Parliament who supported colonial America. The initial settlers were aligned with colonial Connecticut, which had a claim on the land that rivaled Pennsylvanias, armed men loyal to Pennsylvania twice attempted to evict the residents of Wilkes-Barre in what came to be known as the Pennamite–Yankee War. After the American Revolution, the conflict was resolved between the states, and Connecticut gave up its claim, the settlers retained title to their lands but transferred their allegiance to Pennsylvania. In 1797, several decades after the founding, Louis Philippe, later the King of France from 1830 to 1840. Wilkes-Barres population exploded due to the discovery of coal in the 19th century. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants flocked to the city, seeking jobs in the mines and collieries that sprang up. New industries were established and the Vulcan Iron Works was a manufacturer of railway locomotives from 1849 to 1954. Railroads were being constructed across the state and country, in addition, the demolished Old Fell House on Northampton Street is believed to be the first place in the entire world where anthracite was burned for heat. It is said that Babe Ruth hit one of the longest home runs in history in Wilkes-Barre early in the 20th century, suiting up for Hughestown, the Yankee slugger challenged Larksvilles hurler Ernie Corkran to throw him his best stuff—a fastball right down the heart of the plate
2.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
3.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
4.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Boston University
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Boston University is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. The university is nonsectarian, and is affiliated with the United Methodist Church. The university has more than 3,900 faculty members and nearly 33,000 students and it offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctorates, and medical, dental, business, and law degrees through 17 schools and colleges on two urban campuses. The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, BU is categorized as an R1, Doctoral University in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. BU is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education, the University was ranked 39th among undergraduate programs at national universities, and 32nd among global universities by U. S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings. In 1876, BU professor Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in a BU lab, American Civil Rights Movement leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. received his PhD in Theology from BU in 1955. The Boston University Terriers compete in the NCAAs Division I, BU athletic teams compete in the Patriot League, and Hockey East conferences, and their mascot is Rhett the Boston Terrier. Boston University is well known for hockey, in which it has won five national championships. The University organized formal Centennial observances both in 1939 and 1969, on April 24–25,1839 a group of Methodist ministers and laymen at the Old Bromfield Street Church in Boston elected to establish a Methodist theological school. Set up in Newbury, Vermont, the school was named the Newbury Biblical Institute, in 1847, the Congregational Society in Concord, New Hampshire, invited the Institute to relocate to Concord and offered a disused Congregational church building with a capacity of 1200 people. Other citizens of Concord covered the remodeling costs, one stipulation of the invitation was that the Institute remain in Concord for at least 20 years. The charter issued by New Hampshire designated the school the Methodist General Biblical Institute, with the agreed twenty years coming to a close, the Trustees of the Concord Biblical Institute purchased 30 acres on Aspinwall Hill in Brookline, Massachusetts, as a possible relocation site. The institute moved in 1867 to 23 Pinkney Street in Boston, in 1869, three Trustees of the Boston Theological Institute obtained from the Massachusetts Legislature a charter for a university by name of Boston University. These three were successful Boston businessmen and Methodist laymen, with a history of involvement in educational enterprises and they were Isaac Rich, Lee Claflin, and Jacob Sleeper, for whom Boston Universitys three West Campus dormitories are named. Lee Claflins son, William, was then Governor of Massachusetts, on account of the religious opinions he may entertain, provided, nonetheless, that this section shall not apply to the theological department of said University. Every department of the new university was open to all on an equal footing regardless of sex, race. The Boston Theological Institute was absorbed into Boston University in 1871 as the BU School of Theology, in January 1872 Isaac Rich died, leaving the vast bulk of his estate to a trust that would go to Boston University after ten years of growth while the University was organized. Most of this bequest consisted of real estate throughout the core of the city of Boston and was appraised at more than $1.5 million, Kilgore describes this as the largest single donation to an American college or university to that time
7.
Abstract art
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Abstract art uses a visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective, the arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, Abstract art, non-figurative art, non-objective art, and nonrepresentational art are loosely related terms. They are similar, but perhaps not of identical meaning, Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be slight, partial, or complete, even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities, Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational art often contains partial abstraction, both geometric abstraction and lyrical abstraction are often totally abstract. It is at level of visual meaning that abstract art communicates. One can enjoy the beauty of Chinese calligraphy or Islamic calligraphy without being able to read it, in Chinese painting, abstraction can be traced to the Tang dynasty painter Wang Mo, who is credited to have invented the splashed-ink painting style. While none of his paintings remain, this style is seen in some Song Dynasty Paintings. A late Song painter named Yu Jian, adept to Tiantai buddhism and his paintings show heavily misty mountains in which the shapes of the objects are barely visible and extremely simplified. This type of painting was continued by Sesshu Toyo in his later years, another instance of abstraction in Chinese painting is seen in Zhu Deruns Cosmic Circle. The painting is a reflection of the Daoist metaphysics in which chaos, in Tokugawa Japan some zen monk-painters created Enso, a circle who represents the absolute enlightenment. Usually made in one spontaneous brush stroke, it became the paradigm of the minimalist aesthetic that guided part of the zen painting, three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. Artistic independence for artists was advanced during the 19th century, patronage from the church diminished and private patronage from the public became more capable of providing a livelihood for artists. Expressionist painters explored the use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations
8.
Abstract expressionism
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Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
9.
Action painting
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Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
10.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
11.
Jackson Pollock
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Paul Jackson Pollock, known professionally as Jackson Pollock, was an American painter and a major figure in the abstract expressionist movement. He was well known for his style of drip painting. During his lifetime, Pollock enjoyed considerable fame and notoriety, he was a major artist of his generation, regarded as reclusive, he had a volatile personality, and struggled with alcoholism for most of his life. In 1945, he married the artist Lee Krasner, who became an important influence on his career, Pollock died at the age of 44 in an alcohol-related single-car accident when he was driving. In December 1956, four months after his death, Pollock was given a retrospective exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. A larger, more comprehensive exhibition of his work was held there in 1967, in 1998 and 1999, his work was honored with large-scale retrospective exhibitions at MoMA and at The Tate in London. Pollock was born in Cody, Wyoming, in 1912, the youngest of five sons and his parents, Stella May and LeRoy Pollock, were born and grew up in Tingley, Iowa and were educated at Tingley High School. Pollocks mother is interred at Tingley Cemetery, Ringgold County, Iowa and his father had been born with the surname McCoy, but took the surname of his adoptive parents, neighbors who adopted him after his own parents had died within a year of each other. Stella and LeRoy Pollock were Presbyterian, they were of Irish and Scots-Irish descent, LeRoy Pollock was a farmer and later a land surveyor for the government, moving for different jobs. Stella, proud of her familys heritage as weavers, made, in November 1912, Stella took her sons to San Diego, Jackson was just 10 months old and would never return to Cody. He subsequently grew up in Arizona and Chico, California, while living in Echo Park, California, he enrolled at Los Angeles Manual Arts High School, from which he was expelled. He had already been expelled in 1928 from another high school, during his early life, Pollock explored Native American culture while on surveying trips with his father. In 1930, following his older brother Charles Pollock, he moved to New York City, bentons rural American subject matter had little influence on Pollocks work, but his rhythmic use of paint and his fierce independence were more lasting. In the early 1930s, Pollock spent a summer touring the Western United States together with Glen Rounds, an art student. Pollock was introduced to the use of paint in 1936 at an experimental workshop in New York City by the Mexican muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros. He later used paint pouring as one of techniques on canvases of the early 1940s, such as Male and Female. After his move to Springs, he began painting with his canvases laid out on the studio floor, from 1938 to 1942 Pollock worked for the WPA Federal Art Project. Henderson engaged him through his art, encouraging Pollock to make drawings, jungian concepts and archetypes were expressed in his paintings
12.
Willem de Kooning
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Willem de Kooning was a Dutch-American abstract expressionist artist who was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, and moved to New York in 1927. Willem de Kooning was born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, on April 24,1904 and his parents, Leendert de Kooning and Cornelia Nobel, were divorced in 1907, and de Kooning lived first with his father and then with his mother. He left school in 1916 and became an apprentice in a firm of commercial artists, until 1924 he attended evening classes at the Academie van Beeldende Kunsten en Technische Wetenschappen, now the Willem de Kooning Academie. In 1926 de Kooning travelled to the United States as a stowaway on the Shelley, a British freighter bound for Argentina and he stayed at the Dutch Seamens Home in Hoboken, New Jersey, and found work as a house-painter. In 1927 he moved to Manhattan, where he had a studio on West Forty-fourth Street and he supported himself with jobs in carpentry, house-painting and commercial art. De Kooning began painting in his time and in 1928 he joined the art colony at Woodstock. He also began to some of the modernist artists active in Manhattan. None of them were executed, but a sketch for one was included in New Horizons in American Art at the Museum of Modern Art, De Kooning met his wife, Elaine Fried, at the American Artists School in New York. She was 14 years his junior, thus was to begin a lifelong partnership affected by alcoholism, lack of money, love affairs, quarrels and separations. They were married on December 9,1943, at this time, de Koonings work borrowed strongly from Gorkys surrealist imagery and was influenced by Picasso. This only changed when de Kooning met the younger painter Franz Kline, Kline died young and he was one of de Koonings closest artist friends. Klines influence is evident in de Koonings calligraphic black images of this period, in the late 1950s, de Koonings work shifted away from the figurative work of the women and began to display an interest in more abstract, less representational imagery. He became a US citizen in 1961 and moved to East Hampton in 1963 and this became his primary residence and he remained there until the end of his life. On Long Island de Kooning, in addition to his painting, inspired in part by the work of Henry Moore, de Kooning created highly abstracted figurative sculpture very reminicent of his figurative paintings. It was revealed toward the end of his life that de Kooning began losing his memory in the late 1980s and had been suffering from Alzheimers disease for some time. This revelation has initiated considerable debate among scholars and critics about how responsible de Kooning was for the creation of his late work, succumbing to the progress of his disease, William de Kooning painted his final works in 1991. He passed away in 1997 at the age of 92, upon death William de Kooning was cremated. His final place of rest is publicly unknown, De Koonings paintings of the 1930s and early 1940s are abstract still-lifes characterised by geometric or biomorphic shapes and strong colours
13.
Robert Motherwell
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Robert Motherwell was an American painter, printmaker, and editor. He was one of the youngest of the New York School, which also included Philip Guston, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, and Mark Rothko. Robert Motherwell was born in Aberdeen, Washington on January 24,1915, the family later moved to San Francisco, where Motherwells father served as president of Wells Fargo Bank. Due to the asthmatic condition, Motherwell was reared largely on the Pacific Coast. There he developed a love for the spaces and bright colours that later emerged as essential characteristics of his abstract paintings. His later concern with themes of mortality can likewise be traced to his health as a child. Between 1932 and 1937, Motherwell briefly studied painting at California School of Fine Arts, San Francisco, at Stanford Motherwell was introduced to modernism through his extensive reading of symbolist and other literature, especially Mallarmé, James Joyce, Edgar Allan Poe, and Octavio Paz. This passion stayed with Motherwell for the rest of his life, at the age of 20 Motherwell traveled to Europe with his father and sister. They made a Grand Tour starting in Paris, then went to Amalfi, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, The Netherlands, and London, so with that agreed on Harvard then—it was actually the last year—Harvard still had the best philosophy school in the world. And since I had taken my degree at Stanford in philosophy, in fact, it was Berger who advised Motherwell to continue his education at Columbia University, under Meyer Shapiro. In 1940, Motherwell moved to New York to study at Columbia University, Shapiro introduced the young artist to a group of exiled Parisian Surrealists and arranged for Motherwell to study with Kurt Seligmann. The time that Motherwell spent with the Surrealists proved to be influential to his artistic process, after a 1941 voyage with Roberto Matta to Mexico—on a boat where he met Maria, an actress and his future wife—Motherwell decided to make painting his primary vocation. The sketches Motherwell made in Mexico later evolved into his first important paintings, such as Little Spanish Prison and it was Matta who introduced Motherwell to the concept of “automatic” drawings. The Surrealists often deployed the process of automatism, or abstract “automatic” doodling to tap into their unconscious and it was also Paalen who introduced Motherwell to André Breton with an introduction letter. In 1991, shortly before he died, Motherwell remembered a conspiracy of silence regarding Paalen´s innovative role in the genesis of Abstract Expressionism, I mean I say this unqualifiedly. I was painting French intimate pictures or whatever and he asked me to find some other American artists that would help start a new movement. It was then that Baziotes and I went to see Pollock and de Kooning and Hofmann and Kamrowski and Busa, and if we could come with something. Peggy Guggenheim who liked us said that she would put on a show of new business
14.
Lee Krasner
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Lenore Lee Krassner was an American abstract expressionist painter in the second half of the 20th century. She is one of the few artists to have had a retrospective show at the Museum of Modern Art. Krasner was born as Lena Krassner on October 27,1908 in Brooklyn, Krasner was the daughter of Chane and Joseph Krasner. Her parents were Russian-Jewish immigrants, from Shpykiv, a Jewish community in what is now Ukraine and her parents fled to the United States to escape anti-Semitism and the Russo-Japanese War. Her mother Chane changed her name to Anna once she arrived in America, Lee was the fourth of five children, including her sister, Ruth, and the first who was born in America. She was the one of her siblings to be born in the United States. From an early age, Krasner knew she wanted to pursue art as a career, Krasners career as an artist began when she was a teenager. She specifically sought out enrollment at Washington Irving High School for Girls since they offered an art major, after graduating from high school, she attended the Womens Art School of Cooper Union on a scholarship. Here, she completed the work required for a teaching certificate in art. Krasner pursued yet more art education at the illustrious National Academy of Design, by 1928, she enrolled in the National Academy of Design. By attending an art school, Krasner was able to gain an extensive. She also became skilled in portraying anatomically correct figures. There are relatively few works survive from this time period apart from a few self-portraits. One of the images that still exists from time period is her Self Portrait painted in 1930. She submitted it to the National Academy in order to enroll in a certain class, in it, she depicts herself with a defiant expression surrounded by nature. She also briefly enrolled in the Art Students League of New York in 1928, here, she took a class led by George Bridgman who emphasized the human form. Krasner was highly influenced by the opening of the Museum of Modern Art in 1929 and she was very affected by post-impressionism and grew critical of the academic notions of style she had learned at the National Academy. In the 1930s, she began studying art through learning the components of composition, technique
15.
Lehighton, Pennsylvania
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Lehighton is a borough in Carbon County, Pennsylvania, United States,77 miles north of Philadelphia, and 54 miles south of Scranton. In the past, it developed early industries because of power from the Lehigh River. With the location of a facility here and its regional operations. Post-World War II railroad and industry restructuring led to job and population losses, from a peak of nearly 7,000 in 1940, the population was 5,500 at the 2010 census. Lehighton is the most populous borough in Carbon County and still the business hub of the county. The Dutch and Swedes first settled the Delaware Valley, and found the north of the Lehigh Gap to be lightly occupied, probably by transients. This tribe traveled quite a bit according to the American Heritage Book of Indians, including being described in lofty terms by John Smith when a band visited the new Jamestown and this vacated the southeastern and central Pennsylvania regions for the Delaware peoples. However, all tribes were displaced westwards by continued colonial growth. Delaware dominance at the time of European colonization is why William Penns settlers adopted Lenape Lenki names for landscape features, Lehighton was built on the site of the German Moravian Brethrens mission station Gnadenhütten founded in 1746. It was established as a mission to the Lenape by Moravians from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, the German name was transcribed as Canatanheat by missionary John Brainerd. During the French and Indian Wars, Native allies of the French killed 11 missionaries and they destroyed the mission village, and only four of the fifteen residents escaped. The Lehigh River was a source of power for developing industries in the 19th century. Lehighton had silk and lace mills, a house, shirt factory, automatic-press works, car shops, stoneworks. In 1900, the population was 4,629 people, by 1940, it had reached 6,615. The coming of the railroad made it easier for businessmen to get their products to major markets, for many years, the Lehigh Valley Railroad had a major repair facility in Lehighton. The coming of the railroad was an economic boost for the town. It was the areas largest company, employing several workers at the repair facilities or operating and maintaining the railroad. Restructuring in the industry led to the repair facilities being moved to another location
16.
Lehighton Area School District
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The Lehighton Area School District is located just north of the Blue Mountain range extending along the Lehigh River in Carbon County, Pennsylvania. The district is composed of four communities which are served by the Lehighton Area School District over a sixty-seven-square-mile area. East Penn Township is to the south of the town/borough of Lehighton, Mahoning Valley is to the west along route 443, the school district comprises four elementary schools, Shull David, Franklin, Mahoning and East Penn. All elementary schools include full-day kindergarten and house grades one through four, the single middle school comprises grades five through eight in the renovated high school centrally located in the Lehighton borough. The middle school uses the team teaching approach having a maroon, the high school facility was built in 1993. It currently has 726 students, 56% male and 44% female and its current graduation rate is 82%. District web site Lehighton Area School District Athletics Lehighton Sports Events
17.
Girard College
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Girard College is an independent college preparatory 5-day boarding school located on a 43-acre campus in the City of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the eastern United States. Girard College enrolls academically capable students, grades one through twelve, the scholarship covers most of the costs of attending Girard, including tuition, room and board, books and school uniforms. The scholarship may be renewed yearly until the high school graduation. Applicants must be at least six years old, demonstrate good social skills and the potential for scholastic achievement, Girard accepts students on the basis of previous school records, admissions testing, a visit and interviews. The process is conducted without preference for race, gender, religion or national origin, born in the Atlantic merchant and naval seaport city of Bordeaux, in the Kingdom of France, Stephen Girard, was the eldest of nine children. His mother died when he was age 11, and he left home at the age of 14 to spend the next 12 years sailing the seas and learning the international mercantile and shipping business. During his 55 years in the City of Brotherly Love, he one of the richest Americans of his time. Girard was married to Mary Lum, from 1777 until her death in 1815 and his initial success in business and the source of his first fortune was international shipping and merchant activities. He sent his cargo sailing ships, crews and captains around the world, trading goods and amassing a fortune. The new First Bank of the U. S. had been established on behalf of private financiers, businessmen. When the First Bank of the U. S and this made him America’s first private banker. He then made his fortune in banking. By the time of his death, his fortune totaled approximately $7.5 million, one of the most interesting chapters of Girard’s life was his role in fighting Philadelphia’s devastating yellow-fever epidemic in the summer of 1793. With the assistance of noted attorney William J. Duane, in the 1820s, he wrote a long will and testament and he delighted in keeping the document secret, knowing that everyone wondered what would happen to his fortune. Immediately after his death in 1831, the provisions of his will were made public, in addition to extensive personal and institutional bequests, he left the bulk of his fortune to the city of Philadelphia to build and operate a residential school for impoverished orphans. In 1831, the bequest was the largest single act of philanthropy up to time in American history. Girard’s will eventually became famous for his restriction that students must be poor, white, male, the school remained for needy white boys for over a century. After an extended, bitter, 14-year civil-rights struggle, the first four black boys entered the school in September 1968, sixteen years later, the policy of an all-male student body was also changed, and the first girls, both black and white, were admitted in 1984
18.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
19.
Black Mountain College
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Many of the schools students and faculty were influential in the arts or other fields, or went on to become influential. Although notable even during its life, the school closed in 1957 after only 24 years. The history and legacy of Black Mountain College are preserved and extended through Black Mountain College Museum + Arts Center, in downtown Asheville, NC. The schools Lake Eden campus, used from 1941 to 1957, is now part of Camp Rockmont, a camp for boys. Buckminster Fuller met student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, and the result was their first geodesic dome, Merce Cunningham formed his dance company, not a haphazardly conceived venture, Black Mountain College was a consciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of the progressive education movement. In its day it was an educational experiment for the artists. Bennington College was founded the year before Black Mountain College based on the same philosophy, for the first eight years, the college rented the YMCA Blue Ridge Assembly buildings south of Black Mountain, North Carolina. In 1941, it moved across the valley to its own campus at Lake Eden where it remained until its closing in 1956, a number of the original structures are still in use as lodgings or administrative facilities. The college suspended classes by court order in 1957 and this was due to debts not sustained by the decreased number of students. In 1962, the books were finally closed, with all debts covered. The college was featured in the Nicholas Sparks novel, The Longest Ride and 2015 movie, richards, Alexander Schawinsky, Ben Shahn, Arthur Siegel, Aaron Siskind, Theodoros Stamos, Robert C. Turner, Jack Tworkov, Peter Voulkos, Emerson Woelffer, Stefan Wolpe, guest lecturers included Albert Einstein, Clement Greenberg, Bernard Rudofsky, Richard Lippold, and William Carlos Williams. The college ran summer institutes from 1944 until its closing in 1956 and it was however influential to the founding of the Free University of New York. Various avant-garde poets were drawn to the school through the years, most notably Charles Olson, Robert Duncan, Denise Levertov, Jonathan Williams, Ed Dorn and Robert Creeley. Black Mountain College is the subject of the museum exhibition Leap Before You Look, Black Mountain College 1933-1957, the show was curated by Helen Molesworth with Ruth Erickson. The story of BMC is woven through interviews with students, professors and modern scholars with archival footage, produced and directed by Judith Pearlman, Cliofilm
20.
Pratt Institute
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It originated in 1887 with programs primarily in engineering, architecture, and fine arts. U. S. News & World Report lists Pratt as one of the top 20 colleges in the Regional Universities North category. Princeton Review recognizes Pratt as being one of the best colleges in the northeast, Pratt Institute was founded in 1887 by American industrialist Charles Pratt, who was a successful businessman and oil tycoon and was one of the wealthiest men in the history of Brooklyn. In 1867 Pratt established Charles Pratt and Company, in 1874 Pratt’s companies were purchased by John D. Rockefeller and became part of his Standard Oil trust while Pratt continued to run the companies himself. Pratt, an advocate of education, wanted to provide the opportunity for working men and women to better their lives through education, even though Pratt never had the opportunity to go to college himself, he wanted to create an affordable college accessible to the working class. In 1884 Pratt began purchasing parcels of land in his affluent home town of Clinton Hill for the intention of opening a school, the school would end up being built only two blocks from Charles Pratt’s residence on Clinton Avenue. From his fortunes with Astral Oil and Charles Pratt and Company, in May 1887 the New York State Legislature granted Charles Pratt a charter to open the school, on October 17,1887, the Institute opened to 12 students in the Main Hall. Tuition was $4 per class per term, the college was one of the first in the country open to all people, regardless of class, color, and gender. In the early years, the Institute’s mission was to offer education to those who never had it offered to them before, Pratt sought to teach people skills that would allow them to be successful and work their way up the economic ladder. Specifically, many programs were tailored for the growing need to train workers in the changing economy with training in design. Early programs sought to teach students a variety of such as architectural engineering, mechanics, dressmaking. Graduates of the school were taught to become engineers, mechanics, drawing, whether freehand, mechanical, or architectural, thought of as being a universal language, united such diverse programs and thus all programs in the school had a strong foundation in drawing. In addition, the curriculum at the Institute was to be complemented by a large Liberal Arts curriculum. Students studied subjects such as history, mathematics, physics, and literature in order to understand the world in which they will be working in. Six months after inception the school had an enrollment of nearly 600 students, by the first anniversary of the school there were 1,000 students in attendance. In five years time the school had nearly 4,000 students, in 1888 Scientific American said of the school that “it is undoubtedly the most important enterprise of its kind in this country, if not in the world”. Andrew Carnegie even visited Pratt for inspiration and used the school as a model in developing Carnegie Technical Schools, now Carnegie Mellon University. As public interest grew in the school and demand increased the school began adding new programs including the Pratt High School, Library School, Music Department, and Department of Commerce
21.
Provincetown, Massachusetts
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Provincetown /ˈprɒvɪnsˌtaʊn/ is a New England town located at the extreme tip of Cape Cod in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, in the United States. A small coastal town with a year-round population of just under 3,000. Often called P-town or Ptown, the town is known for its beaches, harbor, artists, tourist industry, at the time of European encounter, the area was long settled by the historic Nauset tribe, who had a settlement known as Meeshawn. They spoke Massachusett, a Southern New England Algonquian language dialect that they shared in common with their closely related neighbors, on May 15,1602, having made landfall from the west and believing it to be an island, Bartholomew Gosnold initially named this area Shoal Hope. Later that day, after catching a great store of codfish, notably, that name referred specifically to the area of modern-day Provincetown, it wasnt until much later that that name was reused to designate the entire region now known as Cape Cod. On November 9,1620, the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower sighted Cape Cod while en route to the Colony of Virginia. After two days of failed attempts to sail south against the winter seas, they returned to the safety of the harbor, known today as Provincetown Harbor. It was here that the Mayflower Compact was drawn up and signed and they agreed to settle and build a self-governing community, and came ashore in the West End. In 1654, the Governor of the Plymouth Colony purchased this land from the Chief of the Nausets, the collected fees were used to defray the costs of schools and other projects throughout the colony. In 1678, the grounds were opened up to allow the inclusion of fishermen from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1692, a new Royal Charter combined the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies into the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod was thus officially renamed the Province Lands. The first record of a government with jurisdiction over the Province Lands was in 1714, with an Act that declared it the Precinct of Cape Cod. On June 14,1727, after harboring ships for more than a century, the name chosen by its inhabitants was Herringtown, which was rejected by the Massachusetts General Court in favor of Provincetown. The act of incorporation provided that inhabitants of Provincetown could be land holders and they received a quit claim to their property, but the Province retained the title. The land was to be used as it had been from the beginning of the colony — a place for the making of fish, all resources, including the trees, could be used for that purpose. In 1893 the Great and General Court changed the Towns charter, giving the townspeople deeds to the properties they held, the population of Provincetown remained small through most of the 18th century. The town was affected by the American Revolution the same way most of Cape Cod was, the effective British blockade shut down most fish production and shipping and the town dwindled. It was, by happenstance, the location of the wreck of a British warship, following the American Revolution, Provincetown grew rapidly as a fishing and whaling center
22.
Cubism
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Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Other common threads between these movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization. Cubism began between 1907 and 1911, Pablo Picassos 1907 painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braques 1908 Houses at L’Estaque prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques, Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, english art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Douglas Coopers restrictive use of terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed, wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the Salle 41 artists, e. g. John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram, The diagram being a symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as not as imitations or recreations. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian, artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. Picassos paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as seen in Les Demoiselles dAvignon
23.
American Legion
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In addition to organizing commemorative events, volunteer veterans operating through The American Legion support activities and provide assistance at Veterans Administration hospitals and clinics. The Legion is active in issue-oriented United States politics and its primary political activity is lobbying on behalf of interests of veterans and service members, including support for veterans benefits such as pensions and the Veterans Health Administration. The veterans organization has historically promoted Americanism and opposed communism in the United States. American veterans who served at least one day of active duty during wartime. Members must have been discharged or still serving honorably. United States Merchant Marines who served from December 7,1941, Veterans who served during the following wars are eligible, Veterans of World War I were also eligible during their lifetimes, the last American World War I veteran, Frank Buckles, died in 2011. Membership peaked for The American Legion right after World War II, after the Korean War, there were 2.5 million Legionnaires. As baby boomers joined, membership increased to 3.1 million in 1992, however, membership has slowly been decreasing since then. In 2013, the Legion reported 2.3 million members, the aftermath of two American wars in the second half of the 19th century had seen the formation of several ex-soldiers organizations. In Southern politics the UCV maintained a more dominant position as a bulwark of the Democratic Party which dominated there. The conclusion of the brief Spanish–American conflict of 1898 ushered in another soldiers organization and they lobbied government to strengthen the military. Its officers were at 10 Bridge Street, New York City, in 1917, when war was declared the legion had 23,000 members skilled in 77 professions pledged to fight. Their pledge cards were shared with the government and ultimately used to two regiments of air mechanics. The legion was discorporated in 1917, the need for an organization for former members of the AEF was pressing and immediate. Cautionary voices were raised about an apparent correlation between disaffected and discharged troops and the Bolshevik uprisings taking place in Russia, Finland, Germany and this situation was a particular matter of concern to Lt. Col. Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. eldest son of the 26th President. One day in January 1919, Roosevelt had a discussion at General Headquarters with a mobilized National Guard officer named George A. White, Roosevelt and White advocated ceaselessly for this proposal until ultimately they found sufficient support at headquarters to move forward with the plan. General John J. Pershing issued orders to a group of 20 non-career officers to report to the YMCA headquarters in Paris on February 15,1919, the selection of these individuals had been made by Roosevelt. They were joined with a number of regular Army officers Pershing selected himself, the session of reserve and regular officers was instructed to provide a set of laws to curb the problem of declining morale
24.
Allentown Art Museum
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The Allentown Art Museum of the Lehigh Valley is an art museum located in the city of Allentown, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It was founded in 1934 by a group organized by noted Pennsylvania impressionist painter, Walter Emerson Baum, with its collection of over 13,000 works of art, the Allentown Art Museum is a major regional art institution. In addition, its library and archives of more than 16,000 titles and 40 current periodicals make it an important regional cultural resource, the Allentown Art Gallery was organized by Baum and opened in Allentowns Hunsicker School on March 17,1934. With seventy canvases by local Pennsylvania impressionist artists on display, the gallery attracted major attention from the local and regional art communities, during the Great Depression, Baum was able to grow the collection through the Public Works of Art Project and through acquisitions and gifts. In June 1936, the City of Allentown granted the museum a permanent home in a Federal-style house located in the Rose Garden in Allentowns Cedar Park, the museums first curator was local artist John E. Berninger, who lived with his wife on the museums second floor. In 1959, a gift of fifty-three Renaissance and Baroque paintings, the Kress gift stimulated community visionaries and museum friends to purchase and refurbish a building, formerly the First Presbyterian Church, suitable to house the new collection. In 1960, the Kress gift was featured in the museums first major catalog, The Samuel H. Kress Memorial Collection, written by Richard Hirsch, in his introduction, Hirschs observed how the fleeting imagery of TV changed perceptions of the works in the collection. When created, they were not merely one of many representations of religious figures, Hirschs observations portend the Slow Movement arising more than 25 years later encouraging a renewed, attentive appreciation of the world, including fine art. The museum began featuring Slow Art days in 2011 to acknowledge the benefits of quiet, in 1975, an Edgar Tafel-designed expansion to the building was completed to enhance the museums programs and collecting plans. At that time, the Museum installed a room designed by Frank Lloyd Wright as part of its permanent collection, another room from that house can be seen at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. In 2010, the museum began a $15, the expansion, which is the museums first since 1975, was initially proposed in 1999 and is a significant reduction from the $32 million,45, 000-square-foot addition originally planned. Approximately 40% of the new space will be gallery space, during construction, which is scheduled to begin November 15,2010 and run until September,2011, the museum will be closed to the public. The Allentown Art Museums collection, still defined by European paintings in 1975, expanded with a large collection of textiles. The 1978 acquisition of Gilbert Stuarts beguiling portrait of Ann Penn Allen, Frank Lloyd Wright library images, from the Allentown Art Museum Web Site. Google Map location for the museum, Pennsylvania Council on the Arts Web Site
25.
Allentown, Pennsylvania
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Allentown is a city located in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is Pennsylvanias third most populous city and the 224th largest city in the United States, as of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 118,032 and is currently the fastest growing city in all of Pennsylvania. It is the largest city in the area known as the Lehigh Valley. Allentown constitutes a portion of the New York City Metropolitan Area and is the county seat of Lehigh County, in 2012, the city celebrated the 250th anniversary of its founding in 1762. Located on the Lehigh River, Allentown is the largest of three adjacent cities, in Northampton and Lehigh counties, that make up a region of eastern Pennsylvania known as the Lehigh Valley, the Norfolk Southern Railways Lehigh Line, runs through Allentown heading east across the Delaware River. The Norfolk Southern Railways Reading Line runs through Allentown heading west to Reading, the price for this tract included shoes and buckles, hats, shirts, knives, scissors, combs, needles, looking glasses, rum, and pipes. The land was surveyed on November 23,1736. Used primarily as a hunting and fishing lodge, here Allen entertained prominent guests including his brother-in-law, James Hamilton and it is likely that a certain amount of rivalry with the Penns prompted Judge Allen to decide to start a town of his own in 1762. Ten years before, in 1752, Northampton and Berks counties had been formed, each with a county seat, Easton and Reading, respectively. It is recorded that, in 1763, the year after the founding of Allentown. To this effort William Allen lent all his influence as Chief Justice, the influence of the Penns, however, prevailed, and Easton was retained as the county seat of all that vast area which the notorious Walking Purchase had opened up. The town was located between present-day Fourth and Tenth Streets, and Union and Liberty Streets, many streets on the original plan were named for Allens children, Margaret, William, James, Ann and John. Allen Street was named for Allen himself, and was the main thoroughfare, Hamilton Street was named for James Hamilton. Gordon Street was named for Sir Patrick Gordon, Deputy Governor of Colonial Pennsylvania from 1726–1736, Chew Street was named for Benjamin Chew, and Turner Street was named for Allens business partner, Joseph Turner. Allen gave the property to his son James in 1767, three years later, in 1770, James built a summer residence, Trout Hall, in the new town, near the site of his fathers former hunting lodge. On March 18,1811, the town was incorporated as the borough of Northampton Town. On March 6,1812, Lehigh County was formed from the half of Northampton County. The town was officially renamed Allentown on April 16,1838, Allentown was formally incorporated as a city on March 12,1867
26.
Elaine de Kooning
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Elaine de Kooning was an Abstract Expressionist and Figurative Expressionist painter in the post-World War II era. She wrote extensively on the art of the period and was an associate for Art News magazine. On December 9,1943, she married painter Willem de Kooning, Elaine de Kooning was born Elaine Marie Catherine Fried in 1918 in the Flatbush, New York. Later in life Elaine told people she was born in 1920 and her parents were Mary Ellen OBrien, an Irish Catholic, and Charles Frank Fried, a Protestant of Jewish descent. Her father Charles was a plant manager for the Bond Bread Company, Elaine was the eldest of four children, Marjorie Luyckx, Conrad and Peter Fried. Her mother, despite being recalled as less loving and attentive than some parents by Elaine’s younger sister, elaines mother started taking Elaine to museums at the age of five and taught her to draw what she saw. Elaine’s childhood room was decorated with painting reproductions, Mary Ellen was committed to the Creedmoor Psychiatric Center for a year during Elaine’s childhood after a neighbor reported her for neglect of her children. In grade school, Elaine began drawing and selling portraits of children attending her school and she was interested in and did well at sports as well as art. Elaine studied at Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn, after graduating from High School, she briefly attended Hunter College in New York City, where she befriended a group of abstract and Social Realist painters. In 1937, she attended the Leonardo da Vinci Art School and went on to study at the American Artists School, while attending school, Elaine made money working as an art school model. Elaine had admired Willem’s artwork before meeting him, in 1938 her teacher introduced her to Willem de Kooning at a Manhattan cafeteria when she was 20, after it he began to instruct her in drawing and painting. He even destroyed many of her drawings, but this impelled Elaine to strive for precision and grace in her work. When they married in 1943, she moved into his loft, Elaine and Willem de Kooning had what was later called an open marriage, They both were casual about sex and about each other’s affairs. Elaine had affairs with men who helped further Willem’s career, such as Harold Rosenberg, hess, who was a writer about art and managing editor for Artnews, and Charles Egan, owner of the Charles Egan Gallery. Willem had a daughter, Lisa de Kooning, in 1956, Elaine and Willem both struggled with alcoholism, which eventually led to their separation in 1957. While separated, Elaine remained in New York, struggling with poverty, despite struggling with alcoholism, they both continued painting. Although separated for twenty years, they never divorced. Elaine de Kooning was a landscape and portrait artist active in the Abstract Expressionist movement of the early twentieth century
27.
Japanese calligraphy
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Japanese calligraphy is a form of calligraphy, or artistic writing, of the Japanese language. The term shodō is likely derived from Chinese origin as it is used to describe the art of Chinese calligraphy during the Chinese Tang dynasty period. In modern calligraphy, a number of tools are used to make a composition, most basic four tools were collectively called Four Treasures of the Study. The best inksticks are between 50 and 100 years old, mulberry paper An inkstone to grind the inkstick against, mixed with water. Other tools include, A paper weight to hold the paper in place A cloth to place under the paper to prevent ink from bleeding through, the art of engraving a seal is called tenkoku 篆刻. The student is encouraged to engrave his own seal, the position of the seal or the seals is based on aesthetic views. One is not allowed to put a seal on a sutras calligraphy, during preparation, water is poured into the inkstone and the inkstick is ground against it, mixing the water with the dried ink to liquefy it. As this is a process, modern-day calligraphy provides liquid ink in a bottle called Bokuju and is frequently used by beginners. More advanced students are encouraged to grind their own ink. Paper is usually placed on a desk, the brushes come in various shapes and sizes, and are usually made using animal hair for the bristles. Typical animal hair may come from goats, sheep, horse-hair, the handle may be made from wood, bamboo, plastic or other materials. The Chinese roots of Japanese calligraphy go back to the twenty-eighth century B. C. to a time when pictographs were inscribed on bone for religious purposes and he sanctioned a form of script based on squares of uniform size into which all characters could be written from eight strokes. He also devised rules of composition where horizontal strokes are written first and characters are composed starting from top to bottom, left to right. Because the symbols were inscribed with sharp instruments, the lines were originally angular and in many ways Li Sis achievements were made obsolete by the appearance of brush, the ink-wet brush creates a line quite different from a sharp stylus. It affords variation in thickness and curve of line, Calligraphy retained the block form of Li Si and his eight strokes but the writer was free to create characters that emphasized aesthetically pleasing balance and form. The way a character was written gave a message of style, Calligraphy in the Chinese tradition was thus introduced to Japan about 600 A. D. Known as the tradition, it has been practiced up to today. The oldest existing text in Japan is the inscription on the halo of the Medicine Buddha statue in the Hōryū-ji Temple. This Chinese text was written in Shakyōtai style, prominent in the Chinese Six Dynasties period, the Hōryū-ji Temple also holds bibliographic notes on the Lotus Sutra, the Hokke Gisho was written early in the 7th century and is considered the oldest Japanese text
28.
Chiaroscuro
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Chiaroscuro is an oil painting technique, developed during the Renaissance, that uses strong tonal contrasts between light and dark to model three-dimensional forms, often to dramatic effect. The underlying principle is that solidity of form is best achieved by the light falling against it, artists known for developing the technique include Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio, and Rembrandt. It is a mainstay of black and white photography and these in turn drew on traditions in illuminated manuscripts going back to late Roman Imperial manuscripts on purple-dyed vellum. Such works used to be called chiaroscuro drawings, but are often described in modern museum terminology by such formulae as pen on prepared paper. Chiaroscuro woodcuts began as imitations of this technique, when discussing Italian art, the term sometimes is used to mean painted images in monochrome or two colours, more generally known in English by the French equivalent, grisaille. The term broadened in meaning early on to cover all strong contrasts in illumination between light and dark areas in art, which is now the primary meaning. The invention of these effects in the West, skiagraphia or shadow-painting to the Ancient Greeks, traditionally was ascribed to the famous Athenian painter of the fifth century BC, Apollodoros. Chose her place to sit for that purpose in the alley of a goodly garden. In drawings and prints, modelling chiaroscuro often is achieved by the use of hatching, washes, stipple or dotting effects, and surface tone in printmaking are other techniques. Chiaroscuro woodcuts are old master prints in woodcut using two or more blocks printed in different colours, they do not necessarily feature strong contrasts of light and they were first produced to achieve similar effects to chiaroscuro drawings. Other printmakers to use the technique include Hans Wechtlin, Hans Baldung Grien, in Germany the technique achieved its greatest popularity around 1520, but it was used in Italy throughout the sixteenth century. Later artists such as Goltzius sometimes made use of it, in most German two-block prints, the keyblock was printed in black and the tone block or blocks had flat areas of colour. In Italy, chiaroscuro woodcuts were produced without keyblocks to achieve a different effect. Manuscript illumination was, as in areas, especially experimental in attempting ambitious lighting effects since the results were not for public display. The development of compositional chiaroscuro received an impetus in northern Europe from the vision of the Nativity of Jesus of Saint Bridget of Sweden. Hugo van der Goes and his followers painted many scenes lit only by candle or the light from the infant Christ. As with some later painters, in their hands the effect was of stillness, strong chiaroscuro became a popular effect during the sixteenth century in Mannerism and Baroque art. Divine light continued to illuminate, often rather inadequately, the compositions of Tintoretto, Veronese, tenebrism was especially practiced in Spain and the Spanish-ruled Kingdom of Naples, by Jusepe de Ribera and his followers
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Minimalism
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In visual arts, music, and other mediums, minimalism is a style that uses pared-down design elements. Minimalism began in post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s, prominent artists associated with minimalism include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella. It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is interpreted as a reaction against abstract expressionism. Minimalism in music often features repetition and iteration such as those of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, the term minimalist often colloquially refers to anything that is spare or stripped to its essentials. It has accordingly been used to describe the plays and novels of Samuel Beckett, the films of Robert Bresson, the stories of Raymond Carver, and the automobile designs of Colin Chapman. The word was first used in English in the early 20th century to describe a 1913 composition by the Russian painter Kasimir Malevich of a square on a white ground. Guggenheim Museum curated by Lawrence Alloway also in 1966 that showcased Geometric abstraction in the American art world via Shaped canvas, Color Field, in the wake of those exhibitions and a few others the art movement called minimal art emerged. Minimal art is inspired in part by the paintings of Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Josef Albers, and the works of artists as diverse as Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, Giorgio Morandi. Minimalism was also a reaction against the painterly subjectivity of Abstract Expressionism that had been dominant in the New York School during the 1940s and 1950s. The philosopher or art historian who can envision me—or anyone at all—arriving at aesthetic judgments in this way reads shockingly more into himself or herself than into my article. They very explicitly stated that their art was not about self-expression, in general, minimalisms features included geometric, often cubic forms purged of much metaphor, equality of parts, repetition, neutral surfaces, and industrial materials. Robert Morris, a theorist and artist, wrote a three part essay, Notes on Sculpture 1-3, originally published across three issues of Artforum in 1966. In these essays, Morris attempted to define a conceptual framework and formal elements for himself and these essays paid great attention to the idea of the gestalt - parts. Bound together in such a way that create a maximum resistance to perceptual separation. Morris later described an art represented by a marked lateral spread, the general shift in theory of which this essay is an expression suggests the transition into what would later be referred to as postminimalism. Stellas decisions about structures on the front surface of the canvas were therefore not entirely subjective, in the show catalog, Carl Andre noted, Art excludes the unnecessary. Frank Stella has found it necessary to paint stripes, there is nothing else in his painting. Because of a tendency in art to exclude the pictorial, illusionistic and fictive in favor of the literal, there was a movement away from painterly
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Robert Rauschenberg
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Milton Ernest Robert Rauschenberg was an American painter and graphic artist whose early works anticipated the pop art movement. Rauschenberg is well known for his Combines of the 1950s, in which non-traditional materials, Rauschenberg was both a painter and a sculptor and the Combines are a combination of both, but he also worked with photography, printmaking, papermaking, and performance. He was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1993 and he became the recipient of the Leonardo da Vinci World Award of Arts in 1995 in recognition of his more than 40 years of fruitful artmaking. Rauschenberg lived and worked in New York City as well as on Captiva Island, Rauschenberg was born as Milton Ernest Rauschenberg in Port Arthur, Texas, the son of Dora Carolina and Ernest R. Rauschenberg. His father was of German and Cherokee ancestry and his mother of Anglo-Saxon descent, at 16, Rauschenberg was admitted to the University of Texas where he began studying pharmacy. He was drafted into the United States Navy in 1943, based in California, he served as a mental hospital technician until his discharge in 1945. Rauschenberg subsequently studied at the Kansas City Art Institute and the Académie Julian in Paris, France, in 1948 Rauschenberg and Weil decided to attend Black Mountain College in North Carolina. Josef Albers, a founder of the Bauhaus, became Rauschenbergs painting instructor at Black Mountain, Albers preliminary courses relied on strict discipline that did not allow for any uninfluenced experimentation. Rauschenberg described Albers as influencing him to do exactly the reverse of what he was being taught, from 1949 to 1952 Rauschenberg studied with Vaclav Vytlacil and Morris Kantor at the Art Students League of New York, where he met fellow artists Knox Martin and Cy Twombly. Rauschenberg married Susan Weil in the summer of 1950 at the Weil family home in Outer Island and their only child, Christopher, was born July 16,1951. The two separated in June 1952 and divorced in 1953, according to a 1987 oral history by the composer Morton Feldman, after the end of his marriage, Rauschenberg had romantic relationships with fellow artists Cy Twombly and Jasper Johns. An article by Jonathan D. Katz states that Rauschenbergs affair with Twombly began during his marriage to Susan Weil, Rauschenberg died on May 12,2008, on Captiva Island, Florida. He died of heart failure after a decision to go off life support. Rauschenberg is survived by his partner of 25 years, artist Darryl Pottorf, Rauschenberg is also survived by his son, photographer Christopher Rauschenberg, and his sister, Janet Begneaud. Rauschenbergs approach was sometimes called Neo Dadaist, a label he shared with the painter Jasper Johns, at the same time, Johns paintings of numerals, flags, and the like, were reprising Duchamps message of the role of the observer in creating arts meaning. Alternatively, in 1961, Rauschenberg took a step in what could be considered the direction by championing the role of creator in creating arts meaning. Rauschenberg was invited to participate in an exhibition at the Galerie Iris Clert, Rauschenbergs submission consisted of a telegram sent to the gallery declaring This is a portrait of Iris Clert if I say so. From the fall of 1952 to the spring of 1953 Rauschenberg traveled through Europe and North Africa with his fellow artist, in Morocco, he created collages and boxes out of trash
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Cy Twombly
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Edwin Parker Cy Twombly, Jr. was an American painter, sculptor and photographer. He belonged to the generation of Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns and his paintings are predominantly large-scale, freely-scribbled, calligraphic and graffiti-like works on solid fields of mostly gray, tan, or off-white colors. He was also commissioned for the ceiling of a room of the Musée du Louvre in Paris, many of his later paintings and works on paper shifted toward romantic symbolism, and their titles can be interpreted visually through shapes and forms and words. Twombly often quoted the poets as Stéphane Mallarmé, Rainer Maria Rilke and John Keats, as well as many classical myths, examples of this are his Apollo and The Artist and a series of eight drawings consisting solely of inscriptions of the word VIRGIL. Twombly is said to have influenced artists such as Jean-Michel Basquiat, Anselm Kiefer, Francesco Clemente. Twombly was born in Lexington, Virginia on April 25,1928, Twomblys father, also nicknamed Cy, pitched for the Chicago White Sox. They were both nicknamed after the baseball great Cy Young who pitched for, among others, the Cardinals, Red Sox, Indians, at age 12, Twombly began to take private art lessons with the Catalan modern master Pierre Daura. On a tuition scholarship from 1950 to 1951, he studied at the Art Students League of New York, Rauschenberg encouraged him to attend Black Mountain College near Asheville, North Carolina. At Black Mountain in 1951 and 1952 he studied with Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell and Ben Shahn, the poet and rector of the College Charles Olson had a great influence on him. Arranged by Motherwell, Twomblys first solo exhibition was organized by the Samuel M. Kootz Gallery in New York in 1951, at this time his work was influenced by Klines black-and-white gestural expressionism, as well as Paul Klees imagery. In 1952, Twombly received a grant from the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts which enabled him to travel to North Africa, Spain, Italy and he spent this journey in Africa and Europe with Robert Rauschenberg. In 1954, he served in the U. S. Army as a cryptographer in Washington, D. C. in 1957, Twombly moved to Rome, where he met the Italian artist Baroness Tatiana Franchetti – sister of his patron Baron Giorgio Franchetti. They were married at City Hall in New York in 1959, in addition, they had a 17th-century villa in Bassano in Teverina, north of Rome. They had a son, Cyrus Alessandro Twombly, who is also a painter, in 1964, Twombly met Nicola Del Roscio of Gaeta, who became his longtime companion. Twombly bought a house and rented a studio in Gaeta in the early 1990s, Twombly and Tatiana, who died in 2010, never divorced and remained friends. In 2011, Twombly died in Rome after being hospitalized for several days, a plaque in Santa Maria in Vallicella commemorates him. After his return in 1953, Twombly served in the U. S. army as a cryptologist, an activity that left a distinct mark on his artistic style. From 1955 to 1959, he worked in New York, where he became a prominent figure among a group of artists including Robert Rauschenberg, with whom he was sharing a studio, and Jasper Johns
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Mark di Suvero
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Marco Polo Mark di Suvero is an abstract expressionist sculptor and 2010 National Medal of Arts recipient. Marco Polo di Suvero was born on September 18,1933 in Shanghai, China, to Matilde Millo di Suvero, di Suvero was one of four children, the eldest being Victor di Suvero. His father was a naval attaché for the Italian government and the family resided in Shanghai until his father was relocated to Tientsin shortly after the birth of the familys last son in 1936. With the outbreak of World War II, di Suvero immigrated to San Francisco, di Suvero attended San Francisco City College from 1953 to 1954 followed by the University of California, Santa Barbara from 1954 to 1955. He began creating sculptures while at UC Santa Barbara after reflecting that he couldnt make a contribution in his philosophy major. Under the guidance of Robert Thomas, who allowed di Suvero to take his sculpting course and he transferred to the University of California, Berkeley and graduated with a B. A. in philosophy in 1957. After graduating from college, di Suvero moved to New York City in 1957 to pursue an art career. He worked part-time in construction and began to incorporate wood and metal from demolition sites into his work, shortly before his first solo exhibition at Green Gallery, di Suvero was involved in a near-fatal elevator accident on March 26,1960, while working at a construction site. He suffered a back and severe spinal injures, doctors believed he wouldnt be able to walk again. While in rehabilitation, he learned to work with an arc welder which became critical for later pieces and he made a recovery in four years and could walk without assistance by 1965. He is one of the sixteen artists included in the book Chronicles of Courage, Very Special Artists as a result of this accident and the subsequent effect it had upon his health. Di Suvero was a member of the Park Place Gallery in 1963 with Forrest Myers, Leo Valledor, Peter Forakis, among others. Di Suvero protested the Vietnam War, for which he was twice arrested and his French barge, Rêve de signes, has since been turned into La Vie des Formes, an atelier for emerging artists, which has been moored at Montceau-les-Mines since 2009. He later returned to the United States and opened a studio in Petaluma, while the Petaluma studio is still active, di Suvero moved to New York City and opened a studio there. He founded the Athena Foundation in 1977 and Socrates Sculpture Park in 1986 and his early works were large outdoor pieces that incorporated wooden timbers from demolition buildings, tires, scrap metal and structural steel. This exploration has transformed over time into a focus on H-beams, many of the pieces contain sections that are allowed to swing and rotate giving the overall forms a considerable degree of motion. He prides himself on his approach to the fabrication and installation of his work. Di Suvero pioneered the use of a crane as a working tool
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Brice Marden
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Brice Marden, is an American artist, generally described as Minimalist, although his work may be hard to categorize. He lives and works in New York City, Tivoli, New York, Hydra, Greece, Marden was born in Bronxville, New York and grew up in nearby Briarcliff Manor. He attended Florida Southern College, Lakeland, receiving his BFA from the Boston University, School of Fine, among his fellow students were the future artists Richard Serra, Chuck Close, Vija Celmins, Nancy Graves, Gary Hudson and Robert Mangold. As he studied art, Marden was also immersed in the Cambridge folk music world and his first wife, Pauline Baez, whom he married in 1960, is Joan Baezs sister. He met Bob Dylan and Pete Seeger and lived for a while at Joan Baezs house in Carmel, in his early work of the 1960s and 1970s, he used simplified means, typically monochrome canvases either alone or in series of panels, diptychs or triptychs. These include the works The Dylan Painting,1966,1986, 1969s Fave, and Lethykos,1976. Marden relocated to New York in 1963, where he came into contact with the work of Jasper Johns while employed as a guard at the Jewish Museum, the following summer Marden traveled to Paris where he began to make compressed charcoal and graphite grid-patterned drawings. Mardens graphic works are a corollary to his paintings, and he would transfer ideas into even his most recent paintings and drawings, Marden made his first monochromatic single-panel painting in the winter of 1964. In 1966, at Dorothea Rockburnes suggestion, Marden was hired by Robert Rauschenberg to work as his assistant and that same year he had his first solo show in New York at the Bykert Gallery, which exhibited the first of his classic oil-and-beeswax paintings. In the late 1960s and early 70s, a moment when painting was widely considered moribund, in 1971, Brice and his wife, Helen Harrington, visited the Greek island of Hydra, to which they have returned every year since. The couple bought their first home there in 1973, the light and landscape have greatly influenced Mardens work. Executed in oil on marble fragments, he made a total of 31 paintings on marble on Hydra, Marden’s early monochromatic paintings exist as single panels, diptychs and triptychs. He gradually increased the number of panels, arranging them into post-and-lintel configurations, after preparing designs for stained-glass windows for Basle Cathedral in 1977, he became interested in expressing in his paintings the conditions of colour and light in architecture. Between 1981-87, Marden made a total of 31 paintings on marble, in 1977, Marden traveled to Rome and Pompeii, where he strengthened his interest in Roman and Greek art and architecture, which would influence his work of the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 1983, Marden and family traveled to Thailand, Sri Lanka, and India, the artist became fascinated by the art, landscape, Marden has subsequently incorporated numerous elements of certain Asian traditions into his work, making them one key to his process. Combining airy, calligraphic scaffoldings of line with whitish or palely tinted backgrounds, in 2000, Marden embarked on The Propitious Garden of Plane Image, the longest two of which measure 24 feet. Writing in The New Yorker in 2006, the critic Peter Schjeldahl described Marden as the most profound abstract painter of the past four decades, Marden has participated in hundreds of group exhibitions, and has also been the subject of numerous one-person shows and retrospectives. His first solo show in New York was held at the Bykert Gallery in 1966, in 1972, his work was showcased at Documenta 5 in Kassel
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Christie's
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Christies is a historic British auction house. It was founded in 1766 by James Christie and its main premises are in King Street, St. Jamess, in London, and on Rockefeller Plaza in New York City in the United States. The company is owned by Groupe Artémis, the company of François-Henri Pinault. Sales in 2015 totalled £4.8 billion, however, other sources note that James Christie rented auction rooms from 1762, and newspaper advertisements of Christies sales dating from 1759 have also been traced. Christies soon established a reputation as an auction house. From 1859, the company was called Christie, Manson & Woods, in 1958, it established its first overseas office, by placing a representative in Rome. The first overseas salesroom opened in Geneva, where Christies holds jewellery auctions, Christies was a public company, listed on the London Stock Exchange from 1973 to 1999. In 1974, Jo Floyd was appointed chairman of Christies and he served as chairman of Christies International plc. from 1976 to 1988, until handing over to Lord Carrington, and later was a non-executive member of the board of directors until 1992. The auction houses subsidiary Christies International Inc. held its first sale in the United States in 1977,13 years later than Sothebys, Christies growth was slow but steady since 1989, when it had 42 percent of the auction market. In 1990, the company reversed a policy and guaranteed a minimum price for a collection of artworks in its May auctions. In 1996, the auction houses sales eclipsed Sothebys for the first time since 1954. In 1993, Christies paid $10.9 million for the London gallery Spink & Sons, which specialised in Oriental art and British paintings, the company bought Leger Gallery for $3.3 million in 1996, and merged it with Spink to become Spink-Leger. The company has not been reporting profits, though it gives sale totals twice a year. Its policy, in line with U. K. accounting standards, is to convert non-U. K, results using an average exchange rate weighted daily by sales throughout the year. In 2002, Christies France held its first auction in Paris, like Sothebys, Christies became increasingly involved in high-profile private transactions. Under the original deal, the gallery was meant to be the channel for all of Christies private-client business as well as the focus of its primary trade. Also, the house originally announced that Haunch employees could not bid at auction because of conflicts of interest or issues of market manipulation. Today, the continues to operate as an independent company in London and New York
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Venice Biennale
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The Venice Biennale is an arts organization based in Venice, and also the original and principal exhibition it organizes. The organization changed its name to the Biennale Foundation in 2009, while the exhibition is called the Art Biennale to distinguish it from the organisation. The Art Biennale, a visual art exhibition, is so called as it is held biennially. A year later, the council decreed to adopt a by invitation system, to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too, to works by uninvited Italian artists. The first Biennale, I Esposizione Internazionale dArte della Città di Venezia was opened on April 30,1895 by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I, the first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed- a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a show for Renoir. A work by Picasso was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public, by 1914 seven pavilions had been established, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Russia. During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled, in 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art,1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there, in 1928 the Istituto Storico dArte Contemporanea opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art, in 1933 the Biennale organised an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section, during World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted,1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, the Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her famous New York collection,1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964. From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of interventions in the Biennales exhibition spaces. In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe,1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Rays Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West,1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra
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Documenta
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Documenta is an exhibition of contemporary art which takes place every five years in Kassel, Germany. This first documenta featured many artists who are considered to have had a significant influence on modern art. The more recent documentas feature art from all continents, nonetheless most of it is site-specific, every documenta is limited to 100 days of exhibition, which is why it is often referred to as the museum of 100 days. Documenta is not a selling exhibition and it often coincides with three other major art world events, the Venice Biennale, Art Basel and Skulptur Projekte Münster. The name of the exhibition is an invented word, the term is supposed to demonstrate the intention of every exhibition to be a documentation of modern art which was not available for the German public during the Nazi era. Each edition of documenta has commissioned its own identity, most of which have conformed to the typographic style of solely using lowercase letters. Initiator of the first documenta was art professor and designer Arnold Bode from Kassel, originally planned as a secondary event to accompany the Bundesgartenschau, he achieved to attract more than 130,000 visitors in 1955. Therefore, abstract art, in particular the paintings of the 1920s and 1930s were the focus of interest in this exhibition. Over time, the focus shifted to contemporary art, at first, the show was limited on works from Europe, but it soon covered works of artists from the Americas, Africa and Asia. Documenta, the first ever to turn a profit, featured a selection of Pop Art, Minimal Art, also, it devoted a large section to the work of Adolf Wolfli, the great Swiss outsider, then unknown. Joseph Beuys performed repeatedly under the auspices of his utopian Organization for Direct Democracy, additionally, the 1987 documenta show signaled another important shift with the elevation of design to the realm of art – showing an openness to postmodern design. In 2012, dOCUMENTA was described as rdently feminist, global and multimedia in approach and including works by dead artists, Documenta typically gives its artists at least two years to conceive and produce their projects, so the works are often elaborate and intellectually complex. However, the participants are not publicised before the very opening of the exhibition. At dOCUMENTA, the official list of artists was not released until the day the show opened, even though curators have often claimed to have gone outside the art market in their selection, participants have always included established artists. In the dOCUMENTA, for example, art critic Jerry Saltz identified more than a third of the represented by the renowned Marian Goodman Gallery in the show. The first four documentas, organized by Arnold Bode, established the exhibitions international credentials, since the fifth documenta, a new artistic director has been named for each documenta exhibition by a committee of experts. Documenta 8 was put together in two instead of the usual five. The original directors, Edy de Wilde and Harald Szeemann, were unable to get along and they were replaced by Manfred Schneckenburger, Edward F. Fry, Wulf Herzogenrath, Armin Zweite, and Vittorio Fagone
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Whitney Biennial
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The event began as an annual exhibition in 1932, the first biennial was in 1973. The Whitney show is regarded as one of the leading shows in the art world. It helped bring artists like Georgia O’Keeffe, Jackson Pollock and Jeff Koons to prominence, in 2010, for the first time a majority of the 55 artists included in that survey of contemporary American art were women. The 2012 exhibition featured 51 artists, the smallest number in the events history, the fifty-one artists for 2012 were selected by curator Elisabeth Sussman and freelance curator Jay Sanders. It was open for three months up to 27 May 2012 and presented for the first time heavy weight on dance, music and those performance art variations were open to spectators all day long in a separate floor. The Whitney Museum had a history beginning in 1932 of having a large group exhibition of invited American artists every year called the Whitney Annual. In the late sixties, it was decided to alternate between painting and sculpture, although by the 1970s the decision was to combine together in a biennial. The first Biennial occurred in 1973, since then, the biennials have pursued a different curatorial approach to include all media. In the past the Whitney Museum has tried different ways to organize its biennial and it has used its own staff members and invited outside curators, including Europeans, to present the show. In 2010 it even asked a former art dealer, Jay Sanders, the Whitney Biennial often extends to sculpture exhibitions in Central Park. The 2008 edition took over the Park Avenue Armory as a space for performance, the 2014 Whitney Biennial is the last one in the museum’s Marcel Breuer building. The museum is leaving the Upper East Side for the meatpacking district, in 1987, the show was protested by the Guerrilla Girls for its alleged sexism and racism. ”The 1993 Whitney Biennial was the most diverse exhibit by a major American museum up until that time. In 1970 less than 1% of artists at the Whitney Museum were non-white, in 1991, only 10% of artists were non white. New York Times Art Critic, Roberta Smith called it “pious, a world made bad for blacks, Latinos, gays, lesbians and women in general. ”The largely shared sentiment was that the public felt alienated by the confrontational demands of the artwork. It was the first Whitney Biennial to treat video works with the attention to space as sculpture. Text-heavy Installations demanded attention and participation from the audience, the artists made it extremely difficult to take in the work as a passive viewer. Since 2000, the Bucksbaum Award has been awarded to an artist exhibiting at the Biennial and she was the only black female artist included in curator Michelle Grabner’s exhibition. And suggest this pieces treats “othered bodies subcontractable. ”Additionally, The YAMS Collective, yams Collective member and artist Sienna Shields said “Every Whitney Biennial I have ever been to, you can barely count the number of black artists in the show on one hand
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Whitney Museum of American Art
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The Whitney Museum of American Art – known informally as the Whitney – is an art museum located in Manhattan. It was founded in 1931 by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, a wealthy and prominent American socialite, the Whitney focuses on 20th- and 21st-century American art. Its permanent collection more than 21,000 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints, photographs, films, videos. The museums Annual and Biennial exhibitions have long been a venue for younger, from 1966 to 2014, the Whitney was located at 945 Madison Avenue at East 75th Street in Manhattans Upper East Side. Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, the namesake and founder, was herself a well-regarded sculptor as well as a serious art collector. With the aid of her assistant, Juliana R. Force, in 1929, she offered to donate over 500 works of art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, but the museum declined the gift. This, along with the apparent preference for European modernism at the recently opened Museum of Modern Art, led Whitney to start her own museum, exclusively for American art, in 1929. Force became the first director of the museum, and under her guidance, in 1954, the museum left its original location and moved to a small structure on 54th Street connected to and behind the Museum of Modern Art on 53rd Street. On April 15,1958, a fire on the floor of MOMA that killed one person forced the evacuation of paintings. Among the paintings moved in the evacuation was A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte which had been on loan from the Art Institute of Chicago, in 1961, the museum began seeking a site for a larger building. The Whitney settled in 1966 at the southeast corner of Madison Avenue at 75th Street in Manhattans Upper East Side, in 1967, Mauricio Lasansky showed The Nazi Drawings. The exhibition traveled to the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York, the institution grappled with space problems for decades. From 1973 to 1983 the Whitney operated its first branch at 55 Water Street, in 1983 Philip Morris installed a Whitney branch in the lobby of its Park Avenue headquarters. In 1981 the museum opened a space in Stamford, Connecticut. Each museum had its own director, and all plans were to be approved by a Whitney committee, but each time the effort was abandoned, either because of the cost or the design or both. In order to secure space for the museums collections, then-director Thomas N. Armstrong III developed plans for a 10-story. The proposed addition, designed by Michael Graves and announced in 1985, Graves had proposed demolishing the flanking brownstones down to the East 74th Street corner for a complementary addition. After the project gradually lost the support of many of the museum’s trustees, between 1995 and 1998, the building underwent a renovation and addition by Richard Gluckman
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The Phillips Collection
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Duncan Phillips played a seminal role in introducing America to modern art. Born in Pittsburgh—the grandson of James H. Laughlin, a banker and co-founder of the Jones and Laughlin Steel Company—Phillips and his moved to Washington. Beginning with a small collection of paintings, Phillips, a published art critic. A specially built room over the wing of the family home provided a public gallery space. With the collection exceeding 600 works and facing public demand, the Phillips family moved to a new home in 1930, Duncan Phillips married painter Marjorie Acker in 1921. His focus on the tradition of art was revolutionary at a time when America was largely critical of modernism. Moreover, she helped launch its national fundraising campaign, the Phillips Collection, opened in 1921, is America’s first museum of modern art. Featuring a permanent collection of nearly 3,000 works by American and European impressionist and modern artists and it is housed in founder Duncan Phillips’1897 Georgian Revival home and two similarly scaled additions in Washington, D. C. ’s Dupont Circle neighborhood. In 1923, Phillips purchased Pierre-Auguste Renoirs impressionist painting, Luncheon of the Boating Party and he presented visual connections—between past and present, between classical form and romantic expression—as dialogues on the walls of the museum. He exhibited watercolors by John Marin with paintings by Cézanne, Phillips’ vision brought together congenial spirits among the artists, and his ideas still guide the museum today. The Phillips Collection is also known for its groups of works by artists who Phillips particularly favored, for example, he was overwhelmed by Bonnard’s expressive use of color, acquiring 17 paintings by the artist. Cubist pioneer Braque is represented by 13 paintings, including the monumental still-life The Round Table, the collection has an equal number of works by Klee, such as Arab Song and Picture Album, as well as seven pieces by abstract expressionist artist Mark Rothko. The Rothko Room is the existing installation for the artists work in collaboration with the artist himself. Phillips was initially attracted to Rothkos work because he saw the use of color as similar to Bonards, by purchasing works by such promising but unknown artists, Phillips provided them with the means to continue painting. The museum also served as a haven for artists such as Richard Diebenkorn, Gene Davis. In a 1982 tribute to the museum, Noland acknowledged, I’ve spent many hours of many days in this home of art and you can be with art in the Phillips as in no other place I know. In 2013, the museum opened its second permanent installation, a room covered in wax by artist Wolfgang Laib. Though Laibs work is interpreted as evocative of nature, the piece
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Cincinnati Art Museum
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The Cincinnati Art Museum is one of the oldest art museums in the United States. Founded in 1881, it was the first purpose-built art museum west of the Alleghenies and its collection of over 67,000 works spanning 6,000 years of human history make it one of the most comprehensive collections in the Midwest. Museum founders debated locating the museum in either Burnet Woods, Eden Park, charles West, the major donor of the early museum, cast his votes in favor of Eden Park sealing its final location. The Romanesque-revival building designed by Cincinnati architect James W. McLaughlin opened in 1886, a series of additions and renovations have considerably altered the building over its 120-year history. In 2003, an addition, The Cincinnati Wing was added to house a permanent exhibit of art created for Cincinnati or by Cincinnati artists since 1788. The Cincinnati Wing includes fifteen new galleries covering 18,000 square feet of well-appointed space, the Odoardo Fantacchiotti angels are two of the largest pieces in the collection. Fantacchiotti created these angels for the altar of St. Peter in Chains Cathedral in the late 1840s. They were among the first European sculptures to come to Cincinnati, the Cincinnati Wing also contains the work of Frank Duveneck, Rookwood Pottery, Robert Scott Duncanson Mitchell and Rammelsberg and a tall case clock by Luman Watson. In the late century, public art museums were still very much a new phenomenon. Enthusiasm for these goals grew steadily and by 1881 the Cincinnati Museum Association was incorporated, the art museum was at first temporarily housed in the south wing of Music Hall in Over-the-Rhine. Just five years later, or on May 17,1886, the Cincinnati Art Museum enjoyed the support of the community from the beginning. In 1907 the Schmidlapp Wing opened, which was followed by a series of building projects, renovations during the late 1940s and early 1950s divided the Great Hall into two floors and the present main entrance to the Art Museum was established. The 1965 completion of the Adams-Emery wing increased our facility resources yet further, adding space for the permanent collection, lecture halls, in 1993, a $13 million project restored the grandeur of the Art Museums interior architecture and uncovered long-hidden architectural details. This project included the renovation of one of the Art Museums signature spaces, in addition, new gallery space was created and lighting and climate control were improved. The Art Museums temporary exhibition space was expanded to approximately 10,000 square feet to accommodate major temporary exhibitions, by the turn of the twenty-first century, the Art Museums collection numbered over 60,000 objects and, today, is the largest in the state of Ohio. In addition, on May 17,2003, the Art Museum eliminated its general admission fee forever, made possible by The Lois, the collection also includes works by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Claude Monet, and Pablo Picasso. The museum also has a collection of paintings by American painter Frank Duveneck. As a result, in 2010 the museum mounted “See America, attendance at the museum has increased by 30 percent since it started emphasizing its permanent collection
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San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
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The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art is a modern art museum located in San Francisco, California. A nonprofit organization, SFMOMA holds an internationally recognized collection of modern and contemporary art, the museum’s current collection includes over 33,000 works of painting, sculpture, photography, architecture, design, and media arts. They are displayed in 170,000 square feet of space, making the museum one of the largest in the United States overall. SFMOMA reopened on May 14,2016, following a major expansion project. SFMOMA was founded in 1935 under director Grace L. McCann Morley as the San Francisco Museum of Art, for its first sixty years, the museum occupied the fourth floor of the War Memorial Veterans Building on Van Ness Avenue in the Civic Center. A gift of 36 artworks from Albert M. Bender, including The Flower Carrier by Diego Rivera, Bender donated more than 1,100 objects to SFMOMA during his lifetime and endowed the museums first purchase fund. The museum began its second year with an exhibition of works by Henri Matisse, in this same year the museum established its photography collection, becoming one of the first museums to recognize photography as a fine art. SFMOMA held its first architecture exhibition, entitled Telesis, Space for Living, SFMOMA was obliged to move to a temporary facility on Post Street in March 1945 to make way for the United Nations Conference on International Organization. The museum returned to its original Van Ness location in July, later that year SFMOMA hosted Jackson Pollocks first solo museum exhibition. Founding director Grace Morley held film screenings at the beginning in 1937. In 1946 Morley brought in filmmaker Frank Stauffacher to found SFMOMA’s influential Art in Cinema film series, SFMOMA continued its expansion into new media with the 1951 launch of a biweekly television program entitled Art in Your Life. The series, later renamed Discovery, ran for three years, Morley ended her 23-year tenure as museum director in 1958 and was succeeded by George D. Culler and Gerald Nordland. The museum rose to prominence under director Henry T. Hopkins. Since 1967, SFMOMA has honored San Francisco Bay Area artists with its biennial SECA Art Award, the positions of director of education and director of photography were elevated to full curatorial roles. At this time SFMOMA took on a special exhibitions program. Including major presentations of the work of Jeff Koons, Sigmar Polke, in January 1995 the museum opened its current location at 151 Third Street, adjacent to Yerba Buena Gardens in the SOMA district. Mario Botta, a Swiss architect from Canton Ticino, designed the new US$60 million facility, Art patron Phyllis Wattis helped the museum acquire key works by Magritte, Mondrian, Andy Warhol, Eva Hesse and Wayne Thiebaud. SFMOMA made a number of important acquisitions under the direction of David A and those and acquisitions of works by Jasper Johns, Mark Rothko, Francis Bacon, Alexander Calder, Chuck Close and Frank Stella put the institution in the top ranks of American museums of modern art
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Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
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The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts is a museum and art school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was founded in 1805 and is the first and oldest art museum, the academys museum is internationally known for its collections of 19th- and 20th-century American paintings, sculptures, and works on paper. Its archives house important materials for the study of American art history, museums, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts was founded in 1805 by painter and scientist Charles Willson Peale, sculptor William Rush, and other artists and business leaders. The growth of the Academy of Fine Arts was slow and it opened as a museum in 1807 and held its first exhibition in 1811, where more than 500 paintings and statues were on display. The first school classes held in the building were with the Society of Artists in 1810, in 1876, former Academy student Thomas Eakins returned to teach as a volunteer. Fairman Rogers, chairman of the Committee on Instruction from 1878 to 1883, made him a faculty member in 1878, Eakins revamped the certificate curriculum to what it remains today. From 1811 to 1969, the Academy also organized important annual art exhibitions from which significant acquisitions were made, harrison S. Morris, Managing Director from 1892 to 1905, collected contemporary American art for the institution. Among the many masterpieces acquired during his tenure were works by Cecilia Beaux, William Merritt Chase, Frank Duveneck, Thomas Eakins, Winslow Homer, Childe Hassam, and Edmund Tarbell. Work by The Eight, which included former Academy students Robert Henri and John Sloan, is represented in the collection. From 1890 to 1906, Edward Hornor Coates served as the president of the Academy. In 1915, Coates was awarded the Academys gold medal, rich endowments were made to the schools, a gallery of national portraiture was formed, and some of the best examples of Gilbert Stuarts work acquired. The annual exhibitions attained a brilliancy and éclat hitherto unknown, mr. Coates wisely established the schools upon a conservative basis, building almost unconsciously the dykes high against the oncoming flow of insane novelties in art patterns. In this last struggle against modernism the President was ably supported by Eakins, Anschutz, Grafly, Thouron, Vonnoh and his unfailing courtesy, his disinterested thoughtfulness, his tactfulness, and his modesty endeared him to scholars and masters alike. No sacrifice of time or of means was too great, if he thought he could accomplish the end he always had in view—the honour, during World War I, Academy students were actively involved in war work. About sixty percent of the men enlisted or entered Government service. A war service club was formed by students and a monthly publication, George Harding, a former PAFA student, was commissioned Captain during the war and created official combat sketches for the American Expeditionary Forces. Prior to the founding of the Academy, there were limited opportunities for women to receive training in the United States. Realizing the rise in interest of women, this period between the mid-19th and early 20th century shows a remarkable growth of formally trained women artists
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Menil Collection
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Additionally the Menil receives public funds granted by the City of Houston, the State of Texas, and the federal government through the National Endowment for the Arts. The museums holdings are diverse, including early to mid-twentieth century works of Yves Tanguy, René Magritte, Max Ernst, Man Ray, Marcel Duchamp, Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso, among others. The museum also maintains a collection of pop art and contemporary art from Jackson Pollock, Andy Warhol, Mark Rothko, Robert Rauschenberg, Vija Celmins and Cy Twombly. Also included in the permanent collection are Antiquities and works of Byzantine. The Renzo Piano-designed museum opened to the public in June 1987, initially, the Foundation also pursued land banking to stabilize the neighborhood surrounding the museum, and structured the administration and operations of the collection. Dominique Menil ran the museum until her death in December 1997, two other buildings founded by the de Menils, but now operating as independent foundations, complete the campus, The Byzantine Fresco Chapel and the Rothko Chapel. The Menil Foundation began buying bungalow style homes in the area in the 1960s, when the museum building was constructed, it was painted what has become known as Menil gray to coordinate with the bungalows. Though subtle, the result is a neighborhood that feels aesthetically unified, in 2013, the landscape architect Michael Van Valkenburgh was appointed to enhance and expand the Menil Collection’s 30-acre campus. The master site plan, by David Chipperfield Architects, calls for the creation of green space and walkways, a cafe. The Menil Collection is open to the public, and admission is free, the Museum is open Wednesday through Sunday 11 am to 7 pm. It is located near the University of St. Thomas in the Neartown area of Houston, the Rothko Chapel, built in 1971, is an interfaith chapel commissioned by the de Menils. Each year, it more than 60,000 visitors from as many as 85 countries around the world. The entrance-way contains holy books from religious traditions that may be used in the chapel. The space is sky-lit, with kneeling mats, prayer benches, fourteen canvases by Russian-born American painter Mark Rothko hang in the interior. The Rothko Chapel is an independent, non-profit organization, in 2001 the Chapel was listed in the National Register of Historic Places. It is also an entry in National Geographics book Sacred Places of a Lifetime,500 of the Worlds Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations. South of the entrance is a pool with the sculpture Broken Obelisk by Barnett Newman, installed in memory of Martin Luther King. After having been removed from a church in Lysi in Turkish-occupied North Cyprus by the art trade
. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press.
