1.
Fraxinus ornus
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Fraxinus ornus is a medium-sized deciduous tree growing to 15–25 m tall with a trunk up to 1 m diameter. The bark is grey, remaining smooth even on old trees. The buds are pale pinkish-brown to grey-brown, with a covering of short grey hairs. The flowers are produced in dense panicles 10–20 cm long after the new leaves appear in spring, each flower with four slender creamy white petals 5–6 mm long. The fruit is a slender samara 1. 5–2.5 cm long, the seed 2 mm broad, Fraxinus ornus is frequently grown as an ornamental tree in Europe north of its native range, grown for its decorative flowers. Some cultivated specimens are grafted on rootstocks of Fraxinus excelsior, with a very conspicuous change in the bark at the graft line to the fissured bark of the rootstock species. In fact, the sugar mannose and the sugar alcohol mannitol both derive their name from the extract, production of manna in Sicily Fraxinus ornus - information, genetic conservation units and related resources
2.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
3.
Plant
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Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
4.
Flowering plant
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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
5.
Eudicots
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The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
6.
Asterids
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In the APG IV system for the classification of flowering plants, the name asterids denotes a clade. Most of the taxa belonging to this clade had been referred to the Asteridae in the Cronquist system, the name asterids resembles the earlier botanical name but is intended to be the name of a clade rather than a formal ranked name, in the sense of the ICBN. The phylogenetic tree presented hereafter has been proposed by the APG IV project, genetic analysis carried out after APG II maintains that the sister to all other asterids are the Cornales. A second order that split from the base of the asterids are the Ericales, the remaining orders cluster into two clades, the lamiids and the campanulids. The structure of both of these clades has changed in APG III, in APG III system, the following clades were renamed, euasterids I → lamiids euasterids II → campanulids Asterids in Stevens, P. F. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website
7.
Lamiales
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The Lamiales are an order in the asterid group of dicotyledonous flowering plants. It includes about 24,000 species divided into about 20 families, in the classification system of Dahlgren the Lamiales were in the superorder Lamiiflorae. Lamiales has become the name for this much larger combined group. The placement of the Boraginaceae is unclear, but phylogenetic work shows this family does not belong in Lamiales, Lamiales A parsimony analysis of the Asteridae sensu lato based on rbcL sequences Disintegration of the Scrophulariaceae L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz. The families of flowering plants, descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval
8.
Oleaceae
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The Oleaceae are a family of flowering plants in the order Lamiales. It presently comprises 26 genera, one of which is recently extinct, the 25 extant genera include Cartrema, which was resurrected in 2012. The number of species in the Oleaceae is variously estimated in a range around 700. The Oleaceae consist of shrubs, trees, and a few lianas, the flowers are often numerous and highly odoriferous. The family has a distribution, ranging from the subarctic to the southernmost parts of Africa, Australia. Notable members of the Oleaceae include olive, ash, jasmine, and several ornamental plants including privet, forsythia, fringetrees. The following list contains all 25 genera recognized in the most recent revision of the family and it also includes Cartrema, which was resurrected in 2012. Linociera is not included, even though some continue to recognize it. Linociera is not easy to distinguish from Chionanthus, mostly because the latter is polyphyletic, green The type genus for Oleaceae is Olea, the olives. Recent classifications recognize no subfamilies, but the family is divided into five tribes, the distinctiveness of each tribe has been strongly supported in molecular phylogenetic studies, but the relationships among the tribes were not clarified until 2014. The phylogenetic tree for Oleaceae is a 5-grade that can be represented as, the major centers of diversity for Oleaceae are in Southeast Asia and Australia. There are also a significant number of species in Africa, China, in the tropics the family is represented in a variety of habitats, from low-lying dry forest to montane cloud forest. In Oleaceae, the dispersal is almost entirely by wind or animals. In the case that the fruit is a berry, the species is dispersed by birds. Some of the works have recognized as many as 29 genera in Oleaceae. Today, most authors recognize 25 or 26, but this number will change some of these genera have recently been shown to be polyphyletic. Estimates of the number of species in Oleaceae have ranged from 600 to 900, most of the species number discrepancy is due to the genus Jasminum in which as few as 200 or as many as 450 species have been accepted. In spite of the sparsity of the record, and the inaccuracy of molecular-clock dating
9.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
10.
Synonym (taxonomy)
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For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a species is moved to a different genus. To the general user of scientific names, in such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science. A synonym is a name that was used as the correct scientific name but which has been displaced by another scientific name. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as a name which has the same application as another. In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have mentioned as such after the current scientific name. Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the synonym in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names. Changes of scientific name have two causes, they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural, a name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight. A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature, the earliest such name is called the senior synonym, while the later name is the junior synonym. One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published name, synonyms are important because if the earliest name cannot be used, then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the type and same rank. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn, however, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ords name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being a subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the level of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the type species, these are objective synonyms
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Genus
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A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
12.
Olive
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Olea europeana sylvestris is a subspecies that corresponds to a smaller tree bearing noticeably smaller fruits. The olives fruit, also called the olive, is of agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil. The tree and its fruit give their name to the plant family, which includes species such as lilacs, jasmine, Forsythia. The word derives from Latin ŏlīva a borrowing from the Greek ἐλαία, the oldest attested forms of the Greek words are the Mycenaean
13.
Syringa vulgaris
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Syringa vulgaris is a species of flowering plant in the olive family Oleaceae, native to the Balkan Peninsula, where it grows on rocky hills. This species is cultivated as an ornamental and has been naturalized in other parts of Europe. It is not regarded as a species, found in the wild in widely scattered sites. The bark is grey to grey-brown, smooth on young stems, longitudinally furrowed, the leaves are simple, 4–12 cm and 3–8 cm broad, light green to glaucous, oval to cordate, with pinnate leaf venation, a mucronate apex, and an entire margin. They are arranged in pairs or occasionally in whorls of three. The flowers have a base to the corolla 6–10 mm long with an open four-lobed apex 5–8 mm across, usually lilac to mauve. They are arranged in dense, terminal panicles 8–18 cm long, the fruit is a dry, smooth, brown capsule, 1–2 cm long, splitting in two to release the two-winged seeds. Syringa vulgaris was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, the specific epithet is a Latin word meaning common or usual. Lilacs—both S. vulgaris and S. vulgaris, the Holy Roman Emperors ambassador, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, is generally credited with supplying lilac slips to Carolus Clusius, about 1562. That Tradescants lilac of Mattiolis was a one is shown by Elias Ashmoles manuscript list, Trees found in Mrs Tredescants Ground when it came into my possession. In the American colonies, lilacs were introduced in the 18th century, in late summer, lilacs can be attacked by powdery mildew, specifically Erysiphe syringae, one of the Erysiphaceae. No fall color is seen and the clusters have no aesthetic appeal. Common lilac tends to flower profusely in alternate years, a habit that can be improved by deadheading the flower clusters after the color has faded and before seeds, few of which are fertile, form. At the same time, twiggy growth on shoots that have flowered more than once or twice can be cut to a strong, outward-growing side shoot and it is widely naturalised in western and northern Europe. Additional hardiness, for Canadian gardens, was bred for in a series of S, most garden plants of S. vulgaris are cultivars, the majority of which do not exceed 4–5 m tall. Between 1876 and 1927, the nurseryman Victor Lemoine of Nancy introduced over 153 named cultivars, many of which are considered classics and still in commerce today. Lemoines French lilacs extended the limited range to include deeper, more saturated hues. These cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, Lilac
14.
Tree
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In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are usable as lumber or plants above a specified height. Trees are not a group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk. In looser senses, the palms, the tree ferns, bananas. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old, the tallest known tree, a coast redwood named Hyperion, stands 115.6 m high. Trees have been in existence for 370 million years and it is estimated that there are just over 3 trillion mature trees in the world. A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk and this trunk typically contains woody tissue for strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier, below the ground, the roots branch and spread out widely, they serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots typically bear leaves, which light energy and convert it into sugars by photosynthesis, providing the food for the trees growth. Flowers and fruit may also be present, but some trees, such as conifers, instead have pollen cones and seed cones, others, such as tree ferns, trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues, trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world, trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always revered, with sacred groves in various cultures. Although tree is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition of what a tree is, either botanically or in common language. In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with the form of an elongated stem, or trunk. Trees are also defined by height, with smaller plants from 0.5 to 10 m being called shrubs
15.
Deciduous
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In a more general sense, deciduous means the dropping of a part that is no longer needed or falling away after its purpose is finished. In plants it is the result of natural processes, in botany and horticulture, deciduous plants, including trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials, are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year. In some cases leaf loss coincides with winter—namely in temperate or polar climates, in other parts of the world, including tropical, subtropical, and arid regions, plants lose their leaves during the dry season or other seasons, depending on variations in rainfall. The converse of deciduous is coniferous, where foliage is shed on a different schedule from deciduous trees, plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous, they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before the growing season. Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, the absence of leaves improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants. This strategy is not without risks, as the flowers can be damaged by frost or, in dry season regions, leaf drop or abscission involves complex physiological signals and changes within plants. The process of photosynthesis steadily degrades the supply of chlorophylls in foliage, the brightest leaf colors are produced when days grow short and nights are cool, but remain above freezing. These other pigments include carotenoids that are yellow, brown, anthocyanin pigments produce red and purple colors, though they are not always present in the leaves. Rather, they are produced in the foliage in late summer, parts of the world that have showy displays of bright autumn colors are limited to locations where days become short and nights are cool. In other parts of the world, the leaves of deciduous trees simply fall off without turning the bright colors produced from the accumulation of anthocyanin pigments, the beginnings of leaf drop starts when an abscission layer is formed between the leaf petiole and the stem. This layer is formed in the spring during active new growth of the leaf, the cells are sensitive to a plant hormone called auxin that is produced by the leaf and other parts of the plant. The elongation of cells break the connection between the different cell layers, allowing the leaf to break away from the plant. It also forms a layer that seals the break, so the plant does not lose sap, in the spring, these proteins are used as a nitrogen source during the growth of new leaves or flowers. Plants with deciduous foliage have advantages and disadvantages compared to plants with evergreen foliage, evergreens suffer greater water loss during the winter and they also can experience greater predation pressure, especially when small. Losing leaves in winter may reduce damage from insects, repairing leaves, removing leaves also reduces cavitation which can damage xylem vessels in plants. This then allows deciduous plants to have xylem vessels with larger diameters, the deciduous characteristic has developed repeatedly among woody plants. Trees include maple, many oaks and nothofagus, elm, aspen, Deciduous shrubs include honeysuckle, viburnum, and many others
16.
Subtropics
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The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropic circle of latitude at 23.5 latitude and temperate latitudes. Subtropical climates are characterized by warm to hot summers and cool to mild winters with infrequent frost. Subtropical climates can occur at elevations within the tropics, such as in the southern end of the Mexican Plateau and in Vietnam. Six climate classifications use the term to define the various temperature. A great portion of the deserts are located within the subtropics. Within savanna regimes in the subtropics, a wet season is seen annually during the summer, within Mediterranean climate regimes, the wet season occurs during the winter. Areas bordering warm oceans are prone to heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones. Plants such as palms, citrus, mango, lychee, the tropics have been historically defined as lying between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, located at 23. 45° north and south latitude respectively. The poleward fringe of the subtropics is located at approximately 40° north and south latitude respectively, northern fringes of the type can go further north due to moderating effects of ocean streams, like in parts of Southern Europe due to heat transported by the Gulf Stream. Several methods have used to define the subtropical climate. In the Trewartha climate classification, a subtropical region should have at least eight months with a temperature greater than 10 °C. According to the Troll-Paffen climate classification, there exists one large subtropical zone named the warm-temperate subtropical zone. According to the E. Neef climate classification, the zone is divided into two parts, Rainy winters of the west sides and Eastern subtropical climate. According to the Wilhelm Lauer & Peter Frankenberg climate classification, the zone is divided into three parts, high-continental, continental, and maritime. According to the Siegmund/Frankenberg climate classification, subtropical is one of six zones in the world. Heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of upward motion and convection along the trough or Intertropical convergence zone. The upper-level divergence over the near-equatorial trough leads to air rising and moving away from the equator aloft, as the air moves towards the Mid-Latitudes, it cools and sinks, which leads to subsidence near the 30th parallel of both hemispheres. This circulation is known as the Hadley cell and leads to the formation of the subtropical ridge, many of the worlds deserts are caused by these climatological high-pressure areas, located within the subtropics
17.
Evergreen
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In botany, an evergreen is a plant that has leaves throughout the year, always green. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. There are many different kinds of plants, both trees and shrubs. Deciduous trees shed their leaves, usually as an adaptation to a cold or dry/wet season, evergreen trees do lose leaves, but each tree loses its leaves gradually and not all at once. Most warm temperate climate plants are also evergreen, in cool temperate climates, fewer plants are evergreen, with a predominance of conifers, as few evergreen broadleaf plants can tolerate severe cold below about −30 °C. In areas where there is a reason for being deciduous, being evergreen is usually an adaptation to low nutrient levels, deciduous trees lose nutrients whenever they lose their leaves. In warmer areas, species such as pines and cypresses grow on poor soils. In Rhododendron, a genus with many broadleaf evergreens, several species grow in forests but are usually found on highly acidic soil where the nutrients are less available to plants. In taiga or boreal forests, it is too cold for the matter in the soil to decay rapidly, so the nutrients in the soil are less easily available to plants. These conditions favour the growth of more evergreens and make it difficult for deciduous plants to persist. In addition, the shelter provided by existing evergreen plants can make it easier for younger evergreen plants to survive cold and/or drought
18.
Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
19.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
20.
Spear
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A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The most common design for hunting or combat spears since ancient times has incorporated a metal spearhead shaped like a triangle, lozenge, the heads of fishing spears usually feature barbs or serrated edges. The word spear comes from the Old English spere, from the Proto-Germanic speri, from a Proto-Indo-European root *sper- spear, Spears can be divided into two broad categories, those designed for thrusting in melee combat and those designed for throwing. The spear has been used throughout history both as a hunting and fishing tool and as a weapon. Along with the axe, knife and club, it is one of the earliest and most important tools developed by early humans, as a weapon, it may be wielded with either one hand or two. It was used in every conflict up until the modern era, where even then it continues on in the form of the bayonet. Spear manufacture and use is not confined to human beings and it is also practiced by the western chimpanzee. Chimpanzees near Kédougou, Senegal have been observed to create spears by breaking straight limbs off trees, stripping them of their bark and side branches and they then used the weapons to hunt galagos sleeping in hollows. Orangutans also have used spears to fish, presumably after observing humans fishing in a similar manner, neanderthals were constructing stone spear heads from as early as 300,000 BP and by 250,000 years ago, wooden spears were made with fire-hardened points. From 200,000 BP onwards, Middle Paleolithic humans began to make stone blades with flaked edges which were used as spear heads. These stone heads could be fixed to the shaft by gum or resin or by bindings made of animal sinew. During this period, a clear difference remained between spears designed to be thrown and those designed to be used in hand-to-hand combat, by the Magdalenian period, spear-throwers similar to the later atlatl were in use. Spears were one of the most common weapons used in the Stone Age. They may be seen as the ancestor of such weapons as the lance, the pilum, the halberd, the naginata, the glaive, the bill. Spears may be used as both a projectile and melee weapons, Spears used primarily for thrusting may be used with either one or two hands and tend to have heavier and sturdier designs than those intended exclusively for throwing. From the atlatl dart, the arrow for use with bows eventually developed, short, one-handed spears featuring socketed metal heads were used in conjunction with a shield by the earliest Bronze Age cultures. They were wielded in either combat or in large troop formations. This tradition continued from the first Mesopotamian cultures, through the various ancient Egyptian dynasties, during this time the spear was also used by cavalry
21.
Leaf
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A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant and is the principal lateral appendage of the stem. The leaves and stem together form the shoot, Leaves are collectively referred to as foliage, as in autumn foliage. Although leaves can be seen in different shapes, sizes and textures, typically a leaf is a thin, dorsiventrally flattened organ, borne above ground. Most leaves have distinctive upper surface and lower surface that differ in colour, hairiness, broad, flat leaves with complex venation are known as megaphylls and the species that bear them, the majority, as broad-leaved or megaphyllous plants. In others, such as the clubmosses, with different evolutionary origins, some leaves, such as bulb scales are not above ground, and in many aquatic species the leaves are submerged in water. Succulent plants often have thick juicy leaves, but some leaves are without major photosynthetic function and may be dead at maturity, as in some cataphylls, furthermore, several kinds of leaf-like structures found in vascular plants are not totally homologous with them. Examples include flattened plant stems called phylloclades and cladodes, and flattened leaf stems called phyllodes which differ from both in their structure and origin. Many structures of plants, such as the phyllids of mosses and liverworts and even of some foliose lichens. Leaves are the most important organs of most vascular plants and these are then further processed by chemical synthesis into more complex organic molecules such as cellulose, the basic structural material in plant cell walls. The plant must therefore bring these three together in the leaf for photosynthesis to take place. Once sugar has been synthesized, it needs to be transported to areas of growth such as the plant shoots and roots. Vascular plants transport sucrose in a tissue called the phloem. The phloem and xylem are parallel to each other but the transport of materials is usually in opposite directions. Within the leaf these vascular systems branch to form veins which supply as much as the leaf as possible and they are arranged on the plant so as to expose their surfaces to light as efficiently as possible without shading each other, but there are many exceptions and complications. For instance plants adapted to windy conditions may have pendent leaves, such as in many willows, the flat, or laminar, shape also maximises thermal contact with the surrounding air, promoting cooling. Functionally, in addition to photosynthesis the leaf is the site of transpiration and guttation. Many gymnosperms have thin needle-like or scale-like leaves that can be advantageous in cold climates with frequent snow and these are interpreted as reduced from megaphyllous leaves of their Devonian ancestors. For xerophytes the major constraint is not light flux or intensity, some window plants such as Fenestraria species and some Haworthia species such as Haworthia tesselata and Haworthia truncata are examples of xerophytes. and Bulbine mesembryanthemoides
22.
Phyllotaxis
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In botany, phyllotaxis or phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem. Phyllotactic spirals form a class of patterns in nature. The basic arrangements of leaves on a stem are opposite, or alternate = spiral, leaves may also be whorled if several leaves arise, or appear to arise, from the same level on a stem. This arrangement is unusual on plants except for those with particularly short internodes. Examples of trees with whorled phyllotaxis are Brabejum stellatifolium and the related Macadamia genus, with an opposite leaf arrangement, two leaves arise from the stem at the same level, on opposite sides of the stem. An opposite leaf pair can be thought of as a whorl of two leaves, with an alternate pattern, each leaf arises at a different point on the stem. Examples include various bulbous plants such as Boophone and it also occurs in other plant habits such as those of Gasteria or Aloe seedlings, and also in some mature Aloe species such as Aloe plicatilis. In an opposite pattern, if successive leaf pairs are 90 degrees apart and it is common in members of the family Crassulaceae Decussate phyllotaxis also occurs in the Aizoaceae. A whorl can occur as a structure where all the leaves are attached at the base of the shoot. A basal whorl with a number of leaves spread out in a circle is called a rosette. A repeating spiral can be represented by a fraction describing the angle of windings leaf per leaf, alternate distichous leaves will have an angle of 1/2 of a full rotation. In beech and hazel the angle is 1/3, in oak and apricot it is 2/5, in sunflowers, poplar, and pear, it is 3/8, the numerator and denominator normally consist of a Fibonacci number and its second successor. The number of leaves is called rank, in the case of simple Fibonacci ratios. With larger Fibonacci pairs, the pattern becomes complex and non-repeating and this tends to occur with a basal configuration. Examples can be found in flowers and seed heads. The most famous example is the sunflower head and this phyllotactic pattern creates an optical effect of criss-crossing spirals. In the botanical literature, these designs are described by the number of counter-clockwise spirals and these also turn out to be Fibonacci numbers. In some cases, the appear to be multiples of Fibonacci numbers because the spirals consist of whorls
23.
Whorl (botany)
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In botany, a whorl is an arrangement of sepals, petals, leaves, stipules or branches that radiate from a single point and surround or wrap around the stem. A whorl consists of at least three elements, a pair of leaves is not called a whorl. A flower lacking any of these structures is said to be incomplete or imperfect. Not all flowers consist of whorls since the parts may instead be spirally arranged, for leaves to grow in whorls is fairly unusual except in plant species with very short internodes. It does however occur in some such as Brabejum stellatifolium and other Proteaceae. In examples such as illustrated, crowded internodes within the whorls alternate with long internodes between the whorls
24.
Pinnation
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Pinnation is the arrangement of feather-like or multi-divided features arising from both sides of a common axis. Pinnation occurs in biological morphology, in crystals, such as forms of ice or metal crystals. The term derives from the Latin word pinna meaning feather, wing, a similar concept is pectination, which is a comb-like arrangement of parts. Pinnation is commonly referred to in contrast to palmation, in which the parts or structures radiate out from a common point. The terms pinnation and pennation are cognate, and although they are used distinctly. Botanically, pinnation is an arrangement of structures arising at multiple points along a common axis. For example, once-divided leaf blades having leaflets arranged on both sides of a rachis are pinnately compound leaves, many palms and most cycads and grevilleas have pinnately divided leaves. Most species of ferns have pinnate or more highly divided fronds, plants with pinnate leaves are sometimes colloquially called feather-leaved. Pinnatisect, cut all the way to the midrib or other axis, pinnate-pinnatifid, pinnate, with the pinnae being pinnatifid. Paripinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which leaflets are born in pairs along the rachis without a terminal leaflet. Imparipinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which there is a terminal leaflet rather than a terminal pair of leaflets. Bipinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which the leaflets are themselves pinnately compound, tripinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which the leaflets are themselves bipinnate, also called thrice-pinnate. Tetrapinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which the leaflets are themselves tripinnate, unipinnate, solitary compound leaf with a row of leaflets arranged along each side of a common rachis. The term pinnula is the Latin diminutive of pinna, either as such or in the Anglicised form, pinnule, some apply it to the leaflets of a pinna, especially the leaflets of bipinnate or tripinnate leaves. Others also or alternatively apply it second or third divisions of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf. It is the ultimate division of a compound leaf, or a pinnate subdivision of a multipinnate leaf. Pinnation occurs in certain systems in which all major tributary streams enter the main channels by flowing in one direction at an oblique angle
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Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
26.
Seed
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A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The formation of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after fertilization by pollen and some growth within the mother plant. The embryo is developed from the zygote and the coat from the integuments of the ovule. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to both in hot and cold climates. The term seed also has a meaning that antedates the above—anything that can be sown, e. g. seed potatoes. In the case of sunflower and corn seeds, what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk, many structures commonly referred to as seeds are actually dry fruits. Plants producing berries are called baccate, sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the stone fruits have a hardened fruit layer fused to. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of plants with an indehiscent seed. Seeds are produced in several related groups of plants, and their manner of production distinguishes the angiosperms from the gymnosperms, angiosperm seeds are produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses the seeds, hence the name. Some fruits have layers of hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, however, the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer. Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year-to-year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine produced from 0 to nearly 5 million sound pine seeds per hectare. Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination, after fertilization the ovules develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components, The funicle or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the placenta and hence ovary or fruit wall, the nucellus, the remnant of the megasporangium and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops. The micropyle, a pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the pollen tube usually enters during the process of fertilization. The chalaza, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, the shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds
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Fruit
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In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
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Dioecy
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Dioecy is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct male and female individual organisms or colonies, meaning that a colony contains only either male or female individuals. Dioecy is one method that excludes self-fertilization and promotes allogamy, flowering plants have several other methods of excluding self-fertilization, called Self-incompatibility. In zoology, dioecious species may be opposed to hermaphroditic species, meaning that an individual is of one sex. Dioecy may also describe colonies, such as the colonies of Siphonophorae, Dioecious colonies contain members of only one sex, whereas monoecious colonies contain members of both sexes. Dioecious species have the male and female structures on separate plants. The meaning of male and female in the context of plants is different from that used in animal groups and this issue is discussed below in the Alternation of generations section. About 6 percent of species are entirely dioecious and about 7% of angiosperm genera contain some dioecious species. Examples of dioecious plant species include ginkgos, willows, cannabis, more examples of dioecious plants can be found in the Wikipedia category, Dioecious plants. Dioecy occurs in a variety of plant families. However it is common in woody plants and heterotrophic species. There are several alternatives to dioecy for sexual reproductive structure organization in plants including bisexual flowers and these are described at Plant reproductive morphology. Land plants have alternation of generations, for which the sporophyte produces spores rather than gametes. Strictly speaking, the sporophytes of plants do not have either male or female reproductive organs. The gametophytes of flowering plants are of a sex, the male gametophytes are contained within the pollen. The sporophyte generation is called dioecious when each sporophyte has only one kind of spore-producing organ whose spores ultimately give rise to all male gametes or all female gametes. Slightly different terms, dioicous and monoicous, may be used for the gametophyte generation, the definition avoids reference to male and female reproductive structures, which are rare in fungi. An individual of a fungal species not only requires a partner for mating. A monoecious fungal species can perform roles, but may not be self-compatible
29.
Rowan
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The rowans or mountain-ashes are shrubs or trees in the genus Sorbus of the rose family Rosaceae. The name rowan was originally applied to the species Sorbus aucuparia and is used for other species in the Sorbus subgenus Sorbus. Rowans are unrelated to the ash trees, which belong to the genus Fraxinus, family Oleaceae. Formerly, when a variety of fruits were commonly eaten in Europe and North America. It is still used in countries, but Sorbus domestica, for example, is now all but extinct in Britain. Natural hybrids, often including Sorbus aucuparia and the whitebeam, Sorbus aria, the traditional names of the rowan are those applied to the species Sorbus aucuparia, Sorbus torminalis, and Sorbus domestica. The Latin name sorbus was borrowed into Old English as syrfe, the name service-tree for Sorbus domestica is derived from that name by folk etymology. The Latin name sorbus is from a root for red, reddish-brown, English sorb is attested from the 1520s in the fruit of the service tree. Sorbus domestica is also known as whitty pear, the adjective whitty meaning pinnate, Sorbus torminalis is also known as chequer tree, its fruits, formerly used to flavour beer, are called chequers, perhaps from the spotted pattern of the fruit. The name rowan is recorded from 1804, detached from an earlier rowan-tree, rountree, attested from the 1540s in northern dialects of English and Scots. It is from a North Germanic source, derived from Old Norse reynir, ultimately from the Germanic verb *raud-inan to redden, various dialectal variants of rowan are found in English, including ran, roan, rodan, royan, royne, round, rune. The Old English name of the rowan is cwic-beám, which survives in the name quickbeam, the Old Irish name is cairtheand, reflected in Modern Irish caorann. The arboreal Bríatharogam in the Book of Ballymote associates the rowan with the letter luis, with the gloss delightful to the eye is luis, i. e. rowan, owing to the beauty of its berries. Due to this, delight of the eye has been reported as a name of the rowan by some commentators, in the Canadian provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador and Nova Scotia, this species is commonly referred to as a dogberry tree. In German, Sorbus aucuparia is known as the Vogelbeerbaum or as Eberesche, the Welsh name criafol refers to the tree as lamenting fruit, associating the red fruit with the blood of Christ, as Welsh tradition believed the Cross was carved from the wood of this tree. Rowans are mostly deciduous trees 10–20 m tall, though a few are shrubs. The leaves are arranged alternately, and are pinnate, with 11–35 leaflets, the flowers are borne in dense corymbs, each flower is creamy white, and 5–10 mm across with five petals. The fruit is a small pome 4–8 mm diameter, bright orange or red in most species, the fruit are soft and juicy, which makes them a very good food for birds, particularly waxwings and thrushes, which then distribute the rowan seeds in their droppings
30.
Sorbus
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Sorbus is a genus of about 100–200 species of trees and shrubs in the rose family Rosaceae. Species of Sorbus are commonly known as whitebeam, rowan, service tree, recent treatments treat Sorbus in a narrower sense to include only the pinnate leaved species of subgenus Sorbus, raising several of the other subgenera to generic rank. Sorbus is unrelated to the ash trees which belong to the genus Fraxinus. Sorbus subgenus Aria, the whitebeam, with leaves usually strongly white-hairy below, fruit carpels not fused. Sorbus subgenus Micromeles, an group of a few east Asian species with narrow leaves, doubtfully distinct from. Sorbus subgenus Cormus, with leaves similar to subgenus Sorbus. Distribution, North Africa, warm-temperate Europe, West Asia, Sorbus subgenus Torminaria, with rather maple-like lobed leaves with pointed lobes, fruit carpels not fused, just one species, Sorbus torminalis. Distribution, temperate Europe, south to the mountains of North Africa, Sorbus subgenus Chamaemespilus, a single shrubby species Sorbus chamaemespilus with simple, glabrous leaves and pink flowers with erect sepals and petals. Hybrids are common in the genus, including many between the subgenera, very often these hybrids are apomictic, so able to reproduce clonally from seed without any variation and this has led to a very large number of microspecies, particularly in western Europe and parts of China. Sorbus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some moth species—see list of Lepidoptera that feed on Sorbus, Sorbus was also a fortified Finnish fruit wine flavoured with rowan berries. Sorbus domestica is used to flavour some apple wines, see Apfelwein, one-way introgressive hybridisation between Sorbus aria and S. torminalis in southern Britain
31.
Rosaceae
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Rosaceae, the rose family, is a medium-sized family of flowering plants, including 4,828 known species in 91 genera. The name is derived from the type genus Rosa, among the most species-rich genera are Alchemilla, Sorbus, Crataegus, Cotoneaster, Rubus, and Prunus with about 200 species. However, all of these numbers should be seen as estimates – much taxonomic work remains, the Rosaceae family includes herbs, shrubs, and trees. Most species are deciduous, but some are evergreen and they have a worldwide range, but are most diverse in the Northern Hemisphere. Several economically important products come from the Rosaceae, including many edible fruits, almonds, the Rosaceae have a cosmopolitan distribution, but are primarily concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere in regions that are not desert or tropical rainforest. More recently, Chrysobalanoideae has also treated as a family, but also in Rosales. Neuradoideae has been assigned to Malvales, schulze-Menz, in Englers Syllabus edited by Melchior recognized Rosoideae, Dryadoideae, Lyonothamnoideae, Spireoideae, Amygdaloideae, and Maloideae. They were primarily diagnosed by the structure of the fruits, more recent work has identified that not all of these groups were monophyletic. Hutchinson and Kalkmann recognized only tribes, takhtajan delimited 10 subfamilies, Filipenduloideae, Rosoideae, Ruboideae, Potentilloideae, Coleogynoideae, Kerroideae, Amygdaloideae, Spireoideae, Maloideae, Dichotomanthoideae, and 21 tribes. A more modern model comprises three subfamilies, one of which has remained the same. A cladogram of the family is, Three cladistic analyses were done in 1999 by Rodger Evans, one based on the phenotype, one on molecules, and the third combined. The only major difference in the results with the above cladogram is the position of Kerria, while the boundaries of the Rosaceae are not disputed, there is not general agreement as to how many genera it contains. Areas of divergent opinion include the treatment of Potentilla s. l. compounding the problem is that apomixis is common in several genera. This results in an uncertainty in the number of species contained in each of these genera, Rosaceae can be trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. The herbs are mostly perennials, but some also exist. The leaves are arranged spirally, but have an opposite arrangement in some species. They can be simple or pinnately compound, compound leaves appear in around 30 genera. The leaf margin is most often serrate, paired stipules are generally present, and are a primitive feature within the family, independently lost in many groups of Amygdaloideae
32.
Fraxinus anomala
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Fraxinus anomala is a species of ash tree known by the common name single-leaf ash. It is native to the southwestern United States and northern Mexico and it is unusual in the genus in that some specimens have simple leaves instead of the pinnate leaves more characteristic of the group. Fraxinus anomala is a shrub or small tree approaching maximum heights of five to six meters. The leaf may be simple or it may be compound, composed of up to five leaflets which look like individual leaves, each leaflet is oval-shaped to round and may have teeth along the edges. The nondescript brownish flowers lack petals, the fruit is a flat samara up to two centimeters long and one wide, green when young and tan to brown when mature. In Arizona, singleleaf ash is found along the Arizona transition zone of the Mogollon Rim, in the Mojave Desert of California it is found in the sky island chaparral and woodland habitats. Minor locales also occur in southern Nevada and southern Wyoming, atlas of United States Trees, Volume 3, Minor Western Hardwoods, Little, Elbert L,1976, US Government Printing Office. Jepson Manual Treatment - Fraxinus anomala USDA Plants Profile Ecology Fraxinus anomala - Photo gallery
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Fraxinus dipetala
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It grows at altitudes of 100–1,300 m. It is a shrub or small tree growing to 7 m tall. The leaves are 5–19 cm long, light to dark green, the flowers have two white lobe-shaped petals 2. 5–4 mm long, and are sweetly scented, hanging in fluffy clusters, unlike many ashes, they are bisexual, not dioecious. The fruit is a long, flat samara 2–3.2 cm long and 5–9 mm broad, green when immature and hanging in bunches
34.
Fraxinus quadrangulata
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Isolated populations exist in Alabama, Southern Ontario, and small sections of the Appalachian Mountains. It is typically found over calcareous substrates such as limestone, growing on slopes and in moist valley soils. Blue ash is a deciduous tree typically reaching a height of 10–25 m with a trunk 50–100 cm diameter. The twigs typically have four corky ridges, a distinctive feature giving them an appearance, hence the species name, quadrangulata. The winter buds are reddish brown, the leaves are 20–38 cm long, with 5–11 leaflets, the leaflets 7–13 cm long and 2. 5–5 cm broad, with a coarsely serrated margin and short but distinct petiolules. The flowers are small and purplish, produced in the spring before the leaves appear. The fruit is a samara 2. 5–5 cm long and 6–12 mm broad, the name blue ash is derived from the black dye extracted from the trees inner bark through immersion in water. European colonists and American pioneers used this dye to color yarn for use in the production of textiles, sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, Blue Ash wood is used to make flooring, baseball bats, furniture, tool handles, crates and barrels. The city of Blue Ash, Ohio, an suburb of Cincinnati, drew its name from the blue ash trees in the area. As of 2014, blue ash appears to be least threatened in comparison to other North American ash by the infestation of the ash borer. First detected in North America in 2002, this beetle has since spread throughout much of this trees range. Approximately sixty to seventy percent of these trees survive compared to other ash such as black ash and green ash where up to ninety-nine percent of them are killed by emerald ash borer
35.
Fraxinus angustifolia
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Fraxinus angustifolia is a species of Fraxinus native to central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest Asia. It is a deciduous tree growing to 20–30 m tall with a trunk up to 1.5 m diameter. The bark is smooth and pale grey on young trees, becoming square-cracked, the buds are pale brown, which readily distinguishes it from the related Fraxinus excelsior even in winter. The leaves are in pairs or whorls of three, pinnate, 15–25 cm long, with 3-13 leaflets, the leaflets being distinctively slender, 3–8 cm long. The flowers are produced in inflorescences which can be male, hermaphrodite or mixed male, the male and hermaphrodite flowers occur on all individuals, i. e. all trees are functionally hermaphrodite. The fruit when fully formed is a samara 3–4 cm long, there are four subspecies, treated as distinct species by some authors, Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. Western Europe north to France, northwest Africa, leaves with 7–13 leaflets, leaflets hairless beneath. Eastern Europe north to the Czech Republic, southwest Asia east to northern Iran, leaves with 3–9 leaflets, leaflets with white hairs on the lower half of the midribs. Syriaca Middle East and West Asia, angustifolia Pendula Vera, True weeping narrow-leafed ash. of Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. This cultivar is planted as an ornamental tree in temperate regions. It has notable autumn colour, but has the drawback of very brittle branches. In Sicily, it is cultivated as a source of a plant sap product called manna, angustifolia has become a weed in many parts of Australia, where it is known as Desert Ash. Fraxinus angustifolia - information, genetic conservation units and related resources
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Fraxinus excelsior
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Fraxinus excelsior — known as the ash, or European ash or common ash to distinguish it from other types of ash — is a flowering plant species in the olive family Oleaceae. It is native throughout mainland Europe east to the Caucasus and Alborz mountains, the northernmost location is in the Trondheimsfjord region of Norway. The species is cultivated and reportedly naturalised in New Zealand and in scattered locales in the United States. It is a deciduous tree growing to 12–18 m tall with a trunk up to 2 m diameter, with a tall. The bark is smooth and pale grey on young trees, becoming thick, the shoots are stout, greenish-grey, with jet black buds. These features distinguish ash from ash in which the leaves are alternate with paired stipules. The leaves are often among the last to open in spring, the flowers are borne in short panicles, open before the leaves, and have no perianth. The female flowers are longer than the male flowers, dark purple, without petals. Both male and female flowers can occur on the same tree, a tree that is all male one year can produce female flowers the next, and similarly a female tree can become male. The fruit is a samara 2. 5–4.5 cm long and 5–8 mm broad, often hanging in bunches through the winter, European Ash rarely exceeds 250 years of age. However, there are numerous specimens estimated between 200 and 250 years old and there are a few over 250, the largest is in Clapton Court, England and is 9 m in girth. There are several examples over 4.5 metres in Derbyshire alone, Fraxinus excelsior is native to Europe from northern Spain to Russia, and from southern Scandinavia to northern Greece. It is also considered native in southwestern Asia from northern Turkey east to the Caucasus, the northernmost location is in the Trondheimsfjord region of Norway. It is native throughout the British Isles, particularly on limestone, as in northern Scotland, Ash occurs on a wide range of soil types, but is particularly associated with basic soils on calcareous substrates. As a young seedling it is tolerant, but as an older tree is light demanding. It is an early succession species and may well out compete beech and oak, unlike other Fraxinus species, F. excelsior does not form ectomycorrhizas. A number of Lepidoptera use the species as a food source, see Lepidoptera which feed on ashes. In the UK, many invertebrates have also been found to feed on Ash
37.
Fraxinus mandschurica
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Fraxinus mandshurica is a species of Fraxinus native to northeastern Asia in northern China, Korea, Japan and southeastern Russia. It is a medium-sized to large tree reaching 30 m tall. The leaves are 25–40 cm long, pinnate compound, with 7-13 leaflets, the leaflets 5–20 cm long and 2–5 cm broad, subsessile on the leaf rachis and they turn to a golden-yellow in early autumn, and the tree is usually early to change color. The flowers are produced in spring, before the new leaves, in compact panicles, they are inconspicuous with no petals. The fruit is a samara comprising a single seed 1–2 cm long with an apical wing 2. 5–4 cm long. It is closely related to Fraxinus nigra from eastern North America, mandschurica S. S. Sun, or F. nigra var. mandschurica Lingelsheim. The spelling of the name is disputed, some cite mandschurica. The original 1857 Russian publication spelled it without the c and it is tolerant of many soil conditions including the wet soils of swamps and river valleys, and is not particular as to soil pH except for showing poor growth at high pH. It requires full sun for optimal growth, and should receive at least 50 cm of precipitation each year and it requires a continental climate with well-defined seasons with cold winters, hot summers, and freedom from late spring frosts. The seeds are eaten by a variety of birds. This tree is cultivated as an ornamental tree in parts of Canada. Manchurian Ash can be used as a medium height wind break for a farmstead and it is also highly tolerant of urban pollution and will even grow well in inner city environments. The tree also makes an excellent landscape tree in moist areas, especially along roads, the Manchurian grows into a denser oval form with age. It has proved very intolerant of oceanic climate conditions in cultivation, leafing out too early, however, significant mortality in Manchurian Ash from emerald ash borer is also recorded in the wild in China. The cultivar Fraxinus mandshurica Mancana has been selected by the Morden Research Station, Morden and it has a dense oval to globose crown, and is a male tree, it is very hardy. Hybrids with Black Ash have also produced in cultivation
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Fraxinus nigra
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Formerly abundant, as of 2014 the species is threatened with near total extirpation throughout its range, as a result of infestation by a parasitic insect known as the emerald ash borer. Black ash is a deciduous tree reaching 15–20 m tall with a trunk up to 60 cm diameter. The bark is grey, thick and corky even on trees, becoming scaly. The winter buds are brown to blackish, with a velvety texture. The leaves are opposite, pinnately compound, with 7–13 leaflets, each leaf is 20–45 cm long, the leaflets are sessile, directly attached to the rachis without a petiolule. The flowers are produced in spring shortly before the new leaves, in panicles, they are inconspicuous with no petals. The fruit is a samara 2. 5–4.5 cm long comprising a single seed 2 cm long with an apical wing 1. 5–2 cm long. Black ash commonly occurs in swamps, often with the related green ash. Black ash is one of the first trees to lose its leaves in the fall and it is very closely related to Manchurian ash, and will easily hybridize with it. Some consider the two to be geographic isolates of each other, Black ash is a food plant for the larvae of several species of Lepidoptera, see List of Lepidoptera that feed on ashes. The species was considered abundant and its survival of little concern prior to the invasion of the ash borer. However, since that time this invasive insect has spread throughout most of the range, and within a few years black ash is expected to be all but extirpated. In 2014, a U. S. Forest Service agent estimated that ninety-nine percent of the ashes in North America are probably going to die, blue ash and white ash are only slightly less affected. This wood is used by Native Americans of the North East for making baskets, the Shakers also made extensive use of the Black Ash for creating baskets. Also called Basket Ash, Brown Ash, Swamp Ash, hoop ash and it is also a popular wood for making electric guitars and basses, due to its good resonant qualities. Black ash is unique among all trees in North America in that it not have fibers connecting the growth rings to each other. This is a property for basket makers. By pounding on the wood with a mallet, the spring wood layer is crushed
39.
Fraxinus americana
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Fraxinus americana is a species of ash tree native to eastern and central North America. It is found in hardwood forests from Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, south to northern Florida. Isolated populations have also found in western Texas, Wyoming and Colorado. The name White Ash derives from the undersides of the leaves. It is similar in appearance to the Green Ash, making identification difficult, the lower sides of the leaves of White Ash are lighter in color than their upper sides, and the outer surface of the twigs of White Ash may be flaky or peeling. Green Ash leaves are similar in color on upper and lower sides, White ash is one of the most used trees for everyday purposes and, to keep up with high demand, is cultivated almost everywhere it can be. The wood is white and quite dense, strong, and straight-grained and it is the timber of choice for production of baseball bats and tool handles. The wood is also favorable for furniture and flooring, woodworkers use the timber mainly for interior uses due to high perishability in contact with ground soil. It is also used to make lobster traps, since the 1950s, it has also become a popular choice for solid electric guitar bodies. It makes a very servicable longbow if properly worked, the wood was used in ceiling fan blades from the 1970s through the mid-1980s, though cane was sometimes simulated with plastic then. It is no used for ceiling fan blades in most countries. The tree has a mast crop every 11 years and is easy to plant. A related species, Biltmore Ash, is treated as a variety of White Ash. However, other taxonomists argue that Biltmore Ash is its own species, the emerald ash borer, also commonly known by the acronym EAB, is a green beetle native to Asia. In North America the emerald ash borer is an invasive species, the damage of this insect rivals that of Chestnut blight and Dutch Elm Disease. To put its damage in perspective, the number of killed by the Chestnut blight was around 3.5 billion chestnut trees while there are 3.5 billion ash trees in Ohio alone. Dutch Elm Disease killed only 200 million elm trees while EAB threatens 7.5 billion ash trees in the United States, the insect threatens the entire North American genus Fraxinus, while past invasive tree pests have only threatened a single species within a genus. Since its accidental introduction into the United States and Canada in the 1990s and it has killed at least 50 million ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the ash trees throughout North America
40.
Fraxinus latifolia
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Fraxinus latifolia is a member of the ash genus Fraxinus, native to western North America. Fraxinus latifolia can grow to 25 m in height, with a diameter of 30–80 cm. The compound leaves are pinnate, 12–33 cm long, with 5-9 leaflets, each leaflet ovate, 6–12 cm long and 3–4 cm broad, the fruit is a samara, 3–5 cm long including the wing. The Oregon ash prefers damp, loose soils, and grows from sea level to 900 metres in elevation, in central Southern California, it intergrades with Fraxinus velutina of southern California east into Arizona. Media related to Fraxinus latifolia at Wikimedia Commons
41.
Fraxinus pennsylvanica
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It has spread and become naturalized in much of the western United States and also in Europe from Spain to Russia. Other names more rarely used include downy ash, swamp ash, fraxinus pennsylvanica is a medium-sized deciduous tree reaching 12–25 m tall with a trunk up to 60 cm in diameter. The bark is smooth and gray on young trees, becoming thick, the winter buds are reddish-brown, with a velvety texture. They are green both above and below, the autumn color is golden-yellow and depending on the climate, Green Ashs leaves may begin changing color the first week of September. The flowers are produced in spring at the time as the new leaves, in compact panicles, they are inconspicuous with no petals. The fruit is a samara 2. 5–7.5 cm long comprising a single seed 1. 5–3 cm long with an apical wing 2–4 cm long. It is the most widely distributed of all the American ashes, although its range centers on the Midwestern US, a pioneer species, it naturally grows along streambanks and disturbed areas. The large seed crops provide food to many kinds of wildlife, Green ash is threatened by the emerald ash borer, a beetle introduced accidentally from Asia to which it has no natural resistance. A common garden experiment showed that green ash is killed readily when exposed to emerald ash borer, the United States Forest Service has discovered small numbers of green ash in the wild that have remained healthy after emerald ash borer swept through the population. The possibility of these trees possessing genetic resistance to the beetle is currently being investigated with the hope that green ash could be restored using the surviving trees. That epidemic was the result of a similar overuse of elms in urban environments, scientifically for red ash this is because modern cultivars utilized regionally were parented from sometimes only four individual trees selected for unique traits and male seedless flowering. Proclaiming a harsh lesson learned, cities like Chicago did not replace dead elms with a 1,1 ash, the tree was also extensively propagated and sold by local nurseries. According to the American Nursery Industry, Back in the late 1980s, because of EAB today, many communities are using a more strict 20 -10-5 rule. Many areas have banned the sale of ash seedlings in nurseries, Green ash is one of the most widely planted ornamental trees throughout the United States and much of Canada but mostly Alberta, including in western areas where it is not native. It is also planted in Argentina. It is very popular due to its form and resistance to disease. About 40% of boulevard trees in Edmonton, Alberta are green ash, Green ash had been widely used as a primary ornamental and long lived monument tree until the elm fad of the 1880s, and regained top position once again after Dutch elm disease arrived. Other continents learned of American ash species urban survivability and unique beauty through the popularity of Midwestern Prairie style ecology
42.
Fraxinus profunda
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While normally a medium-sized deciduous tree reaching 12–30 m tall with a trunk up to 1 m diameter, the tree can reach 50 m tall with a 4.7 m diameter trunk. The bark is gray, thick and fissured, the winter buds are dark brown to blackish, with a velvety texture. The leaflets are stalked, with a short petiolule, the flowers are produced in panicles in spring shortly before the new leaves, they are inconspicuous purplish-green with no petals, and are wind-pollinated. The fruit is a samara, it is the largest of any North American ash species, pumpkin ash is a food plant for the larvae of several species of Lepidoptera, see List of Lepidoptera that feed on ashes. It is also threatened by the invasive Asian emerald ash borer
43.
Fraxinus velutina
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Fraxinus velutina is a small deciduous tree growing to 10 m tall, with a trunk up to 30 cm diameter. The bark is rough gray-brown and fissured, and the shoots are velvety-downy, the leaves are 10–25 cm long, pinnately compound with five or seven leaflets 4 cm or more long, with an entire or finely serrated margin. The flowers are produced in clusters in early spring, it is dioecious. The fruit is a samara 1. 5–3 cm long, with an apical wing 4–8 mm broad, scattered populations occur eastward through the Chihuahuan Desert regions of Chihuahua, Coahuila and Nuevo León. Jepson Manual Treatment - Fraxinus velutina
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Fraxinus floribunda
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Fraxinus floribunda is a species of ash native to South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. It is known from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Assam, Bhutan, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, the Ryukyu Islands, Fraxinus floribunda is a medium-sized deciduous tree growing to 10–15 m tall with a trunk up to 50 cm diameter, with grey bark. Leaves opposite, pinnate, with 7-9 serrate leaflets, Flowers white, with petals 3–4 mm long, in large branched clusters up to 25 cm across. Fruit a nut, with a narrow wing 2. 5–4 cm long by 3–4 mm wide. Line drawing of Fraxinus floribunda and F. insularis, Flora of China Illustrations vol,15, fig.224, 1-3 Plants for a Future Flowers of India, Himalayan Ash
. PMID 24278282 – via PLoS Journals.
