1.
Olive
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Olea europeana sylvestris is a subspecies that corresponds to a smaller tree bearing noticeably smaller fruits. The olives fruit, also called the olive, is of agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil. The tree and its fruit give their name to the plant family, which includes species such as lilacs, jasmine, Forsythia. The word derives from Latin ŏlīva a borrowing from the Greek ἐλαία, the oldest attested forms of the Greek words are the Mycenaean
2.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
3.
Plant
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Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
4.
Flowering plant
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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
5.
Eudicots
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The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
6.
Asterids
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In the APG IV system for the classification of flowering plants, the name asterids denotes a clade. Most of the taxa belonging to this clade had been referred to the Asteridae in the Cronquist system, the name asterids resembles the earlier botanical name but is intended to be the name of a clade rather than a formal ranked name, in the sense of the ICBN. The phylogenetic tree presented hereafter has been proposed by the APG IV project, genetic analysis carried out after APG II maintains that the sister to all other asterids are the Cornales. A second order that split from the base of the asterids are the Ericales, the remaining orders cluster into two clades, the lamiids and the campanulids. The structure of both of these clades has changed in APG III, in APG III system, the following clades were renamed, euasterids I → lamiids euasterids II → campanulids Asterids in Stevens, P. F. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website
7.
Lamiales
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The Lamiales are an order in the asterid group of dicotyledonous flowering plants. It includes about 24,000 species divided into about 20 families, in the classification system of Dahlgren the Lamiales were in the superorder Lamiiflorae. Lamiales has become the name for this much larger combined group. The placement of the Boraginaceae is unclear, but phylogenetic work shows this family does not belong in Lamiales, Lamiales A parsimony analysis of the Asteridae sensu lato based on rbcL sequences Disintegration of the Scrophulariaceae L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz. The families of flowering plants, descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval
8.
Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg
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Johann Centurius Hoffmann Graf von Hoffmannsegg was a German botanist, entomologist and ornithologist. Hoffmannsegg was born at Rammenau and studied at Leipzig and Göttingen and he travelled through Europe acquiring vast collections of plants and animals. He visited Hungary, Austria and Italy in 1795–1796 and Portugal from 1797 to 1801 and he sent his collections to Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger, then in Brunswick, so that he could study them. Hoffmannsegg worked in Berlin from 1804 to 1816, and was elected a member of the Academy of Science of the city in 1815 and he was the founder of the zoological museum of Berlin in 1809. Hoffmannsegg proposed Illiger for the position of curator, and all the Hoffmannseggs collections were transferred to Berlin. The legume genus Hoffmannseggia is named for him, regarding personal names, Until 1919, Graf was a title, translated as Count, not a first or middle name. In Germany since 1919, it part of family names
9.
Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link
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Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link was a German naturalist and botanist. Link was born at Hildesheim as a son of the minister August Heinrich Link and he studied medicine and natural sciences at the Hannoverschen Landesuniversität of Göttingen, and graduated as MD in 1789, promoting on his thesis Flora der Felsgesteine rund um Göttingen. One of teachers was the natural scientist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. He became a tutor in Göttingen. In 1792 he became the first professor of the new department of chemistry, zoology, during his stay at Rostock, he became an early follower of the antiphlogistic theory of Lavoisier, teaching about the existence of oxygen instead of phlogiston. He was also a proponent of the attempts of Richter to involve mathematics in chemistry, in 1806 he set up the first chemical laboratory at Rostock in the Seminargebäude. He was twice elected rector of the university, in 1793 he married Charlotte Juliane Josephi, sister of his colleague at the university Prof. Wilhelm Josephi. During 1797–1799 he visited Portugal with Count Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg, a botanist, entomologist and ornithologist from Dresden and this trip made him finally choose botany as his main scientific calling. In 1800 he was elected to the prestigious Leopoldina Academy, the oldest school for history in Europe. In 1808 he was awarded a prize at the Academy of Saint Petersburg for his monography Von der Natur und den Eigenschaften des Lichts and his scientific reputation grew and became widely known. In 1811 he was appointed professor of chemistry and botany at Breslau university, after the death of Carl Ludwig Willdenow in 1815, he became professor of natural history, curator of the herbarium and director of the botanic garden in Berlin until he died. This period became the most fruitful period of his academic life and he augmented the collection of the garden to 14,000 specimens, many of them rare plants. He worked in collaboration with Cristoph Friedrich Otto, conservator at the botanical garden. In 1827 he named him the cacti genera Echinocactus and Melocactus. Most of the fungi that he named, are recognised under the original name. He was elected member of the Berlin Academy of Science and many scientific societies, including the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He trained a new generation of natural scientists, such as Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg. Throughout his life, he traveled extensively throughout Europe and he benefited from his knowledge of foreign languages, including Arabic and ancient Sanskrit
10.
Tribe (biology)
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In biology, a tribe is a taxonomic rank above genus, but below family and subfamily. It is sometimes subdivided into subtribes, in zoology, some examples include the tribes Caprini, Hominini, Bombini, and Thunnini. The standard ending for the name of a tribe is -ini. The tribe Hominini is divided into subtribes by some scientists, subtribe Hominina then comprises humans, the standard ending for the name of a zoological subtribe is -ina. In botany, examples include the tribes Acalypheae and Hyacintheae, the standard ending for the name of a botanical tribe is -eae. The tribe Hyacintheae is divided into subtribes, including the subtribe Massoniinae, the standard ending for the name of a botanical subtribe is -inae. In bacteriology, the form of names is as in botany, e. g. Pseudomonadeae
11.
Fontanesia
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Fontanesia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Oleaceae, usually treated as comprising a single species Fontanesia phillyreoides, though some authors split this into two species. It is native to southern Europe, southwestern Asia and eastern Asia and it is a deciduous shrub growing to 8 m tall. The leaves are opposite, lanceolate to ovate, 3–12 cm long and 8–26 mm broad, with an acute apex. The flowers are white, with a deeply four-lobed corolla, they are produced in panicles 2–6 cm long, the fruit is a flat samara, surrounded by a wing. There are two subspecies, often treated in the past as separate species, despite the distance separating the two, the differences between them are minimal, the leaves of subsp. Phillyreoides are sometimes cited as having finely serrated margins, but this character is not reliable, leaves up to 8 cm long, dull green above. Leaves up to 12 cm long, glossy green above, the species epithet was originally published erroneously as philliraeoides, but this a correctable error, because it refers to the genus Phillyrea
12.
Synonym (taxonomy)
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For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a species is moved to a different genus. To the general user of scientific names, in such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science. A synonym is a name that was used as the correct scientific name but which has been displaced by another scientific name. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as a name which has the same application as another. In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have mentioned as such after the current scientific name. Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the synonym in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names. Changes of scientific name have two causes, they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural, a name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight. A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature, the earliest such name is called the senior synonym, while the later name is the junior synonym. One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published name, synonyms are important because if the earliest name cannot be used, then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the type and same rank. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn, however, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ords name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being a subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the level of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the type species, these are objective synonyms
13.
Family (biology)
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In biological classification, family is one of the eight major taxonomic ranks, it is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks above the rank of genus. In vernacular usage, a family may be named one of its common members, for example, walnuts and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae. What does or does not belong to a family—or whether a family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists. There are no rules for describing or recognizing a family. Taxonomists often take different positions about descriptions of taxa, and there may be no broad consensus across the community for some time. Some described taxa are accepted broadly and quickly, but others only rarely, if at all, the naming of families is codified by various international codes. In zoological nomenclature, the names of animals end with the suffix -idae. The concept of rank at time was not yet settled, and in the preface to the Prodromus Magnol spoke of uniting his families into larger genera. Carolus Linnaeus used the word familia in his Philosophia botanica to denote groups of plants, trees, herbs, ferns, palms. He used this term only in the section of the book. In zoology, the family as an intermediate between order and genus was introduced by Pierre André Latreille in his Précis des caractères génériques des insectes. He used families in some but not in all his orders of insects, families can be used for evolutionary, palaeontological and generic studies because they are more stable than lower taxonomic levels such as genera and species
14.
Order (biology)
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In biological classification, the order is a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, an immediately higher rank, superorder, may be added directly above order, while suborder would be a lower rank. A taxonomic unit, a taxon, in that rank, in that case the plural is orders. Example, The Juglans and Hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae, what does and does not belong to each order is determined by a taxonomist, as is whether a particular order should be recognized at all. Often there is no agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing an order. Some taxa are accepted almost universally, while others are recognised only rarely, for some groups of organisms, consistent suffixes are used to denote that the rank is an order. The Latin suffix -formes meaning having the form of is used for the name of orders of birds and fishes. The suffix -ales is for the name of orders of plants, fungi, for some clades covered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a number of additional classifications are sometimes used, although not all of these are officially recognised. In their 1997 classification of mammals, McKenna and Bell used two levels between superorder and order, grandorder and mirorder. Michael Novacek inserted them at the same position, michael Benton inserted them between superorder and magnorder instead. This position was adopted by Systema Naturae 2000 and others, in botany, the ranks of subclass and suborder are secondary ranks pre-defined as respectively above and below the rank of order. Any number of further ranks can be used as long as they are clearly defined, the superorder rank is commonly used, with the ending -anae that was initiated by Armen Takhtajans publications from 1966 onwards. Carl Linnaeus was the first to apply it consistently to the division of all three kingdoms of nature in his Systema Naturae, for plants, Linnaeus orders in the Systema Naturae and the Species Plantarum were strictly artificial, introduced to subdivide the artificial classes into more comprehensible smaller groups. In French botanical publications, from Michel Adansons Familles naturelles des plantes and until the end of the 19th century, some of the plant families still retain the names of Linnaean natural orders or even the names of pre-Linnaean natural groups recognised by Linnaeus as orders in his natural classification. Such names are known as family names. In zoology, the Linnaean orders were used more consistently and that is, the orders in the zoology part of the Systema Naturae refer to natural groups. Some of his names are still in use
15.
Genus
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A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
16.
Extinction
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In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms, normally a species. The moment of extinction is considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed. Because a species range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult. This difficulty leads to such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly reappears after a period of apparent absence. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to five billion species. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. Mass extinctions are relatively rare events, however, isolated extinctions are quite common, only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions. Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented, some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100. A dagger symbol next to a name is often used to indicate its extinction. A species is extinct when the last existing member dies, Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. Pinpointing the extinction of a species requires a definition of that species. If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species. Extinction of a plays a key role in the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of Stephen Jay Gould. In ecology, extinction is often used informally to refer to local extinction, in which a species ceases to exist in the area of study. This phenomenon is known as extirpation. Local extinctions may be followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations, species which are not extinct are termed extant. Those that are extant but threatened by extinction are referred to as threatened or endangered species, currently an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species
17.
Shrub
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A shrub or bush is a small to medium-sized woody plant. It is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, plants of many species may grow either into shrubs or trees, depending on their growing conditions. Small, low shrubs, generally less than 2 m tall, such as lavender, periwinkle, an area of cultivated shrubs in a park or a garden is known as a shrubbery. When clipped as topiary, suitable species or varieties of shrubs develop dense foliage, many shrubs respond well to renewal pruning, in which hard cutting back to a stool results in long new stems known as canes. Other shrubs respond better to selective pruning to reveal their structure, shrubs in common garden practice are generally considered broad-leaved plants, though some smaller conifers such as mountain pine and common juniper are also shrubby in structure. Species that grow into a shrubby habit may be deciduous or evergreen
18.
Tree
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In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are usable as lumber or plants above a specified height. Trees are not a group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk. In looser senses, the palms, the tree ferns, bananas. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old, the tallest known tree, a coast redwood named Hyperion, stands 115.6 m high. Trees have been in existence for 370 million years and it is estimated that there are just over 3 trillion mature trees in the world. A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk and this trunk typically contains woody tissue for strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier, below the ground, the roots branch and spread out widely, they serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots typically bear leaves, which light energy and convert it into sugars by photosynthesis, providing the food for the trees growth. Flowers and fruit may also be present, but some trees, such as conifers, instead have pollen cones and seed cones, others, such as tree ferns, trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues, trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world, trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always revered, with sacred groves in various cultures. Although tree is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition of what a tree is, either botanically or in common language. In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with the form of an elongated stem, or trunk. Trees are also defined by height, with smaller plants from 0.5 to 10 m being called shrubs
19.
Liana
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Lianas are characteristic of tropical moist deciduous forests, but may be found in temperate rainforests. There are also temperate lianas, for example the members of the Clematis or Vitis genera, Lianas can form bridges amidst the forest canopy, providing arboreal animals with paths across the forest. These bridges can protect weaker trees from strong winds, Lianas compete with forest trees for sunlight, water and nutrients from the soil. The term liana is not a grouping, but rather a description of the way the plant grows – much like tree or shrub. Lianas may be found in different plant families. One way of distinguishing lianas from trees and shrubs is based on the stiffness, specifically, trees and shrubs have young twigs and smaller branches which are quite flexible and older growth such as trunks and large branches which are stiffer. A liana often has stiff young growths and older, more flexible growth at the base of the stem, described genera containing liana species include, Gnetophyta Gnetum spp. Thunbergia spp. e. g. T. grandiflora, T. mysorensis Ancistrocladaceae Ancistrocladus spp, strophanthus - several spp. including S. sarmentosus Arecaceae Calamoideae - rattans, several genera including, Calamus spp. - Faboideae Dalbergia armata, of subtropical Africa Derris spp, - Mimosoideae Acacia some spp. e. g. A. concinna Entada spp. Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica Loganiaceae Strychnos spp. e. g. S. axillaris Oleaceae Jasminum spp, polygalaceae Moutabea, especially M. aculeata Sapindaceae Paullinia spp. Rutaceae Toddalia asiatica Schlegeliaceae Schlegelia spp, cissus spp. water vines Parthenocissus spp. Lianas also provide access routes in the forest canopy for many animals, including ants and many other invertebrates, lizards, rodents, sloths, monkeys. For example, in the Eastern tropical forests of Madagascar, many lemurs achieve higher mobility from the web of lianas draped amongst the tree species. Many lemurs prefer trees with lianas for their roost sites, Lianas also provide support for trees when strong winds blow. However, they may be destructive in that one tree falls. Lianas also make the canopy of trees more accessible to animals which eat leaves, because of these negative effects, trees which remain free of lianas are at an advantage, some species have evolved characteristics which help them avoid or shed lianas. Vines and Lianas by Rhett Butler, at http, //rainforests. mongabay. com/0406. htm Lianas
20.
Cosmopolitan distribution
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In biogeography, a taxon is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution if its range extends across all or most of the world in appropriate habitats. Such a taxon is said to exhibit cosmopolitanism or cosmopolitism and this means near cosmopolitanism, but with major gaps in the distribution, say, complete absence from Australia. Terminology varies, and there is debate whether the true opposite of endemism is pandemism or cosmopolitism. The term cosmopolitan distribution usually should not be literally, because it often is applied loosely in various contexts. Commonly the intention is not to include regions, extreme altitudes, oceans, deserts, or small. For example, the housefly is nearly as cosmopolitan as any animal species, another concept in biogeography is that of oceanic cosmopolitanism and endemism. Again, as far as many species are concerned, the Southern Ocean, in the light of such considerations, it is no surprise to find that endemism and cosmopolitanism are quite as marked in the oceans as on land. Another aspect of cosmopolitanism is that of ecological limitations, a species that is apparently cosmopolitan because it occurs in all oceans, might in fact occupy only littoral zones, or only particular ranges of depths, or only estuaries for example. Analogously, terrestrial species might be present only in forests, or mountainous regions, such distributions might be patchy, or extended, but narrow. Factors of such a nature are taken widely for granted, so they seldom are mentioned explicitly in mentioning cosmopolitan distributions, cosmopolitanism of a particular species or variety should not be confused with cosmopolitanism of higher taxa. Even where a population is recognised as a single species, such as indeed Apis mellifera. Such variation commonly is at the level of subspecies, varieties or morphs, also, some such species breed only at one end of the range. Seen purely as an aspect of cosmopolitanism, such distributions could be seen as temporal, seasonal variations and they also lead to the formation of clines such as in Drosophila. Cosmopolitan distributions can be observed both in extinct and extant species, for example, Lystrosaurus was cosmopolitan in the Early Triassic after a mass extinction. In the modern world, the whale has a cosmopolitan distribution. The wasp Copidosoma floridanum is another example, as it is found around the world, other examples include humans, cats, dogs, orchids, the foliose lichen Parmelia sulcata, and the mollusc genus Mytilus. The term can apply to some diseases. It may result from a range of environmental tolerances or from rapid dispersal compared to the time needed for evolution
21.
Subarctic
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The subarctic is a region in the Northern Hemisphere immediately south of the true Arctic and covering much of Alaska, Canada, Iceland, the north of Scandinavia, Siberia, and the Shetland Islands. Generally, subarctic regions fall between 50°N and 70°N latitude, depending on local climates, monthly temperatures are above 10 °C for at least one and at most three months of the year. Precipitation tends to be low due to the low content of the cold air. Precipitation is typically greater in warmer months, with a summer maximum ranging from moderate in North America to extreme in the Russian Far East, the dominant soil orders are podsols and further north gelisols. Typically, there are only a few species of terrestrial mammals in the subarctic regions, the most important being elk, moose, bears, reindeer. Agriculture is mainly limited to animal husbandry, though in some areas barley can be grown, except for those areas adjacent to warm ocean currents, there is almost always continuous permafrost due to the very cold winters. This means that building in most subarctic regions is difficult and expensive, cities are very few and generally small. Subarctic rail transport exists in Europe and the Norilsk–Dudinka line in northern Siberia. An important consequence is that transportation tends to be restricted to bush planes, helicopters and, in summer, riverboats. Except for a few parts of Europe where the winters are mild due to prevailing wind and ocean current patterns. Even then, the difficulty of transportation ensured that few settlements lasted long—the abandoned, once-thriving cities of the Yukon, Northwest Territories, today, many towns in subarctic Russia are declining precipitously as mines close. In Canada, after the early minerals ran out, development stalled until hydroelectric development occurred in the 1950s and 1960s. Tourism in recent years has become a source of revenue for most countries of the subarctic due to the beautiful, generally glacial. Most areas in the subarctic are among the most expensive places in the world to visit, nonetheless, the great opportunities for outdoor recreation lure an ever-increasing number of travelers. At the same time, the industries of the subarctic are being threatened by both environmental opposition and overfishing leading to depleted stocks of commercially important species. Indigenous peoples of Subarctic America Muskeg Nordicity Northern Canada Subarctic climate Subarctic climate in, Ritter, the Physical Environment, an Introduction to Physical Geography
22.
Fraxinus
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Fraxinus /ˈfræksᵻnəs/, English name ash, is a genus of flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae. It contains 45–65 species of medium to large trees, mostly deciduous though a few subtropical species are evergreen. The genus is widespread across much of Europe, Asia and North America, the trees common English name, ash, traces back to the Old English æsc, while the generic name originated in Latin. Both words also mean spear in their respective languages, the leaves are opposite, and mostly pinnately compound, simple in a few species. The seeds, popularly known as keys or helicopter seeds, are a type of known as a samara. Rowans or mountain ashes have leaves and buds superficially similar to those of true ashes, species are organized according to phylogenetic analysis. – California ash or two-petal ash Fraxinus anomala Torr, ex S. Watson – singleleaf ash Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx. – blue ash Fraxinus lowellii – Lowell ash Fraxinus trifoliata Section Melioides sensu lato Fraxinus chiisanensis Fraxinus cuspidata Torr. – fragrant ash Fraxinus platypoda Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh, – Späths ash Section Melioides sensu stricto Fraxinus uhdei Lingelsh. – Shamel ash or tropical ash Fraxinus latifolia Benth, – Oregon ash Fraxinus papillosa Lingelsh. – Chihuahua ash Fraxinus americana L. – white ash or American ash Fraxinus profunda Bush – pumpkin ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marshall – green ash Fraxinus velutina Torr, – velvet ash or Arizona ash Fraxinus berlandieriana DC. – Mexican ash Fraxinus caroliniana Mill, – Carolina ash Fraxinus texensis Sarg. – Texas ash Section Pauciflorae Fraxinus greggii A. ex DC, – Afghan ash Fraxinus dimorpha Section Fraxinus Fraxinus nigra Marshall – black ash Fraxinus mandschurica Rupr. – Manchurian ash Fraxinus holotricha Koehne Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl – narrow-leafed ash Fraxinus angustifolia subsp, oxycarpa – Caucasian ash Claret ash or raywood ash Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. – European ash Fraxinus pallisiae Wilmott – Pallis ash Fraxinus sogdiana Bge Section Ornus Fraxinus griffithii C. B. Clarke – Griffiths ash Fraxinus micrantha Lingelsh, – Chinese ash or Korean ash Fraxinus japonica – Japanese ash Fraxinus longicuspis Fraxinus floribunda Wall. – Himalayan manna ash Fraxinus ornus L. – manna ash or flowering ash Fraxinus bungeana DC, – Bunges ash Fraxinus paxiana Lingelsh. The emerald ash borer is a wood-boring beetle accidentally introduced to North America from eastern Asia via solid wood packing material in the late 1980s to early 1990s and it has killed tens of millions of trees in 15 states in the United States and adjacent Ontario in Canada. It threatens some seven billion ash trees in North America, the public is being cautioned not to transport unfinished wood products, such as firewood, to slow the spread of this insect pest. The disease has infected about 90% of Denmarks ash trees, in 2016, the ash tree was reported as in danger of extinction in Europe
23.
Jasmine
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Jasmine is a genus of shrubs and vines in the olive family. It contains around 200 species native to tropical and warm regions of Eurasia, Australasia and Oceania. Jasmines are widely cultivated for the fragrance of their flowers. A number of unrelated plants contain the word Jasmine in their common names, Jasmine can be either deciduous or evergreen, and can be erect, spreading, or climbing shrubs and vines. Their leaves are borne, opposite or alternate and they can be simple, trifoliate, or pinnate. The flowers are typically around 2.5 cm in diameter and they are white or yellow in color, although in rare instances they can be slightly reddish. The flowers are borne in clusters with a minimum of three flowers, though they can also be solitary on the ends of branchlets. Each flower has four to nine petals, two locules, and one to four ovules. They have two stamens with very short filaments, the bracts are linear or ovate. The fruits of jasmines are berries that turn black when ripe, the basic chromosome number of the genus is 13, and most species are diploid. However, natural polyploidy exists, particularly in Jasminum sambac, Jasminum flexile, Jasminum mesnyi, jasmines are native to tropical and subtropical regions of Eurasia, Australasia and Oceania, although only one of the 200 species is native to Europe. Their center of diversity is in South Asia and Southeast Asia, a number of jasmine species have become naturalized in Mediterranean Europe. For example, the so-called Spanish jasmine was originally from Iran and western South Asia, Jasminum fluminense and Jasminum dichotomum are invasive species in Hawaii and Florida. Jasminum polyanthum, also known as White Jasmine, is a weed in Australia. Species belonging to genus Jasminum are classified under the tribe Jasmineae of the olive family, Jasminum is divided into five sections—Alternifolia, Jasminum, Primulina, Trifoliolata, and Unifoliolata. The genus name is derived from the Persian Yasameen through Arabic, species include, Widely cultivated for its flowers, jasmine is enjoyed in the garden, as a house plant, and as cut flowers. The flowers are worn by women in their hair in southern, Jasmine tea is often consumed in China, where it is called jasmine-flower tea. Jasminum sambac flowers are used to make jasmine tea, which often has a base of green tea or white tea
24.
Ornamental plant
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Ornamental plants are plants that are grown for decorative purposes in gardens and landscape design projects, as houseplants, for cut flowers and specimen display. The cultivation of these, called floriculture, forms a branch of horticulture. Commonly, ornamental plants are grown for the display of aesthetic features including, leaves, scent, overall foliage texture, fruit, stem and bark, and aesthetic form. In some cases, unusual features may be considered to be of interest, such as the prominent thorns of Rosa sericea, in all cases, their purpose is for the enjoyment of gardeners, visitors, and the public institutions. Similarly certain trees may be called ornamental trees and this term is used when they are used as part of a garden, park, or landscape setting, for instance for their flowers, their texture, form, size and shape, and other aesthetic characteristics. In some countries trees in utilitarian landscape use such as screening, for plants to be considered to be ornamental, they may require specific work and activity by a gardener. Ornamental plants and trees are distinguished from utilitarian and crop plants, such as used for agriculture and vegetable crops. This does not preclude any type of plant being grown both for ornamental qualities in the garden, and for utilitarian purposes in other settings. Thus lavender is typically grown as a plant in gardens. The term ornamental plant is used here in the sense that it is generally used in the horticultural trades. The term largely corresponds to garden plant, though the latter is less precise. Ornamental plants are plants which are grown for display purposes, rather than functional ones, Ornamental plants are the keystone of ornamental gardening, and they come in a range of shapes, sizes and colors suitable to a broad array of climates, landscapes, and gardening needs. Some ornamental plants are grown for showy foliage and their foliage may be deciduous, turning bright orange, red, and yellow before dropping off in the fall, or evergreen, in which case it stays green year-round. Other ornamental plants are cultivated for their blooms, flowering ornamentals are a key aspect of many gardens, with many flower gardeners preferring to plant a variety of flowers so that the garden is continuously in flower through the spring and summer. Media related to Ornamental plants at Wikimedia Commons
25.
Privet
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A privet is a flowering plant in the genus Ligustrum. Some species have become widely naturalized or invasive where introduced, the generic name was applied by Pliny the Elder to L. vulgare. It is often suggested that the name privet is related to private, privet Ligustrum is a group of shrubs and small trees of southern and eastern Asia, from the Himalayas extending into Australia. They may be evergreen or deciduous, and are tolerant of different soil types and they often have conspicuous heads of white flower. In addition to being cultivated to create ornamental hedges and foliage, privet is also used in horticulture. The Oval leaf privet Ligustrum ovalifolium is used for hedges, while its flexible twigs are used as cords for lashing. Chinese privet is used in herbal medicine. The decoction of leaves or bark helps to treat diarrhea, stomach ulcers, chronic bowel problems, chapped lips, sore mouths and throats. Privet leaves and bark have bitter properties that make a tea for improving appetite. Some species produce a fruit, which is toxic to humans. Symptoms from eating privet fruit include nausea, headache, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, low blood pressure, a plant may produce thousands of fruits, most of which are eaten by birds. Privet is a invasive species because of its ability to outcompete and therefore displace native vegetation. Various species are now a problem in North America and Australia, privet is a core part of Michael Frayns novel, Spies, which was published in 2002. The Integrated Taxonomic Information System lists eleven accepted species of Ligustrum, additional species are listed in other references. Invasive species in the United States Environmental issues in the United States
26.
Forsythia
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Forsythia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Oleaceae. There are about 11 species, mostly native to eastern Asia, the common name is also forsythia, the genus is named after William Forsyth. Forsythia are deciduous shrubs growing to a height of 1–3 m and, rarely. The flowers are produced in the spring before the leaves, bright yellow with a deeply four-lobed flower. These become pendent in rainy weather thus shielding the reproductive parts and it is widely stated that forsythia flowers are able to produce lactose. Lactose is very established in other natural sources except milk. However, the presence of lactose could not be confirmed, the actual fruit is a dry capsule, containing several winged seeds. The genus is named after William Forsyth, a Scottish botanist who was head gardener. Garden hybrid between F. suspensa and F. viridissima, Forsythia likiangensis Ching & Feng ex P. Y. Bai. Sources, A genetic study does not fully match the accepted species listed above. Forsythias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Brown-tail, two species of forsythia are at the heart of the selected forms, for both species are variable, and garden hybrids, Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima. Forsythia suspensa, the first to be noticed by a Westerner, was seen in a Japanese garden by the botanist-surgeon Carl Peter Thunberg, thunbergs professional connections lay with the Dutch East India Company, and F. suspensa reached Holland first, by 1833. In England, when it was being offered by Veitch Nurseries in Exeter at mid-century, Forsythia viridissma, meanwhile, had overtaken it in European gardens. The Scottish plant-hunter Robert Fortune discovered it— in a garden of the coastal city of Chusan — before he ever saw it growing wild in the mountains in Chusans province. Forsythia × intermedia, as its name suggests, is a hybrid of F. suspensa and F. viridissima, repeated crosses of the same two parents have made reiterations of F. × intermedia quite variable. A bud sport of a particularly showy form is marketed as F. × intermedia Lynwood Variety. This cultivar has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, as have F. × intermedia Week End Courtalyn, the hybrids Forsythia × intermedia and Forsythia × ×variabilis have been produced in cultivation. Forsythia intermedia is a hybrid between F. suspensa and F. viridissima, many cultivars have been selected from this cross including dwarf and compact forms
27.
Chionanthus
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Chionanthus /ˌkaɪoʊˈnænθəs/, common name, fringetrees, is a genus of about 150 species of flowering plants in the family Oleaceae. The genus has a distribution primarily in the tropics and subtropics. Most of the species are evergreen, while the three temperate species are deciduous. They are shrubs and small to medium-sized trees growing to 3–25 m tall, the flowers are produced in feathery panicles, with a corolla subdivided into four slender lobes, they are white, pale yellow, or tinged pink. The fruit is a drupe containing a single seed. S. Green - Thailand Chionanthus avilensis P. S. Green - Venezuela Chionanthus axillaris R. Br. Chionanthus guianensis Pers - Venezuela + French Guiana Chionanthus hahlii Kiew - Bismarck, Solomons, – Southern China Chionanthus havilandii Kiew – Borneo Chionanthus henryae H. L. Li - USA Chionanthus henryanus P. S. Green. – Southwestern China, Burma Chionanthus holdridgei Stearn – Caribbean Chionanthus implicatus P. S. Green - South America Chionanthus intermedius F. Muell, – Ecuador, Peru, Malaysia Chionanthus pubicalyx Kiew – Borneo Chionanthus purpureus Lam. – Eastern United States Chionanthus vitiensis A. C. Sm, - Niue, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga Chionanthus wurdackii B. Ståhl - Peru Chionanthus zeylanicus L. - Sri Lanka, southern India Chionanthus zollingerianus Koord. & Valeton - Java Chang, Mei-chen, Chiu, Lien-ching, Wei, Zhi, Green, Peter S. Wu, beijing and St. Louis, MO, Science Press and Missouri Botanical Garden Press. In Wilson, A. J. G. Flora of Australia, Volume 49, Oceanic Islands 1, Lord Howe Island, CSIRO Publishing / Australian Biological Resources Study. Hyland, B. P. M. Whiffin, T. Zich, germplasm Resources Information Network, Chionanthus USDA Plants Profile, Chionanthus University of Pretoria, Chionanthus foveolatus
28.
Syringa vulgaris
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Syringa vulgaris is a species of flowering plant in the olive family Oleaceae, native to the Balkan Peninsula, where it grows on rocky hills. This species is cultivated as an ornamental and has been naturalized in other parts of Europe. It is not regarded as a species, found in the wild in widely scattered sites. The bark is grey to grey-brown, smooth on young stems, longitudinally furrowed, the leaves are simple, 4–12 cm and 3–8 cm broad, light green to glaucous, oval to cordate, with pinnate leaf venation, a mucronate apex, and an entire margin. They are arranged in pairs or occasionally in whorls of three. The flowers have a base to the corolla 6–10 mm long with an open four-lobed apex 5–8 mm across, usually lilac to mauve. They are arranged in dense, terminal panicles 8–18 cm long, the fruit is a dry, smooth, brown capsule, 1–2 cm long, splitting in two to release the two-winged seeds. Syringa vulgaris was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, the specific epithet is a Latin word meaning common or usual. Lilacs—both S. vulgaris and S. vulgaris, the Holy Roman Emperors ambassador, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, is generally credited with supplying lilac slips to Carolus Clusius, about 1562. That Tradescants lilac of Mattiolis was a one is shown by Elias Ashmoles manuscript list, Trees found in Mrs Tredescants Ground when it came into my possession. In the American colonies, lilacs were introduced in the 18th century, in late summer, lilacs can be attacked by powdery mildew, specifically Erysiphe syringae, one of the Erysiphaceae. No fall color is seen and the clusters have no aesthetic appeal. Common lilac tends to flower profusely in alternate years, a habit that can be improved by deadheading the flower clusters after the color has faded and before seeds, few of which are fertile, form. At the same time, twiggy growth on shoots that have flowered more than once or twice can be cut to a strong, outward-growing side shoot and it is widely naturalised in western and northern Europe. Additional hardiness, for Canadian gardens, was bred for in a series of S, most garden plants of S. vulgaris are cultivars, the majority of which do not exceed 4–5 m tall. Between 1876 and 1927, the nurseryman Victor Lemoine of Nancy introduced over 153 named cultivars, many of which are considered classics and still in commerce today. Lemoines French lilacs extended the limited range to include deeper, more saturated hues. These cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, Lilac
29.
Polyphyly
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A polyphyletic group is characterized by one or more homoplasies, phenotypes which have converged or reverted so as to appear to be the same but which have not been inherited from common ancestors. Alternatively, polyphyletic is used to describe multiple ancestral sources regardless of convergence, for example, warm-bloodedness evolved separately in the ancestors of mammals and the ancestors of birds. Other polyphyletic groups are protozoans, lipotyphla, and algae, as well as invertebrates, many biologists aim to avoid homoplasies in grouping species together and therefore it is frequently a goal to eliminate groups that are found to be polyphyletic. This is often the stimulus for major revisions of the classification schemes, in many schools of taxonomy, the existence of polyphyletic groups in a classification is discouraged. Monophyletic groups are considered by these schools of thought to be the most important grouping of organisms, on the other hand, polyphyletic groups can often be delimited in terms of clades, for example the flying vertebrates consist of the bat, bird, and pterosaur clades. Because polyphyletic groups can frequently be defined as a sum of clades, a stronger reason is that grouping species monophyletically facilitates prediction far more than does polyphyletic grouping. Predictive success is the touchstone by which theories are evaluated in all experimental sciences, species have a special status in systematics as being an observable feature of nature itself and as the basic unit of classification. It is usually assumed that species are monophyletic. However hybrid speciation arguably leads to polyphyletic species, hybrid species are a common phenomenon in nature, particularly in plants where polyploidy allows for rapid speciation. Funk, D. J. and Omland, K. E. Species-level paraphyly and polyphyly, Frequency, cause and consequences, with insights from animal mitochondrial DNA Annu
30.
Myxopyrum
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Myxopyrum is a plant genus native to India, southern China, Southeast Asia and New Guinea. There are at present 4 recognized species, Myxopyrum nervosum Blume - Borneo, Java, Malaysia, Maluku, Sulawesi, Sumatra, confertum P. S. Green - Laos, Thailand, Vietnam subsp. Smilacifolium - Hainan, Assam, Bangladesh, India, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Myanmar, Thailand,15, fig.250,4, line drawing of Myxopyrum pierrei
31.
Carl Ludwig Blume
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Charles Ludwig de Blume or Karl Ludwig von Blume was a German-Dutch botanist. L. He carried out studies of the flora of southern Asia, particularly in Java. From 1823 to 1826 Blume was Deputy Director of Agriculture at the garden in Bogor in Java. In 1827 he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, in 1855, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He planned, together with Philipp Franz von Siebold, the foundation of the Koninklijke Nederlandsche Maatschappij tot aanmoediging van den Tuinbouw, the botanical journal Blumea is named after him. Carl Ludwig Blume, Catalogus van eenige der merkwaardigste zoo in- als uitheemse gewassen, te vinden in s Lands Plantentuin te Buitenzorg opgemaakt door C. L. Blume, Carl Ludwig Blume, Bijdragen tot de flora van Nederlandsch Indië …. 1825-1827 on Botanicus Blume, Carl Ludwig, enumeratio plantarum Javae et insularum adjacentium, minus cognitarum vel novarum ex herbariis Reinwardtii, Kuhlii, Hasseltii et Blumii. Carl Ludwig Blume & Johannes B, fischer, Flora Javae nec non insularum adjacentium …. Carl Ludwig Blume, De novis quibusdam plantarum familiis expositio et olim jam expositarum enumeratio, Carl Ludwig Blume, Rumphia, sive commentationes botanicae imprimis de plantis Indiae orientalis …. 1835-1849 Carl Ludwig Blume, Museum botanicum Lugduno-Batavum …, 1849-1857 on Botanicus Carl Ludwig Blume, Flora Javae et insularum adjacentium nova series Carl Ludwig Blume, Collection des Orchidées les plus remarquables de lArchipel Indien et du Japon. Media related to Carl Ludwig Blume at Wikimedia Commons Detailed biography Karl Ludwig Blume Karl Ludwig Blumes work on orchids
32.
Nyctanthes
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Nyctanthes is a genus of flowering plants in the family Oleaceae, native to southeastern Asia. It is currently accepted as containing two species, other species included in this genus have been transferred to other genera. They are shrubs or small trees growing to 10 m tall, the flowers are produced in small clusters of two to seven together. The fruit is a capsule, with a single seed in each part. The name Nyctanthes means night flowering. Species Nyctanthes aculeata Craib – Thailand Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. - native to India, Nepal, Bhutan, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Java and Sumatra
33.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
34.
Abeliophyllum
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Abeliophyllum, also miseonnamu, Korean abeliophyllum, white forsythia, or Korean abelialeaf) is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the olive family, Oleaceae. It consists of one species, Abeliophyllum distichum Nakai, endemic to Korea and it is related to Forsythia, but differs in having white, not yellow, flowers. It is a shrub growing to 1–2 m tall. The leaves are opposite, simple, 6–10 cm long and 3-4.5 cm wide, the flowers are produced in early spring before the new leaves appear, they are white and fragrant, about 1 cm long, with a four-lobed corolla. The fruit is a round, winged samara 2–3 cm diameter and it is cultivated as an ornamental plant in Europe and North America. But as of 2009 it has not yet been assessed for the IUCN Red List. In 2015, IUCN classed the species as endangered, university of British Columbia Botanical Gardens, Abeliophyllum distichum
35.
Martin Vahl
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Martin Henrichsen Vahl was a Danish-Norwegian botanist, herbalist and zoologist. Martin Vahl was born in Bergen, Norway and attended Bergen Cathedral School and he studied botany at the University of Copenhagen and at Uppsala University under Carolus Linnaeus. XVI-XXI, Symbolæ Botanicæ I-III, Eclogæ Americanæ I-IV and Enumeratio Plantarum I-II and he lectured at the University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden from 1779 to 1782. Vahl made several trips in Europe and North Africa between 1783 and 1788. He became professor at the Society for Natural History at the University of Copenhagen in 1786 and was a professor of botany from 1801 to his death. In 1792, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died in Copenhagen, Denmark at age 55 and his son Jens Vahl also became a botanist. This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation Vahl when citing a botanical name, christensen, Carl Martin Vahl, pp. 85–88 in, Meisen, V. Prominent Danish Scientists through the Ages, University Library of Copenhagen 450th Anniversary. Facsimile of Enumeratio plantarum, Hauniae, 1805-1806
36.
Menodora
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Menodora is a genus of perennial plants and shrubs in the olive family Oleaceae. Its 23 species are found in the temperate Americas and in southern Africa and these are uniform species of deserts and arid grasslands or savannas. The usually bisexual flowers have a calyx with 5-10 lobes, while the corolla is similarly united. The corolla is a pretty, bright yellow, and is often scented, the fruit is a didymous, bilobed capsule with each globose locule or lobe containing 2-4 seeds. In the majority of species, each also features circumscissile dehiscence. Vegetatively, the plants are generally unremarkable, with a look that is common to many desert plants. In the dry seasons, plants may lose their generally small or reduced leaves altogether, leaf shape within the genus is highly variable, ranging from short and linear to almost feathery and pinnatisect. Leaves are most commonly arranged in opposite pairs, but in some individuals may be predominantly alternate. Willis Jepson mistakenly suggested that the origin of the name was rather obscure. Some botanists have suggested based on evidence that Menodora belongs within a broader circumscription of Jasminum. Small took the name for the genus from one of the sections of the Menodora recognized by Asa Gray, neither the sectional classification of Gray nor Steyermark have been upheld by recent molecular studies. One of the more things about this genus is the pattern of disjunction or non-continuous distribution. In the Americas, the jumps over the tropics, with only a few species whose individual distributions just cross into the tropics. This is a pattern found in many genera, but not many others with a similar amphitropical distribution also have connections across the Atlantic with Africa. American Journal of Sciences, series II14, 41-45, Oleaceae. in Flowering plants, Dicotyledons, Lamiales, vol. K. Kadereit, ed. Springer-Verlag, New York, humboldt, A. v. and A. Bonpland. A revision of the genus Menodora, annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 19, 87-176
37.
Alexander von Humboldt
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Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt was a Prussian geographer, naturalist, explorer, and influential proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher. Humboldts quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography, Humboldts advocacy of long-term systematic geophysical measurement laid the foundation for modern geomagnetic and meteorological monitoring. Between 1799 and 1804, Humboldt travelled extensively in Latin America and his description of the journey was written up and published in an enormous set of volumes over 21 years. Humboldt was one of the first people to propose that the lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean were once joined and this important work also motivated a holistic perception of the universe as one interacting entity. Alexander von Humboldt was born in Berlin in Prussia on 14 September 1769 and he was baptized as a baby in the Lutheran faith, with the Duke of Brunswick serving as godfather. At age 42, Alexander Georg was rewarded for his services in the Seven Years War with the post of Royal Chamberlain and he profited from the contract to lease state lotteries and tobacco sales. He first married the daughter of Prussian General Adjutant Schweder, in 1766, Alexander Georg married Maria Elisabeth Colomb, a well-educated woman and widow of Baron Hollwede, with whom she had a son. Alexander Georg and Maria Elisabeth had three children, a daughter, who died young, and then two sons, Wilhelm and Alexander and her first-born son, Wilhelms and Alexanders half-brother, was something of a neer do well, not often mentioned in the family history. Alexander Georg died in 1779, leaving the brothers Humboldt in the care of their emotionally distant mother, Humboldts mother expected them to become civil servants of the Prussian state. The money Baron Holwede left to Alexanders mother became, after her death, instrumental in funding Alexanders explorations, due to his youthful penchant for collecting and labeling plants, shells and insects, Alexander received the playful title of the little apothecary. On April 25,1789, he matriculated at Göttingen, then known for the lectures of C. G. Heyne and his brother Wilhelm was already a student at Göttingen, but they did not interact much since their intellectual interests were quite different. His vast and varied interests were by this time fully developed, at Göttingen he met Georg Forster, a naturalist who had been with Captain James Cook on his second voyage. Humboldt traveled with Forster in Europe, the two traveled to England, Humboldts first sea voyage, The Netherlands, and France. In England, he met Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society, the scientific friendship between Banks and Humboldt lasted until Bankss death in 1820, and the two shared botanical specimens for study. Banks also mobilized his scientific contacts in later years to aid Humboldts work, Humboldts scientific excursion up the Rhine resulted in his 1790 treatise Mineralogische Beobachtungen über einige Basalte am Rhein. Humboldts passion for travel was of long standing, Humboldts talents were devoted to the purpose of preparing himself as a scientific explorer. During this period, his brother Wilhelm married, but Alexander did not attend the nuptials, Humboldt graduated from the Freiberg School of Mines in 1792 and was appointed to a Prussian government position in the Department of Mines as an inspector in Bayreuth and the Fichtel mountains
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Syringa
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The genus is most closely related to Ligustrum, classified with it in Oleaceae tribus Oleeae subtribus Ligustrinae. Lilacs are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including copper underwing, scalloped oak and they are small trees, ranging in size from 2 to 10 metres tall, with stems up to 20 to 30 centimetres diameter. The leaves are opposite in arrangement, and their shape is simple and heart-shaped to broad lanceolate in most species, the usual flower colour is a shade of purple, but white, pale yellow and pink, and even a dark burgundy color are also found. The flowers grow in panicles, and in several species have a strong fragrance. Flowering varies between mid spring to summer, depending on the species. The fruit is a dry, brown capsule, splitting in two at maturity to release the two winged seeds, the genus Syringa was first formally described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus and the description was published in Species Plantarum. The genus name Syringa is derived from Ancient Greek word syrinx meaning pipe or tube, the English common name lilac is from the French lilac via the Arabic ليلك from Persian نیلک meaning bluish. Lilacs are popular shrubs in parks and gardens throughout the temperate zone, the term French lilac is often used to refer to modern double-flowered cultivars, thanks to the work of prolific breeder Victor Lemoine. Lilacs grow most successfully in well-drained soils, particularly based on chalk. They flower on old wood, and produce flowers if unpruned. If pruned, the plant responds by producing fast-growing young vegetative growth with no flowers, Lilac bushes can be prone to powdery mildew disease. The wood of lilac is close-grained, diffuse-porous, extremely hard, the sapwood is typically cream-coloured and the heartwood has various shades of brown and purple. Lilac wood has traditionally used for engraving, musical instruments. When drying, the wood has a tendency to be encurved as a twisted material, Lilacs are often considered to symbolize love. In Greece, Lebanon, and Cyprus, the lilac is strongly associated with Easter time because it flowers around that time, in the poem When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloomd, by Walt Whitman, lilacs are a reference to Abraham Lincoln. Syringa vulgaris is the flower of New Hampshire, because it is symbolic of that hardy character of the men and women of the Granite State. Several locations in North America hold annual Lilac Festivals, including, The Arnold Arboretum in Boston, Massachusetts, the Arboretum shows off its collection of over 422 lilac plants, of 194 different varieties. Lilac Sunday is the day of the year when picnicking is allowed on the grounds of the Arboretum
39.
Schrebera
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Schrebera is a genus of plant in the Oleaceae family found in Peru, tropical and southern Africa, India and Southeast Asia. As of September 2013 the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families recognises 8 species, - eastern and southern Africa from Ethiopia to Swaziland Schrebera americana Gilg - Peru Schrebera arborea A. Chev. - tropical Africa from Senegal to Kenya, south to Angola Schrebera capuronii Bosser & R. Rabev, - Borneo Schrebera orientalis Bosser & R. Rabev. - India, Himalayas, Indochina Schrebera trichoclada Welw
Media related to Oleaceae at Wikimedia Commons