1.
Frederiksberg Palace
–
Frederiksberg Palace is a Baroque residence, located in Frederiksberg, Denmark, adjacent to the Copenhagen Zoo. It commands a view over Frederiksberg Gardens, originally designed as a palace garden in the Baroque style. Constructed and extended from 1699 to 1735, the served as the royal family’s summer residence until the mid-19th century. Since 1869, it has housed the Royal Danish Military Academy, as crown prince, Frederick IV had broadened his education by travelling in Europe. The original building, probably designed by Ernst Brandenburger, was completed in 1703 for Frederick IV as a small, one-storey summer residence. The first major extension, when it was converted into a three-storey H-shaped building, was completed in 1709 by Johan Conrad Ernst, giving the palace an Italian Baroque appearance. It was Lauritz de Thurah who executed the third and final extension from 1733 to 1738 when the palace received extensions to the lateral wings encircling the courtyard, Frederick IV spent many happy years at the palace. Christian VII who was married to the English princess Caroline Matilda also spent some time in the palace and their son, who was to become Frederick VI, loved the palace and lived there both as crown prince and as king. After Frederick VIs dowager wife Queen Marie died at the palace in March 1852, in 1868, it was transferred to the War Ministry and the following year it became the Officers Academy. The building has undergone significant restoration work, first from 1927 to 1932. During the construction of the palace building, it was decided that there should be a chapel in the east wing. This probably explains why there is no indication of the chapel from the outside and it actually covers the space behind the six central windows on the ground floor. Wilhelm Friedrich von Platen and Ernst Brandenburger designed the chapel in the Baroque style and it was inaugurated on 31 March 1710. When the palace was taken over by the Officers Academy, the chapels furnishings, however, they were returned in the 1930s and can still be seen there today. The palace and the chapel can be visited and they contain imposing stucco work, ceiling paintings, an elegant marble bathroom with a secret access staircase, and the Princesses pancake kitchen. In 1854, British MP S. M. Peto gave a window to the King of Demark for the chapel. Since 1932, the chapel has been used as the parish church. The palace overlooks Frederiksberg Gardens which dates back to the first palace in 1703, from 1795 to 1804, it was redesigned by Peter Pedersen as an English landscape garden with the winding paths, lakes, islands and canals which can be seen today
2.
Fredensborg Palace
–
Fredensborg Palace is a palace located on the eastern shore of Lake Esrum in Fredensborg on the island of Zealand in Denmark. It is the Danish Royal Family’s spring and autumn residence, and is often the site of important state visits and events in the Royal Family and it is the most used of the Royal Family’s residences. Krieger built the French-inspired baroque palace 1720–1726, and the King himself took a part in the planning of the building and grounds. The man responsible for the construction was General Building Master Johan Conrad Ernst. To commemorate the signing of the peace accord the palace was named Fredens Borg, the palace complex consisted of a small, almost square, 1 1⁄2-storey-high main palace with dome and lanterns. It is positioned exactly at the centre of what is known as a hunting star, during a hunt it was permissible to shoot freely straight down the long paths, which radiated out from the centre. The dome hall measured 15 x 15 m, and had a height of 27 m, the sumptuous room featured stucco by C. E. Brenno and a plafond by Hendrick Krock. In front of the building was placed an octagonal courtyard encircled by the single-storey servants wings. It is the red building at Fredensborg Palace, and it has open half-timbers under a red tile roof. East of the octagon were the ring and the long stables building, To the east and adjacent to the main palace was an Orangery. On the other side of the church was the Courtiers Wing, residences for the court’s clerks and this section of the palace was built from 1724–1726, and introduces elements of the Dutch Baroque style and Rococo. The palace was extended throughout the early 18th century, however the structure of the palace has remained unchanged since its inauguration on October 11,1722. Krieger completed his work on the palace with the erection of the “new Court Chancery building” in 1731, the black-glazed tile, half-hipped roof building is now known as The Chancellery House. It butted up to the riding-ring on the southern edge, until her death, the late Queen Mother, Queen Ingrid used this house as her private residence. The part of palace Chancellery House is the spring and autumn home of Crown Prince Frederik, a major alteration of Krieger’s original building was made in 1741–1744 when Lauritz de Thurah, the King’s favorite architect, elevated the roof of the palace’s main building. The slanted roof was replaced by a one, and a characteristically de Thurah sandstone balustrade was erected. In 1751 he also transformed the Orangery into a building for the ladies-in-waiting. In 1753 Nicolai Eigtved extended the palace by adding four symmetrically-positioned corner pavilions with copper pyramid-shaped roofs to the main building, the palace gardens are among Denmarks largest historical gardens, and are Denmark’s finest example of a baroque garden
3.
Danish language
–
There are also minor Danish-speaking communities in Norway, Sweden, Spain, the United States, Canada, Brazil and Argentina. Due to immigration and language shift in urban areas, around 15–20% of the population of Greenland speak Danish as their home language. Along with the other North Germanic languages, Danish is a descendant of Old Norse, until the 16th century, Danish was a continuum of dialects spoken from Schleswig to Scania with no standard variety or spelling conventions. With the Protestant Reformation and the introduction of printing, a language was developed which was based on the educated Copenhagen dialect. It spread through use in the system and administration though German. Today, traditional Danish dialects have all but disappeared, though there are variants of the standard language. The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative, Danish has a very large vowel inventory comprising 27 phonemically distinctive vowels, and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon stød, a kind of laryngeal phonation type. The grammar is moderately inflective with strong and weak conjugations and inflections, nouns and demonstrative pronouns distinguish common and neutral gender. As in English, Danish only has remnants of a case system, particularly in the pronouns. Its syntax is V2, with the verb always occupying the second slot in the sentence. Danish is a Germanic language of the North Germanic branch, other names for this group are the Nordic or Scandinavian languages. Along with Swedish, Danish descends from the Eastern dialects of the Old Norse language, Scandinavian languages are often considered a dialect continuum, where there are no sharp dividing lines between the different vernacular languages. Like Norwegian and Swedish, Danish was significantly influenced by Low German in the Middle Ages, Danish itself can be divided into three main dialect areas, West Danish, Insular Danish, and East Danish. Danish is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Swedish, both Swedes and Danes also understand Norwegian better than they understand each others languages. By the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language was called the Danish tongue, or Norse language. Norse was written in the alphabet, first with the elder futhark. From the 7th century the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway
4.
Denmark
–
The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
5.
Christian IV of Denmark
–
Christian IV, sometimes colloquially referred to as Christian Firtal in Denmark and Christian Kvart or Quart in Norway, was king of Denmark-Norway and Duke of Holstein and Schleswig from 1588 to 1648. His 59-year reign is the longest of Danish monarchs, and of Scandinavian monarchies, a member of the house of Oldenburg, Christian began his personal rule of Denmark in 1596 at the age of 19. He is frequently remembered as one of the most popular, ambitious, Christian IV obtained for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe. He engaged Denmark in numerous wars, most notably the Thirty Years War, which devastated much of Germany, undermined the Danish economy and he renamed the Norwegian capital Oslo as Christiania after himself, a name used until 1925. Christian was born at Frederiksborg Castle in Denmark on 12 April 1577 as the child and eldest son of King Frederick II of Denmark–Norway. He was descended, through his mothers side, from king John of Denmark, at the time, Denmark was still an elective monarchy, so in spite of being the eldest son Christian was not automatically heir to the throne. However, in 1580, at the age of 3, his father had him elected Prince-Elect, at the death of his father on 4 April 1588, Christian was 11 years old. He succeeded to the throne, but as he was still under-age a regency council was set up to serve as the trustees of the power while Christian was still growing up. It was led by chancellor Niels Kaas and consisted of the Rigsraadet council members Peder Munk, Jørgen Ottesen Rosenkrantz and his mother Queen Dowager Sophie,30 years old, had wished to play a role in the government, but was denied by the Council. At the death of Niels Kaas in 1594, Jørgen Rosenkrantz took over leadership of the regency council, Christian continued his studies at Sorø Academy and received a good education with a reputation as a headstrong and talented student. In 1595, the Council of the Realm decided that Christian would soon be old enough to assume control of the reins of government. On 17 August 1596, at the age of 19, Christian signed his haandfæstning, twelve days later, on 29 August 1596, Christian IV was crowned at the Church of Our Lady in Copenhagen by the Bishop of Zealand, Peder Jensen Vinstrup. He was crowned with a new Danish Crown Regalia which had made for him by Dirich Fyring. On 30 November 1597, he married Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, Christian took an interest in many and varied matters, including a series of domestic reforms and improving Danish national armaments. New fortresses were constructed under the direction of Dutch engineers, the Danish navy, which in 1596 had consisted of but twenty-two vessels, in 1610 rose to sixty, some of them built after Christians own designs. The formation of a national army proved more difficult, up until the early 1620s, Denmarks economy profited from general boom conditions in Europe. This inspired Christian to initiate a policy of expanding Denmarks overseas trade and he founded a number of merchant cities, and supported the building of factories. He also built a number of buildings in Dutch Renaissance style
6.
Frederick II of Denmark
–
Frederick II was King of Denmark and Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death. Frederick II was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and he was hailed as successor to the Throne of Denmark in 1542 and of Norway in 1548. As king, he visited Norway in 1585, when he came to Båhus, unlike his father, he was strongly affected by military ideals. Already as a man he made friendship with German war princes. Shortly after his succession he won his first victory with the conquest of Dithmarschen in Schleswig-Holstein by Johan Rantzau during the summer of 1559, from his predecessor, he inherited the Livonian War. In 1560, he installed his younger brother Magnus of Holstein in the Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek, Frederick largely tried to avoid conflict in Livonia and consolidated amicable relations to Ivan IV in the 1562 Treaty of Mozhaysk. As a vassal of Ivan IV of Russia, Magnus was the titular King of Livonia from 1570 to 1578. His competition with Sweden for supremacy in the Baltic broke out into open warfare in 1563, the start of the Seven Years War and he tried in vain to conquer Sweden, which was ruled by his cousin, King Eric XIV. It developed into an expensive war of attrition in which the areas of Scania were ravaged by the Swedes. During this war the king led his army personally on the battlefield, the conflict damaged his relationship to his noble councillors, however the Sture Murders of 24 May 1567 by the insane King Eric XIV in Sweden helped stabilize the situation in Denmark. After the war Frederick kept the peace without giving up his attempt of trying to expand his prestige as a naval ruler and his foreign politics were marked by a moral support of the Protestant powers – but at the same time by a strict neutrality. In 1552, Steward of the Realm Peder Oxe had been raised to Councillor of State, during the spring of 1557, Oxe and the King had quarreled over a mutual property exchange. Failing to compromise matters with the king, Oxe had fled to Germany in 1558, however, financial difficulties arose during the stress of the Northern Seven Years War. After state finances collapsed during the years 1566 to 1567, Frederik called Peder Oxe home to address the kingdoms economy, the taking over of Danish administration and finances by the able councillor, provided a marked improvement for the national treasury. Councillors of experience including Niels Kaas, Arild Huitfeldt and Christoffer Valkendorff took care of the domestic administration, subsequently government finances were put in order and Denmarks economy improved. One of the chief expedients of the state of affairs was the raising of the Sound Dues. Oxe, as treasurer, reduced the national debt considerably. This was a period of affluence and growth in Danish history, Frederick II rebuilt Kronborg castle in Elsinore between 1574 and 1585
7.
Renaissance architecture
–
Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the style was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact. Italy of the 15th century, and the city of Florence in particular, was home to the Renaissance, the scholarly approach to the architecture of the ancient coincided with the general revival of learning. A number of factors were influential in bringing this about, Italian architects had always preferred forms that were clearly defined and structural members that expressed their purpose. Many Tuscan Romanesque buildings demonstrate these characteristics, as seen in the Florence Baptistery, Italy had never fully adopted the Gothic style of architecture. In the 15th century, Florence, Venice and Naples extended their power through much of the area that surrounded them and this enabled Florence to have significant artistic influence in Milan, and through Milan, France. Successive Popes, especially Julius II, 1503–13, sought to extend the Pope’s temporal power throughout Italy, in the early Renaissance, Venice controlled sea trade over goods from the East. Trade brought wool from England to Florence, ideally located on the river for the production of fine cloth, by dominating Pisa, Florence gained a seaport, and also maintained dominance of Genoa. In this commercial climate, one family in particular turned their attention from trade to the business of money-lending. The Medici became the chief bankers to the princes of Europe, becoming virtually princes themselves as they did so, along the trade routes, and thus offered some protection by commercial interest, moved not only goods but also artists, scientists and philosophers. This commenced in the mid 15th century and gained momentum in the 16th century, the construction of the Sistine Chapel with its uniquely important decorations and the entire rebuilding of St Peters, one of Christendoms most significant churches, were part of this process. In wealthy republican Florence, the impetus for church-building was more civic than spiritual, the unfinished state of the enormous cathedral dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary did no honour to the city under her patronage. The dome inspired further religious works in Florence, through Humanism, civic pride and the promotion of civil peace and order were seen as the marks of citizenship. Some major ecclesiastical building works were commissioned, not by the church. During the Renaissance, architecture became not only a question of practice, printing played a large role in the dissemination of ideas. The first treatise on architecture was De re aedificatoria by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450 and it was to some degree dependent on Vitruviuss De architectura, a manuscript of which was discovered in 1414 in a library in Switzerland. De re aedificatoria in 1485 became the first printed book on architecture, Sebastiano Serlio produced the next important text, the first volume of which appeared in Venice in 1537, it was entitled Regole generali darchitettura. It is known as Serlios Fourth Book since it was the fourth in Serlios original plan of a treatise in seven books, in all, five books were published
8.
Scandinavia
–
Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
9.
Park of Frederiksborg Castle
–
The park of Frederiksborg Castle is located to the north and west of Frederiksborg Castle in Hillerød, Denmark. It consists of a formal Baroque garden and a Romantic landscape garden, an enclosed deer park for hunting was established at the same time as Christian IVs new Frederiksborg Castle. It became known as Lille Dyrehave when Store Dyrehave was created immediately to the south of the town a few years later and he also had a garden at the North Zealand residence. The Castle Lake featured an island, Dronningeøen, which was used for tea parties. Another feature was the pavilion Sparepenge next to the road to Fredensborg, Sparepenge was pulled down in 1719, while the fountain was dismantled in the middle of the century. In 1720, Johan Cornelius Krieger was charged with the design of a new garden for the castle, about 1800, Frederick VII converted the areas Lille Dyrehave and Indelukket to the west of the Baroque garden into a Romantic landscape garden. The Baroque garden fell into neglect in the late 18th century, the Baroque garden was recreated in a somewhat modified form in the first half of the 1990s. A water feature cascades down the axis of the terraced complex. The park contains a memorial to Christian Ditlev Frederik Reventlow and it was inaugurated on 15 August 1884 to mark the 100th anniversary of the agricultural reforms in which he played a central role. The upper, northernmost part of the Baroque garden is home to Café Havehuset, in summer, the café is open for lunch Tuesday–Sunday. A tour boat operates on the lake, the building Badstueslottet is still used by the royal family in connection with hunts in the surrounding forests. The park hosts a garden show. Frederiksberg Park Fredensborg Palace Frederiksborg Castle – Museum of National History Brochure about the garden Café Havehuset
10.
Baroque
–
The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
11.
J. C. Jacobsen
–
Jacob Christian Jacobsen, mostly known as J. C. Jacobsen, was a Danish industrialist and philanthropist best known for founding the brewery Carlsberg and he had no formal academic or scientific training. In the 1840s, he had come to realise that production of beer, starting in 1847, he established his brewery Carlsberg, in Valby on the outskirts of Copenhagen, on a site where it has remained since. Being extremely scrupulous as for the securing of high quality beer, besides he was a well-known patron of art. After the fire of Frederiksborg Palace in 1859, he paid its rebuilding, in 1876, Jacobsen founded Carlsberg-fondet – the Carlsberg Foundation that became his heir because of family problems of the next years. A bitter conflict with his son Carl led to the foundation of the Ny Carlsberg Brewery 1882. A reconciliation was however obtained 1886 and this conflict was the theme of a debated Danish TV drama series aired in 1997. His son Carl Jacobsen created one of the largest private art collections of his time and it is now housed in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, a museum founded by him in Copenhagen. Carlsberg Breweries Carlsberg Laboratory Carlsberg Foundation
12.
Herluf Trolle
–
Herluf Trolle was a Danish naval hero, Admiral of the Fleet and co-founder of Herlufsholm Herluf Trolle was born at Lillö, Scania into the high noble Trolle line of Swedish-origin. At the age of nineteen Trolle went to Vor Frue Skole at Copenhagen, here he adopted the views of Philipp Melanchthon, with whom he was in intimate correspondence for some years. His marriage with Birgitte, the daughter of Lord High Treasurer Mogens Gøye, brought him a rich inheritance, both Christian III and Frederik II had a very high opinion of Trolles trustworthiness and ability and employed him in various diplomatic missions. Herluf Trolle was, indeed, richly endowed by nature, and his handsome face and it was Trolle whom Frederik II appointed to investigate the charges of malversation brought against Oxe. Both Trolle and his wife were far renowned for their piety and good works, a man of culture, moreover, he translated Davids 31st Psalm into Danish verse. He also promoted literature and learning by educating poor students both at home and abroad, endowing Latin schools and encouraging historical research, in 1559, Trolle was appointed Admiral and Inspector of the Fleet, a task which occupied all his time and energy. In 1563 he superseded the aged Peder Skram as admiral in chief in the Northern Seven Years War, supported by two other Danish ships, Trolle attacked the Swedish flagship Mars, then the largest warship in northern waters, but was beaten off at nightfall. But the Swedish admiral was captured and the remnant of the Swedish fleet took refuge at Stockholm, on 1 June 1565 he set sail with twenty-eight liners, which were reinforced off Fehmarn by five Lübeck vessels. Horn had put to sea still earlier with a superior fleet, the fight was severe but indecisive, and both commanders finally separated to repair their ships. Trolle had been wounded in the thigh and shoulder. This characteristic act of unselfishness was his undoing, for he died at Copenhagen on 25 June and he was buried at Herlufsholm together with his wife Birgitte Gøye in a tomb made by the Flemish sculptor Cornelis Floris. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Trolle
13.
North Zealand
–
For the northern island of the country of New Zealand, see North Island. North Zealand, also North Sealand, refers to the part of the Danish island of Zealand which is not clearly defined. The Danish tourist authorities have introduced the term Danish Riviera to cover the area in view of its increasing importance for tourism. The area not only has three magnificent royal castles but offers resorts with sandy beaches, as well as lakes and unspoiled forests, in addition to Kronborg Castle, three of the North Zealand forest areas used for royal par force hunting are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The region is generally understood to cover the north of Copenhagen between the Isefjord to the west and the Øresund to the east. It comprises the municipalities of Allerød, Egedal, Fredensborg, Frederikssund, Furesø, Gribskov, Halsnæs, Helsingør, Hillerød, Hørsholm, Lyngby-Taarbæk, the largest urban centres in the region are Helsingør, Hørsholm, Hillerød, Birkerød, Farum, Frederikssund and Frederiksværk. The historic city of Roskilde in the southwest is often included in North Zealand, Frederikssund, known for its Viking Games held each summer, is also adjacent to the Hornsherred peninsula with opportunities for walking, cycling and sailing. Jægerspris Castle with a history dating back to the 13th century is now a house museum. Another attraction is the open-air Gunpowder Museum, the Gothic, brick-built Roskilde Cathedral is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, attracting over 100,000 visitors a year. Roskilde has a history dating back to the Vikings as can be seen in its Viking Ship Museum, the city also attracts thousands to the four-day Roskilde Music Festival held annually at the beginning of July. The castle known as Krogen was rebuilt as Kronborg in 1577 and they did not use the land for farming, however, but mainly for hunting and for grazing their horses. They also established enclosed parks for hunting deer, since the 16th century, royal residences and palaces have been built in the region. In the 18th century, Frederiksværk on the west coast and Hellebæk just west of Helsingør, from the turn of the 20th century, the north and east coasts have developed as bathing and holiday resorts for the inhabitants of Copenhagen. The area to the north of the capital has become popular as a residential and recreational area for those working in the city. One of the attractions in the area is the UNESCO-listed Kronborg Castle in Helsingør to the north-east. It is not only the site of William Shakespeares play Hamlet but is one of the most important Renaissance castles in northern Europe, the lively city of Helsingør also has a cathedral church built in the 16th century. Its redeveloped harbour area known as Kulturhavn Kronborg now houses the Danish Maritime Museum while Kulturværftet is a venue for concerts. The second largest city Hillerød, in the centre of the region, is famous for Frederiksborg Palace built in the Renaissance style for Christrian IV in the early 17th century
14.
Pieter Isaacsz
–
Pieter Isaacsz, was a Danish-born Dutch Golden Age painter. According to van Mander his father was from Haarlem and he learned to paint in Amsterdam for a year and a half by Cornelis Ketel, and later by Hans von Achen. Van Mander claimed he lived in Amsterdam and went on to describe several portraits by him which he particularly admired. His most popular piece was a painting with a procession of angry women in Rome on hearing that the Senate had decided in favor of polygamy for men. According to Houbraken he later became the teacher of Adriaen van Nieulandt the younger, according to the RKD he travelled back and forth to Denmark several times, which is possibly where he later died. He was the subject of an exhibition at Frederiksborg Palace in 2007 as the man behind the collections most famous portraits, according to Codart he was court painter of the Danish king Christian IV who became a spy in Swedish service and died of the plague in Elsinore. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Kunstmuseum Basel, Basel Lower Saxony State Museum, Hanover Frederiksborg Palace, Hillerød Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas
15.
Northern Mannerism
–
Northern Mannerism is the form of Mannerism found in the visual arts north of the Alps in the 16th and early 17th centuries. The three main centres of the style were in France, especially in the period 1530–50, in Prague from 1576, and in the Netherlands from the 1580s—the first two phases very much led by royal patronage. In the last 15 years of the century, the style, by then becoming outdated in Italy, was widespread across northern Europe, in Northern Europe, however, such artists, and such an audience, could hardly be found. Romanism was more influenced by Italian art of the High Renaissance, and aspects of Mannerism. The most notable imports were Rosso Fiorentino, Francesco Primaticcio, Niccolò dellAbbate and this conjunction succeeded in generating a native French style with strong Mannerist elements that was then able to develop largely on its own. Her slim, long-legged and athletic figure became fixed in the erotic imaginary, high-style walnut furniture made in metropolitan centers like Paris and Dijon, employed strapwork framing and sculptural supports in dressoirs and buffets. The mysterious and sophisticated Saint-Porchaire ware, of only about sixty pieces survive. Apart from the Palace of Fontainebleau itself, other important buildings decorated in the style were the Château dAnet for Diane de Poitiers, and parts of the Palais du Louvre. After an interlude when work on Fontainebleau was abandoned at the height of the French Wars of Religion, maximilians son, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor was to prove an even better patron than his father would have been, and Spranger never left his service. Works from Rudolfs Prague were highly finished and refined, with most paintings being relatively small, Rudolf also commissioned work from Italy, above all from Giambologna, who the Medicis would not allow to leave Florence, and four great mythological allegories were sent by Paolo Veronese. The Emperors influence affected art in other German courts, notably Munich, Rudolf was not very interested in religion, and in the Prague of Rudolf II, an explosion of mythological imagery was produced that had not been seen since Fontainebleau. Goddesses were usually naked, or nearly so, and a more overt atmosphere of eroticism prevails than is found in most Renaissance mythological works, the dominating figure was Hercules, identified with the emperor, as he had earlier been with earlier Habsburg and Valois monarchs. It seems, however, that the painted allegories from Prague contain neither very specific complicated meanings, Giambologna frequently chose, or let someone else choose, a title for his sculptures after their completion, for him it was only the forms that mattered. From this time on he no longer made prints after Sprangers extravaganzas, the monstrous muscle-men and over-elongated female nudes with tiny heads. Were replaced by figures with more normal proportions and movements, after his return from Italy Goltzius moved to a quieter proto-Baroque classicism, and his work in that style influenced many. Unlike many, notably his fellow Utrechter Abraham Bloemaert, once Wtewaels repertoire of styles was formed, Bloemaert painted many landscapes reconciling these types by combining close-up trees, with figures, and a small distant view from above to one side. Such subjects appealed to both aristocratic patrons and the market, which was far larger in the Netherlands. This was especially so in the Protestant north, after the movement of populations in the Revolt, karel van Mander is now remembered mainly as a writer on art rather than an artist
16.
Hans van Steenwinckel the Elder
–
Hans van Steenwinckel the Elder was a Flemish-Danish architect and sculptor. The father of Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger and Lorenz van Steenwinckel, he founded a dynasty of architects. Hans van Steenwinckel was born in Antwerpen c, the family fled to Emden, East Frisia, where his father, Lourens van Steenwinckel, became master builder. Later city architect, and designed the Town Hall from 1567 onwards, Hans van Steenwinckel trained under his father, and it is known that he received payment for a design for the Town Halls stairs and tower in 1574. Hans van Steenwinckel probably worked both on Uraniborg and the subsequent Stjerneborg observatory, both of which were demolished after Brahes death in 1601, from 1585 he lived and worked in Copenhagen but his presence on Hven is documented several times in the 1580s and last in 1590. He studied theoretical renaissance architecture and Brahe taught him both astronomy and geometry, in 1582 he had been named Royal Building Master and in the 1580s he designed Slangerup Church. Hans van Steenwinckel also built and rebuilt a number of houses around the country, including Berritzgaard, Näsbyholm. In 1588 the new King Christian IV appointed him Government Architect and from this date his main task was to modernize the fortifications in many Danish towns and strongholds in Sweden and these included Bohus Fortress, Varberg, Halmstad and Akershus. He was also responsiple for the lay out of the new town of Christianopel. According to his gravestone he was himself most proud of the fortifications of Halmstad, uranienborg Stjerneborg Näsbyholm Berritzgaard Orebygaard Lundehave Slangerup Church Fortifications including Bohus Fortress, Halmstad, Varberg, Akershus Christianopel Hans van Steenwinckel
17.
Second Northern War
–
The Second Northern War was fought between Sweden and its adversaries the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, Brandenburg-Prussia, the Habsburg Monarchy and Denmark–Norway. The Dutch Republic often intervened against Sweden, in 1655, Charles X Gustav of Sweden invaded and occupied western Poland–Lithuania, the eastern half of which was already occupied by Russia. The rapid Swedish advance became known in Poland as the Swedish Deluge, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became a Swedish fief, the Polish–Lithuanian regular armies surrendered and the Polish king John II Casimir Vasa fled to the Habsburgs. Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia initially supported the estates in Royal Prussia, Russia took advantage of the Swedish setback, declared war on Sweden and pushed into Lithuania and Swedish Livonia. John II Vasa found an ally in Leopold I of Habsburg and this triggered Frederick III of Denmarks invasion of the Swedish mainland in the spring of 1657, in an attempt to settle old scores from the Torstenson War while Sweden was busy elsewhere. Brandenburg left the alliance with Sweden when granted full sovereignty in the Duchy of Prussia by the Polish king in the treaties of Wehlau, Frederick IIIs war on Sweden gave Charles X Gustav a reason to abandon the Polish–Lithuanian deadlock and fight Denmark instead. In the Treaty of Roskilde, Denmark had to abandon all Danish provinces in what is now Southern Sweden, the anti-Swedish allies meanwhile neutralized the Transylvanian army and Polish forces ravaged Swedish Pomerania. In 1658 Charles X Gustav decided that instead of returning to the remaining Swedish strongholds in Poland–Lithuania and this time, Denmark withstood the attack and the anti-Swedish allies pursued Charles X Gustav to Jutland and Swedish Pomerania. Throughout 1659, Sweden was defending her strongholds in Denmark and on the southern Baltic shore, while little was gained by the allies and a peace was negotiated. When Charles X Gustav died in February 1660, his successor settled for the Treaty of Oliva with Poland–Lithuania, Habsburg and Brandenburg in April and the Treaty of Copenhagen with Denmark in May. Sweden was to keep most of her gains from Roskilde, the Duchy of Prussia became a sovereign state, Sweden had already concluded a truce with Russia in 1658, which gave way to a final settlement in the Treaty of Cardis in 1661. In English language, German, Russian and Scandinavian historiography, these conflicts were traditionally referred to as First Northern War, the term Second Northern War, coined in Polish historiography, has lately been increasingly adopted by German and English language historiography. Another ambiguous term referring to the Second Northern War is the Little Northern War, in Poland, the term The Deluge is also ambiguous, as it is sometimes used for a broader series of wars against Sweden, Brandenburg, Russia, Transylvania and the Cossacks. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia had ended the Thirty Years War, in the Torstenson War, a theater of the Thirty Years War, Sweden had defeated the former Baltic great power Denmark. Sweden had been at peace with Russia since the Treaty of Stolbovo had ended the Ingrian War in 1617, Sweden had remained in a state of war with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth since the Polish–Swedish War, which was concluded by the repeatedly renewed truce. As a consequence, the Commonwealth lacked a sufficient defense, seeing the great success on the Russian side, Sweden also decided to intervene, among other reasons using the explanation that it was to protect the Protestant population in Poland. Having a close relationships with the Prince of Transylvania, Sweden had intentions to defeat the Catholic Poland, Sweden also drew the rising Cossack Hetmanate to its side that stood in the strong opposition to the Polish government and promised military support if the Cossacks will break with the Russians. Bohdan Khmelnytsky sent an expedition headed by the Kiev colonel to Halychyna which soon turned back due to mutiny within its ranks, the leader of Hetmanate did not participate in actions due to poor health conditions
18.
Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp
–
Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp was Queen of Sweden from 1654 until 1660. She was the wife of Charles X Gustav of Sweden, and she served as regent during the minority of her son from 1660 until 1672, and during the minority of her grandson Charles XII in 1697. She also represented Charles XII during his absence in the Great Northern War from 1700 until the regency of her granddaughter Ulrika Eleonora in 1713. Hedwig Eleonora was described as a dominant personality, and was regarded as the de facto first lady of the court for 61 years. Hedwig Eleonora was born on 23 October 1636 to Duke Frederick III of Holstein-Gottorp and she was the sixth of the couples sixteen children. One day after her birthday, she was married to King Charles X Gustav of Sweden on 24 October 1654. The marriage was arranged as an alliance between Sweden and Holstein-Gottorp against their mutual enemy Denmark, Queen Christina of Sweden met Hedwig Eleonora in Holstein-Gottorp on her way to Rome after her abdication. Christina was concerned that Charles was unmarried, and so she suggested the match, the suggestion was immediately accepted by Holstein-Gottorp, who agreed to all demands from Sweden, which made the negotiations quick. Hedwig Eleonora was at the time engaged to Gustav Adolph, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, after having seen portraits of both sisters, however, Charles X chose Hedwig Eleonora because of her beauty, and her current fiancé was instead married to Magdalena Sibylle. In the marriage contract, Hedwig Eleonora was granted a dowry of 20.000 riksdaler,32.000 riksdaler as a dower, and the incomes of the fiefs of Gripsholm, Eskilstuna and Strömsholm. Hedwig Eleonora was welcomed by Charles X at Dalarö in Sweden 5 October 1654 and she was greeted, dressed in silver brocade, by queen dowager Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg at the Stockholm Royal Palace, where the wedding was celebrated the same day. She was crowned queen at Storkyrkan 27 October, shortly after, Charles X left for Poland to participate in the Deluge. Hedwig Eleonora remained in Sweden for the birth of the future Charles XI the 24 November 1655, the spring of 1656, she left Sweden and followed Charles X during his campaign, during which she displayed both physical and mental strength. She was present during the Battle of Warsaw, during which she received the praise from the Swedish army alongside her spouse. She returned to Sweden in the autumn of 1656, in Sweden, she took control over her dower lands, which she strictly controlled during her life. After the Dano-Swedish War ), she was called to join Charles X at Gothenburg, then she followed him to Gottorp and Wismar. During the Dano-Swedish War, she and her sister-in-law Maria Eufrosyne of Pfalz lived at Kronborg in Denmark after it had taken by the Swedish general Carl Gustaf Wrangel. At Kronborg, Hedwig Eleonora was visited by Charles X and entertained the foreign ambassadors and she visited Frederiksborgs Palace and hunted in the woods with the English ambassador
19.
Coronations in Europe
–
Note, this article is one of a set, describing coronations around the world. For general information related to all coronations, please see the umbrella article Coronation, coronations in Europe were previously held in the monarchies of Europe. The United Kingdom is the monarchy in Europe that still practices coronation. All other countries have become republics or replaced the coronation with an inauguration ceremony, King Zog I, self-proclaimed monarch of Albania, was ritually crowned on 1 September 1928. His coronation attire included rose-colored breeches, gold spurs, and a gold crown weighing seven pounds ten ounces, Europes only Muslim king swore a required constitutional oath on the Bible and the Quran, symbolizing his desire to unify his country. Zog was forced into exile by Italian invaders in 1939, Emperors of Austria were never crowned, as a coronation was not viewed as being necessary to legitimize their rule in that country. However, they were crowned in some kingdoms within the Austrian Empire, after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Emperors of Austria were only crowned as King of Hungary, Franz-Joseph I in 1867 and Charles I in 1916. A kingdom from 1806–1918, Bavaria possessed its own set of crown jewels, however, there was no coronation ceremony, and the king never wore the crown in public. Rather, it was placed on a cushion at his feet, the Bavarian monarchy was abolished in 1918. Belgium has no crown, the formal installation requires only a solemn oath on the constitution in parliament. Lahaut was found dead a week later, during the enthronement of Albert II, legislator Jean-Pierre Van Rossem cried Leve de republiek, Vive la république européenne, Vive Lahaut. Van Rossem was also shouted down by the others, but did not suffer the fate as Lahaut. Vratislaus II of Bohemia was the first crowned ruler of Bohemia, during the Middle Ages, it was held that enthronement would make a person Duke of Bohemia and that only coronation would make a person King of Bohemia. St. Vitus Cathedral was the coronation church, monarchs of Bohemia were crowned with the Crown of Saint Wenceslas and invested with royal insignia, among which a cap or mitre and a lance were specific for Bohemian coronations. Maria Theresa, the female monarch of Bohemia, was crowned king in order to emphasize that she was the monarch. The last King of Bohemia to be crowned as such was Emperor Ferdinand of Austria, the Abbess of the St. Georges Abbey had the privilege to crown the wife of the King of Bohemia. In 1791, the right to crown the Queen of Bohemia was transferred to the Abbess of the Damenstift, the first crowned ruler of Bosnia was Tvrtko I. His coronation, held on 26 October 1377, created the Kingdom of Bosnia, Tvrtko Is coronation served as an example to subsequent such rites
20.
Christian VII of Denmark
–
Christian VII was a monarch of the House of Oldenburg who was King of Denmark-Norway and Duke of Schleswig and Holstein from 1766 until his death. For his motto he chose, Gloria ex amore patriae, Christian VIIs reign was marked by mental illness and for most of his reign Christian was only nominally king. His half-brother Frederick was designated as regent of Denmark in 1772, from 1784 until Christian VIIs death in 1808, Christians son, later Frederick VI, acted as unofficial regent. Christian was the son of King Frederick V and his first wife Louise of Great Britain and he was born in the Queens Bedchamber at Christiansborg Palace, the Royal residence in Copenhagen. He was baptized a few hours later the same day and his godparents were King Frederick V, Queen Dowager Sophie Magdalene, Princess Louise and Princess Charlotte Amalie. A former heir to the throne, also named Christian, had died in infancy in 1747, therefore and his mother Queen Louise died in 1751, two years after his birth. The following year his father married to Juliane Marie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, after a long period of infirmity, Frederick V died 14 January 1766, just 42 years old. Later the same day, Christian was proclaimed king from the balcony of Christiansborg Palace, Christians reign was marked by mental illness which affected government decisions, and for most of his reign Christian was only nominally king. His court physicians were especially worried by his frequent masturbation and his royal advisers changed depending on who won power struggles around the throne. In the late 1760s, he came under the influence of his personal physician Johann Friedrich Struensee, from 1770 to 1772, Struensee was de facto regent of the country, and introduced progressive reforms signed into law by Christian VII. The dynastic marriage took place at Christiansborg Palace on 8 November 1766, after his marriage, he abandoned himself to the worst excesses, especially sexual promiscuity. In 1767, he entered into a relationship with the courtesan Støvlet-Cathrine and he publicly declared that he could not love Caroline Matilda, because it was unfashionable to love ones wife. He ultimately sank into a condition of mental stupor, symptoms during this time included paranoia, self-mutilation and hallucinations. Struensee was a protégé of an Enlightenment circle of aristocrats that had been rejected by the court in Copenhagen and he was a skilled doctor, and having somewhat restored the kings health while visiting the Schleswig-Holstein area, he gained the kings affection. He was retained as travelling physician on 5 April 1768, and accompanied the entourage on the King’s foreign tour to Paris and he was given the title of State Councilor on 12 May 1768, barely a week after leaving Altona. The neglected and lonely Caroline Matilda entered into an affair with Struensee, in 1772, the kings marriage with Caroline Matilda was dissolved by divorce. Christians marriage with Caroline Matilda produced two children, the future King Frederick VI and Princess Louise Auguste, however, it is widely believed that Louise was the daughter of Struensee—portrait comparisons tend to support this hypothesis. Struensee, following a deluge of modernising and emancipating reforms, was arrested and executed the same year, Christian signed Struensees arrest and execution warrant under pressure from his stepmother, Queen Juliane Marie, who had led the movement to have the marriage ended
21.
Great Northern War
–
The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the alliance were Peter I of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway. George I of Great Britain and of Brunswick-Lüneburg joined the coalition in 1714 for and for Hanover in 1717, Charles XII led the Swedish army. Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish magnates under Stanisław I Leszczyński, the Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I. The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul, the Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian-Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russias position. After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it, the remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted, with the last city, Riga, falling in 1710. The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves, Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark–Norway and from the east by Russia, which had occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg, Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front, but was killed in Fredriksten in 1718. The war ended with Swedens defeat, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region, by these treaties Sweden ceded her exemption from the Sound Dues, and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania. The peace treaties also ended her alliance with Holstein-Gottorp, Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary, Russia secured the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened her position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII. Between the years of 1560 and 1658, Sweden created a Baltic empire centred on the Gulf of Finland and comprising the provinces of Karelia, Ingria, Estonia, and Livonia. During the Thirty Years War Sweden gained tracts in Germany as well, including Western Pomerania, Wismar, the Duchy of Bremen, during the same period Sweden conquered Danish and Norwegian provinces north of the Sound. However, the Swedish state ultimately proved unable to support and maintain its army in a prolonged war. The cost of the proved to be much higher than the occupied countries could fund, and Swedens coffers. The foreign interventions in Russia during the Time of Troubles resulted in Swedish gains in the Treaty of Stolbovo, the treaty deprived Russia of direct access to the Baltic Sea. In the late 1690s, the adventurer Johann Patkul managed to ally Russia with Denmark and Saxony by the secret Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye, Charles XII of Sweden succeeded Charles XI of Sweden in 1697, aged 14. From his predecessor, he took over the Swedish Empire as an absolute monarch, Charles XI had tried to keep the empire out of wars, and concentrated on inner reforms such as reduction and allotment, which had strengthened the monarchs status and the empires military abilities
22.
Ferdinand Richardt
–
Joachim Ferdinand Richardt Danish-American artist, in Denmark known for his lithographs of manor houses, and in the U. S. for his paintings of Niagara Falls and other landscapes. Ferdinand Richardt, the son of Johan Joachim Richardt and Johanne Frederikke née Bohse, was born in Brede and his father ran the inn/company store at the Brede factory. In 1832 the family relocated to nearby Ørholm to operate the inn at the paper-factory there, in 1839, they moved to Copenhagen. Ferdinand became briefly an apprentice in 1835, but soon decided on a career in fine art. Richardt was awarded the Academys small and large silver medals in 1839 and 1840, in 1847, he received a five-year stipend from the crown, on the condition that he deliver one architectural and one landscape painting each year to the royal collection. Between 1855 and 1859 he visited in the United States and he maintained a studio in New York City, while traveling during the summers to Niagara Falls and to various destinations east of the Mississippi River. After returning to Denmark, Richardt married the widow Sophia Schneider née Linnemann in 1862 and they traveled for part of a year in southern Europe, and from 1863 they lived for a period in England. In February 1864, Queen Victoria invited Richardt to display his art work to the court at Windsor Castle, in 1872 and 1873, Richardt sold many of his accumulated paintings and lithographs before emigrating to the United States with his family. They lived first in the town of Niagara Falls, N. Y. where the artist again produced canvases depicting the great waterfall, in 1875, the Richardts moved to San Francisco, and finally in 1876 to Oakland. For the remaining twenty years of his life Richardt was active as a painter of California landscapes with a concentration on the San Francisco Bay Area and he exhibited and sold his works in San Francisco until at least 1887. At the same time he taught drawing privately, at his death in 1895, Richardt left a daughter, Johanna, and a stepson, Joost Schneider. Richardt created hundreds of oil paintings, mostly of landscapes, castles, manors and he was a recognized painter in his own lifetime. Today, his paintings are held and exhibited by museums and other institutions in the United States and Denmark. Richardts 1856 painting Niagara Falls was chosen to be the backdrop for the customary luncheon following the Second inauguration of Barack Obama in Statuary Hall, then and now, the mighty falls symbolize the grandeur, power and possibility of America. Thorvaldsen in his studio at Charlottenborg,1840, during the 1840s, 50s and 60s, Richardt travelled in Denmark and Sweden, and made numerous drawings of manor houses etc. Republished with condensed text in 1976, Danish Churches, Castles, Manors and Memorials,12 portfolios 1867-68 with a total of 56 pictures. Scanian Manors,24 portfolios 1852-63, with a total of 78 pictures, Manors in Södermanland,12 portfolios 1864-69 with a total of 57 pictures, some in color. These works were popular at the time
23.
Frederick VII of Denmark
–
Frederick VII was King of Denmark from 1848 to 1863. He was the last Danish monarch of the older Royal branch of the House of Oldenburg, during his reign, he signed a constitution that established a Danish parliament and made the country a constitutional monarchy. Fredericks motto was The peoples love, my strength, Frederick was born at Amalienborg Palace to Christian VIII of Denmark and Duchess Charlotte Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. His maternal grandparents were Friedrich Franz I, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the kings first two marriages both ended in scandal and divorce. He was first married in Copenhagen on 1 November 1828 to his second cousin Princess Vilhelmine Marie of Denmark and they separated in 1834 and divorced in 1837. On 10 June 1841 he married for a time to Duchess Caroline Charlotte Mariane of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Køppen and of Juliane Caroline Rasmussen and this marriage seems to have been happy, although it aroused great moral indignation among the nobility and the bourgeoisie. Countess Danner, who was denounced as a gold digger by her enemies. She also worked at maintaining his popularity by letting him meet the people of the provinces, the expectation that Frederick would not likely produce offspring, despite numerous affairs, was widespread, but sources rarely state the reasons. Some speculate that Frederick was infertile, during the reign of Fredericks father, King Christian VIII, the succession question was already being brought forward. This was brought forward in a book published in 1994 and again in a book published in 2009, the letters are quoted in the book. In all cases, however, extramarital offspring were and still are barred from the line of succession and it has been claimed Frederick had a same-sex relationship with his friend, Carl Berling (1812-1871 publisher and owner of the newspaper Berlingske Tidende. To retain a tinge of decency, the King married Louise Rasmussen, the public indignation within higher circles over Fredericks morganatic marriage is well-known, but reasons have rarely been explained in detail. Frederick, who was the last king of the branch of the Oldenburg dynasty, had a rather neglected childhood after the divorce of his parents. His youth was marked by scandals and for many years he appeared as the problem child of the royal family. When he succeeded to the throne in January 1848, he was almost at once met by the demands for a constitution, the Schleswig-Holsteiners wanted an independent state while the Danes wished to maintain South Jutland as a Danish area. The king soon yielded to the Danish demands, and in March he accepted the end of absolutism, during his reign, Frederick on the whole behaved as a constitutional monarch. He did not, however, quite give up interfering in politics, in 1854, he contributed to the fall of the strongly conservative Ørsted cabinet, and in 1859–60, he accepted a liberal government appointed on the initiative of his wife
24.
Carlsberg Group
–
The Carlsberg Group is a brewing company founded in 1847 by J. C. The companys first headquarters were located in Copenhagen, Denmark, since Jacobsens death in 1887, the majority owner of the company has been the Carlsberg Foundation. The companys flagship brand is Carlsberg Beer but it also brews Tuborg, Kronenbourg, Somersby cider, Russias best-selling beer Baltika, Belgian Grimbergen abbey beers, and more than 500 local beers. After merging with the assets of Norwegian conglomerate Orkla ASA in January 2001. After a failed attempt by Orkla, Carlsberg became the sole owner after purchasing Orklas share in the brewery in 2004. It is the leading beer seller in Russia with about a 40 percent share of the market, in 2009 Carlsberg ranked fourth worldwide, and employed around 45,000 people. Carlsberg was founded by J. C, Jacobsen, a philanthropist and avid art collector. With his fortune he amassed an art collection which is now housed in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in central Copenhagen. The first brew was finished on 10 November 1847, and the export of Carlsberg beer began in 1868 with the export of one barrel to Edinburgh, Jacobsens son Carl opened a brewery in 1882 named Ny Carlsberg forcing him to rename his brewery Gamle Carlsberg. The companies were merged and run under Carls direction in 1906, Jacobsen set up the Carlsberg Laboratory in 1875, which worked on scientific problems related to brewing. It featured a Department of Chemistry and a Department of Physiology, the species of yeast used to make pale lager, Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, was isolated by Emil Christian Hansen at the laboratory in 1883 and bears its name, this was shared freely by Carlsberg. The Carlsberg Laboratory also developed the concept of pH and made advances in protein chemistry, in 1972, the Carlsberg Research Centre was established and the Carlsberg Laboratory is now an independent unit of the Centre. Because of a conflict with his son Carl, Jacobsens brewery was left to the Foundation upon his death in 1887, the first brewery to be built outside Denmark was in Blantyre, Malawi in 1968. Carlsberg merged with Tuborg breweries in 1970 forming the United Breweries AS, Carlsberg became the sole owner of Carlsberg-Tetley in 1997. In 2008 Carlsberg Group, together with Heineken, bought Scottish & Newcastle, in 2013 the company joined leading alcohol producers as part of a producers commitments to reducing harmful drinking. The old brewery in Copenhagen is currently open for tours, famous visitors have included Winston Churchill in 1950, Queen Elizabeth II in 1957, and Yuri Gagarin in 1962. The Carlsberg Group divides their operations into three areas, Northern & Western Europe, Eastern Europe and Asia. Baltic Beverages Holding is currently owned by Carlsberg, previously, it was a joint venture between Carlsberg and Scottish & Newcastle in Russia
25.
Heinrich Hansen (painter)
–
Heinrich Hansen was a Danish architectural painter and State Councillor. His son, Adolf Heinrich-Hansen, was also an architectural painter and his father was a cloth dyer who originally came from Flensborg. After some time as a painter, he went to Copenhagen in 1842 to enroll at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts with the intention of becoming a decorative painter. Before the year was out, he had begun assisting with the decorations at the Thorvaldsen Museum and he also attended the modeling classes and won a silver medal in 1846 for his live model painting. The following year, together with Wilhelm Marstrand, he helped create decorations for the chapel of King Christian IV at Roskilde. In 1847, he was awarded money from the Reiersenske Fund and this enabled him to study in Germany. During his time there, he decided to be an architectural painter, in 1848, he held his first exhibition, then had an exhibit of oil paintings in 1849. It was well-received and his support was extended so he was able to visit most of Western Europe. One of the paintings that resulted from this trip, a view of the Church of Our Blessed Lady of the Sablon, was purchased for the Royal Collection and he also was a member of the selection committee for the Charlottenborg Spring Exhibition. He became a Knight in the Order of the Dannebrog in 1859, over the years, he worked on restoration projects at Rosenborg, Kronborg and Frederiksborg castles, the last of which suffered a major fire in 1859. He also designed furniture, silverware and porcelain, coordinating design at Bing & Grøndahls porcelain factory for a period of 22 years, in 1877, together with his wife, Margrethe, he created the State Councilor H. Hansen and Wife Silver Anniversary Scholarship and he went through an extended period of illness and apparently recovered for a time, but had a sudden relapse and died the next day
26.
Ferdinand Meldahl
–
Ferdinand Meldahl was a Danish architect best known for the reconstruction of Frederiksborg Castle after the fire in 1859. Meldahl was one of the proponents of historicism in Denmark. As a member of the council of Copenhagen Municipality for 27 years from 1866. In 1857, he became a member of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and he was its manager from 1873 to 1890. In 1904, he was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order on the occasion of the visit of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. At the time he was Chamberlain to the King Christian IX of Denmark, city Hall of Fredericia Alþingishúsið in Reykjavík Reconstruction of Frederiksborg Palace after the fire in 1859 Completion of Frederiks Church in Copenhagen Ferdinand Meldahl. Schiødte, Erik Meldahl, Ferdinand in Bricka, Carl Frederik Dansk Biografisk Lexikon, tillige omfattende Norge for Tidsrummet 1537-1814, XI. bind, Copenhagen, Gyldendalske Boghandels Forlag, pp. 250–53
27.
Adriaen de Vries
–
Born in The Hague to a patrician family, his early training is obscure, a recent suggestion suggests an apprenticeship with Willem Danielsz. Van Tetrode, known in Italy as Guglielmo Fiammingo, a pupil of Benvenuto Cellini who had returned to the Netherlands, another possibility is that he was apprenticed to a goldsmith, his brother-in-law Simon Adriaensz Rottermont. Both possibilities are suggestive in view of de Vries virtuoso casting technique, three of the Virtues and some of the putti for Giambolognas Grimaldi Chapel, in San Francesco di Castelletto, Genoa, have been attributed to Adriaen de Vries. This led to his appointment as court sculptor to Philip IIs son-in-law Charles Emmanuel I. In 1589-94 he worked for the first time in Prague, making busts and these sculptures are now housed in Vienna and at the Victoria and Albert Museum, which possesses a bust of Rudolf in bas-relief. He left Prague in 1594 for a visit to study in Rome, on his return through Germany he executed two fountains in 1596 for the city of Augsburg, the Mercury and Hercules and the Hydra fountains, which may still be seen in Maximilianstraße. De Vries returned in 1601 to Prague, where Rudolf made him Kammerbildhauer and it was conceived as a part of a five figure group of the Flagellation of Christ. He remained in Prague after Rudolfs death in 1612, though the Imperial court returned to Vienna, one of the statues from this fountain is now displayed in the Rijksmuseum. Fourteen sculptures, the largest collection of De Vries work, are in Museum De Vries at Drottningholm Palace, the originals, now to be found in Museum de Vries, are represented by bronze replicas at the Wallenstein Palace in Prague, now seat of the Czech senate. Another famous work by de Vries also now at Drottningholm was the Neptunus Fountain and these sculptures were also taken as prizes of war, during the Dano-Swedish War. Partly as a result of the disturbances of the Thirty Years War, Adriaen de Vries 1556-1626, Imperial Sculptor 1999. Adriaen de Vries at the ArtCyclopedia
28.
Renaissance in the Low Countries
–
The Renaissance in the Low Countries was a cultural period in the Northern Renaissance that took place in around the 16th century in the Low Countries. Culture in the Low Countries at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the Italian Renaissance and its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe. In science, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius led the way, in cartography, in art, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting went from the strange work of Hieronymus Bosch to the everyday life of Pieter Brueghel the Elder. In architecture, music and literature too, the culture of the Low Countries moved into the Renaissance style, during the course of the century the region also experienced significant changes. The union with Spain under Charles V, Humanism and Reformation led to a rebellion against the Spanish rule, by the end of the 16th century the northern and Southern Netherlands were effectively split. Gradually, the balance of power shifted away from the Southern Netherlands, two factors determined the fate of the region in the 16th century. The first was the union with the kingdom of Spain through the 1496 marriage of Philip the Handsome of Burgundy and Juana of Castile. Their son, Charles V, born in Ghent, would inherit the largest empire in the world, a second factor included religious developments. The Middle Ages gave way to new modes of religious thinking, devotio Moderna practices, for example, were particularly strong in the region, while the 16th-century criticisms of the Catholic Church that spread throughout Europe also reached the Low Countries. Humanists such as Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam were critical but remained loyal to the church, however, the spread of the Protestant Reformation, started by Martin Luther in 1517, eventually led to outright war. The repression that led to the Dutch Revolt, the beginning of the Eighty Years War. Subsequently, the Southern Netherlands became a bastion for the Counter Reformation, trade in the port of Bruges and the textile industry, mostly in Ghent, turned Flanders into the wealthiest part of Northern Europe at the end of the 15th century. The Burgundian court dwelled mostly in Bruges, Ghent and Brussels, the nobles and rich traders were able to commission artists, creating a class of highly skilled painters and musicians who were admired and requested around the continent. This led to frequent exchanges between the Low Countries and Northern Italy, before 1500, the Italian Renaissance had little or no influence above the Alps. After this we begin to see Renaissance influences, but unlike the Italian Renaissance, the revival of the classical period is also not a central theme like in Italy, the rebirth shows itself more as a return to nature and earthly beauty. 15th-century painting in the Low Countries still shows strong religious influences, even after 1500, when Renaissance influences begin to show, the influence of the masters from the previous century leads to a largely religious and narrative style of painting. The first painter showing the marks of the new era is Hieronymus Bosch and his work is strange and full of seemingly irrational imagery, making it difficult to interpret. Most of all it seems surprisingly modern, introducing a world of dreams that highly contrasts with the style of the Flemish masters of his day
29.
Crow-stepped gable
–
A crow-stepped gable, stepped gable, or corbie step is a stairstep type of design at the top of the triangular gable-end of a building. Early examples, from the 15th century onwards, are found in Denmark, England, Germany, Poland, the Baltic States, the Low Countries, Switzerland, crow-stepped gables are especially common on traditional Dutch houses and Danish medieval churches. Crow-stepped gables were also used in Scotland as early as the 16th century, examples of Scottish crow-stepped gable can be seen at Muchalls Castle, Monboddo House, and the Stonehaven Tolbooth, all late 16th- and early 17th-century buildings. 19th-century examples are found in North America, and the gable is also a feature of the northern-Renaissance Revival. The access would have been convenient for chimney sweeps and roofers in earlier times, with crow steps, the roofing slates do not reach the end of the building, so making for a special problem with keeping the roof watertight. Many different schemes are found for overcoming this, some of which are described below, terms currently used in Scotland are italicised. Slates may be laid to the edge of the crow step, then mortar would be laid over the edge of the slate to seal the gap. Other solutions involve working with lead, a groove approximately 25 mm deep is cut into the inside edge of the steps. A lead abutment flashing is inserted into this groove, called a chase or a raggle, the lead is laid over the end slate, which is raised by a tilting fillet. Leading is inserted into a raggle, and used to make a trough, or secret gutter, the far edge of the trough is raised over a triangular fillet. Slates are then laid resting on that edge and overlapping into the trough. Rather than forming a raggle, lead flashings may be placed into the joints between bricks as they are laid, when lead is to be held into a raggle, small folded lead wedges called bats are inserted at intervals and hammered in so they expand. The raggle is then sealed with mortar, crow steps are frequently made of sandstone, even on buildings otherwise of granite, and it is said that the porous nature of sandstone leads to problems with water penetration. Because of this, crow steps are sometimes capped with lead or sealed with other materials, there are a number of variations on the basic design. One such structure is Culross Palace built in 1597 which features a woman on the crow steps. Roofs in Scotland are typically steeper than in the rest of the United Kingdom making for steeper, the Nuttall Encyclopædia suggests this architectural feature is called corble steps. Corbie steps is a common version. Another term sometimes used is craw step, in Dutch, this design is termed trapgevel, characteristic of many brick buildings in the Netherlands, Belgium, and in Dutch colonial settlements
30.
Alexander the Great
–
Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of twenty and he was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of historys most successful military commanders. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16, after Philips assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his fathers Panhellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia, in 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of battles, most notably the battles of Issus. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety, at that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River. He sought to reach the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea and invaded India in 326 BC and he eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexanders surviving generals, Alexanders legacy includes the cultural diffusion which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt, Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and he is often ranked among the most influential people in human history. He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his wife, Olympias. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his wife for some time. Several legends surround Alexanders birth and childhood, sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wifes womb with a seal engraved with a lions image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of dreams, that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb. On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and it was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his own instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception
31.
Julius Caesar
–
Gaius Julius Caesar, known as Julius Caesar, was a Roman politician, general, and notable author of Latin prose. He played a role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed an alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate. Caesars victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, extended Romes territory to the English Channel, Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, with the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused the order, and instead marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon with the 13th Legion, leaving his province, Civil war resulted, and Caesars victory in the war put him in an unrivalled position of power and influence. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reforms and he centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed dictator in perpetuity, giving him additional authority. But the underlying political conflicts had not been resolved, and on the Ides of March 44 BC, a new series of civil wars broke out, and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesars adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to power after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began, much of Caesars life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and from other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources, Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. Caesar was born into a family, the gens Julia. The cognomen Caesar originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section. The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations, that the first Caesar had a head of hair, that he had bright grey eyes. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name, despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC. Caesars father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia and his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesars childhood, in 85 BC, Caesars father died suddenly, so Caesar was the head of the family at 16
32.
Anne Catherine of Brandenburg
–
Anne Catherine of Brandenburg was queen-consort of Denmark and Norway from 1597 to 1612 as the first spouse of King Christian IV of Denmark. Anne Catherine was born in Halle and raised in Wolmirstedt and her parents were Joachim Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg and his first wife Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin. Christian met her on his journey in Germany in 1595 and decided to marry her, in 1596, Anne Catherine and her parents were present at his coronation, and the next year, the marriage was arranged. Anne Catherine became Queen of Denmark on 27 November 1597 when she was married to Christian IV, the wedding took place in the castle of Haderslevhus in South Jutland the year after the coronation of Christian IV. She was crowned queen in 1598, together they had six children, among them Christian, the Prince-Elect, who died a year before his father, and Frederik III who introduced absolute monarchy in Denmark. Her son, Ulrik, was murdered in 1633 and their two daughters, Sophia and Elisabeth, and the elder son, Frederick, died at a very young age. Anne Catherine was the first wife of Christian IV, but not much is known about her and she does not seem to have had much political influence. She often accompanied the King on his travels, in her time, she was praised for her modesty and deep religious feelings. There is no mention as to whether the marriage was happy or not, the building of the Rosenborg Castle began while she was queen, but the extent of her influence on the building and its interior is not known. Despite her good relationship with the Lutheran archbishop, she called upon a Calvinist vicar to give her the last sacrament on her death bed and she died in Copenhagen and was buried in the Roskilde Cathedral. Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Denmark died in infancy, Christian, Hereditary Prince of Denmark married Magdalene Sibylle of Saxony. Frederick III married Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg and had issue, Ulrik, Prince-Bishop of Schwerin died unmarried. Article in the Dansk biografisk Lexikon Queen Anna Cathrine at the website of the Royal Danish Collection
33.
Chamfer
–
A chamfer /ˈʃæm. fər/ is a transitional edge between two faces of an object. It can also be known as a bevel but connotes more often cutting and is more often 45° with respect to the two adjoining faces. If the un-chamfered intersection of the faces would otherwise form a right angle, 90° as is most common. A fully chamfered square interior would thus be octagonal, Chamfer is a term commonly used in mechanical and manufacturing engineering. Special tools such as mills and chamfer planes are available. In tile work, or furniture such as counters or table tops, where a chamfer does not go to the end of the piece, but lifts out in a smooth curve, the end is called a larks tongue. In non-aesthetic uses, chamfers are necessary in parabolic glass mirror manufacture, a chamfer is also often used to make an otherwise sharp edge safer when a machined metal part is intended to be handled by a person. In architecture, the base of the Taj Mahal is a cube with chamfered corners and its great gate is formed of chamfered base stones and chamfered corbels for a balcony or equivalent cornice towards the roof. Many city blocks in Barcelona, València and various cities in Spain. This pioneering design opens up broader perspectives, provides pleasant pedestrian areas, outside of aesthetics, chamfering is part of the process of hand-crafting a parabolic glass telescope mirror. Before the surface of the disc can be ground, the edges must first be chamfered to prevent chipping and this can be accomplished by placing the disc in a metal bowl containing silicon carbide and rotating the disc with a rocking motion. The grit will thus wear off the edge of the glass. In printed circuit board designing, a chamfer may be applied to an edge of a conductive junction in order to strengthen that location. Chamfering of junctions may also be applied in high-frequency PCB design in order to reduce reflections, bevel The dictionary definition of chamfer at Wiktionary Chamfer
34.
Dutch gable
–
A Dutch gable or Flemish gable is a gable whose sides have a shape made up of one or more curves and has a pediment at the top. The gable may be an entirely decorative projection above a section of roof line, or may be the termination of a roof. The preceding is the definition, but the term is sometimes used more loosely. The term Dutch gable is also used in America and Australasia to refer to a gablet roof, the Dutch gable was a notable feature of the Renaissance architecture which spread to northern Europe from the Low Countries, arriving in Britain during the latter part of the 16th century. Later Dutch gables with flowing curves became absorbed into Baroque architecture, examples of Dutch-gabled buildings can be found in historic cities across Europe. In Potsdam, Germany,150 red brick houses featuring steep Dutch gables form part of the citys Dutch Quarter, while in Bruges, Belgium, the Flemish culture also had a strong architectural impact in Arras, northern France. The style also spread beyond Europe, for example Barbados is well known for the Dutch gables on its historic buildings, the formation of Dutch gables requires careful detailing, to weatherproof the junction of the roof with the inner face of the Dutch gable wall with a flashing. Clock gable Awning History and Evolution of Cape Dutch Architecture
35.
Berritzgaard
–
The Berritzgaard estate and manor house is one of the largest and best preserved manor houses on the island of Lolland in Denmark. The estate can be traced back to 1382, to its first owner, the estate developed from a village called Berith, situated where the Berritzgaard manor house now stands. Later, the Huitfeldt family purchased the estate, jacob Huitfeldt and his wife Lisebeth Friis built the present manor house that was constructed by Hans van Steenwinckel the Elder. Lisebeth Friis was widowed before the house was finished in 1586, the style of the house is in the Dutch Renaissance architectural style and Berritzgaard is considered to be the most unspoiled example of a manor house from this style period in Denmark. In 1654, Joachim Gersdorff, the widower after Huitfeldt, sold the Berritzgaard estate to Hans Wilhelm von Harstall and his son, Christian Ulrich von Harstall, became King Christian Vs Master of the Royal Stables. Because of his service to the Kingdom, he was given land to add to the Berritzgaard estate. This was the time in the history of Berritzgaard that the estate was expanded by royal gift. After being widowed, his daughter sold Berritzgaard to Abraham Lehn in 1729, Johan Lehn, Abrahams the Elders father, had emigrated to Denmark from the Netherlands. The Lehn family made their fortune in the trade, grocery trade and in the shipping business. Their primary import product was tea from Ceylon and his plans for the gardens at Berritzgaard won national prizes in Denmark. According to tradition, Poul Lehns only son out of his four children died when he out of a window at the Berritzgaard house. She was Christiane Henriette von Barner, who after a short and very happy, in 1820 she remarried Colonel Henrik Christian Rosenoern. Now in possession of the Guldborgland Barony, Colonel Henrik Christian Rosenoern was given the title baron with the name Rosenoern-Lehn for him and his descendants to bear. Christiane Henriette had previously decided to move the headquarters of the Barony of Guldborgland to the beautifully situated Oreby Estate. To carry this out, Poul Lehns will, in which he had had set aside a sum of money to restore Berritzgaards big detached wing, had to be changed. This was successful and Berritzgaard was abandoned in 1810 as living quarters for the Rosenoern-Lehn family and was not used as a house for the next 160 years. The house was only partly furnished, now and then occupied by staff in the lower part of the house. The run down wing that was supposed to be restored was instead demolished, occasionally the house was used for other purposes
36.
Lolland
–
Lolland is the fourth largest island of Denmark, with an area of 1,243 km2. Located in the Baltic sea, it is part of Region Sjælland, as of 1 January 2013, it has 62,578 inhabitants. Lolland is also known as the island because of its flatness. The island has been an important communication highway, among others for Nazi Germany during World War II, historically, sugar beet has been grown in Lolland. Sugar is still an industry, visible from the large number of sugar beet fields. The largest town of Lolland is Nakskov, with 15,500 residents, other main towns are Maribo, which hosts the seat of the Diocese of Lolland and Falster, Sakskøbing and Rødby. Since January 1,2007, Lolland has been administered by two municipalities, Lolland covering the two thirds, and Guldborgsund uniting the eastern third with the neighbouring island Falster. Lolland has motor and railway links both to the island of Falster to the east and to Germany via ferry, european route E47 links Copenhagen to Hamburg via Lolland. This ferry, in service since 1963, serves 6 passenger trains per day. Freight trains and night trains do not use the ferry, they take the way to the mainland via the Great Belt Bridge, then Funen. The governments of Denmark and Germany plan to connect Lolland with Fehmarn by an immersed tunnel. Two older bridges also span the strait between Lolland and Falster, the Frederick IX Bridge and Guldborgsund Bridge at the end of the strait. Frederick IX bridge is the bridge to Falster. Among the attractions of the island are Fuglsang Manor built in the half of the 19th century. Knuthenborg Safari Park north of Maribo is the largest safari park in Northern Europe, furthermore, Middelaldercentret is an open-air museum on the most eastern part of the island just outside Nykøbing Falster. The Centre is a living history museum and it contains a reconstructed part of a medieval town from around 1400. It is among the most authentic reconstructions of the period in Europe. Lolland has many beaches and areas with summer houses, which are primarily visited by German tourists
37.
Order of the Elephant
–
The Order of the Elephant is the highest order of Denmark. After the Reformation in 1536 the confraternity died out, but a badge in the form of an elephant with his profile on its side was still awarded by Frederick II. This latter badge may have inspired by the badge of office of the chaplain of the confraternity which is known to have been in the form of an elephant. The order was instituted in its current form on 1 December 1693 by King Christian V as having one class consisting of only 30 noble knights in addition to the Grand Master. The statutes of the order were amended in 1958 by a Royal Ordinance so that men and women could be members of the order. The Danish monarch is the head of the order, the members of the royal family are members of the order, and foreign heads of state are also inducted. In very exceptional circumstances a commoner may also admitted, the most recent member of the order who was neither a current or former head of state nor royal was Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller, a leading industrialist and philanthropist. The order of the Elephant has one class, Knight of the Order of the Elephant, Knights of the order are granted a place in the 1st Class of the Danish order of precedence. The collar of the order is of gold and it consists of alternating elephants and towers. On the cover of the elephants there is a D which stands for Dania, according to the statutes of the order, the collar is usually only worn on New Years Day and on major occasions. The badge of the order is an elephant made of white-enamelled gold with blue housings. On its back the elephant is bearing a watch tower of pink enameled masonry encircled by a row of small table cut diamonds at the bottom with another row just below the crenellation at the top. At the top of the tower is a large enameled gold ring from which the badge can be hung from the collar or tied to the sash of the Order, there are about 72 elephants at the chancery of the Order or in circulation. It is estimated that together with an number of elephants in museums around the world. The star of the order is a silver star with smooth rays. At its center there is a red enameled disc with a white cross and it is worn on the left side of the chest. The sash of the order is of light-blue silk moiré and 10 cm wide for men 6 cm wide for women and it is placed on the left shoulder with the elephant resting against the right hip. The collar is not worn when the sash is used, over this red mantle was worn a short white shoulder cape with a standing collar, embroidered with scattering of numerous gold flames, upon which was worn the collar of the order
38.
Order of the Dannebrog
–
The Order of the Dannebrog is an Order of Denmark, instituted in 1671 by Christian V. In 1808, the Order was reformed and divided into four classes, the Grand Commander class is reserved to persons of princely origin. It is only awarded to royalty with close ties with the Danish Royal House. The statute of the Order was amended in 1951 by a Royal Ordinance so that men and women could be members of the Order. The badge of the Order is a white enamelled Dannebrog cross with a red enamelled border, for the Knights in silver and for everyone else in gold or silver gilt. On its reverse are found the crowned royal cyphers of Valdemar II Sejr, Christian V and Frederik VI, as well as the years 1219,1671 and 1808, in each of the four angles of the cross is found a small Danish royal crown. The Grand Cross can, as an honor, be awarded with diamonds. There is also a Cross of Honour, when the collar is worn the sash is not worn. The star of the Order is a silver star with straight rays with an enamelled Dannebrog cross at the centre. The breast cross of the Order is similar to the cross on the star but larger and with faceted silver instead of white enamel, the ribbon of the Order is white silk moiré with red borders, the national colours of Denmark. The Order originally had a distinctive habit worn by the knights on very solemn occasions, over this red mantle was worn a short white shoulder cape with a standing collar embroidered in gold, upon which was worn the collar of the Order. The habit also had a hat with a plume of white. This habit was almost identical to that worn by the knights of the Order of the Elephant, each Danish ministry has a quota of Knights and Knights 1st class that they may use at their discretion. It is most often given to high-ranking officers of the police, armed forces, also used for politicians in Folketinget after 8 years of elected service. Ministers are given the rank of Knight 1st Class, the rank of Commander is given to Colonels, ministers and other high-ranking officials as a retirement-decoration after long service. Commander 1st class is given for Admirals, Generals, Supreme-court judges, ambassadors, Grand Cross is most often used for admirals, generals, Supreme-court judges, ambassadors and similar as a reward for very meritorious service to Denmark. Grand Cross with Breaststar with Diamonds is most often given to high-ranking officers of the Royal Court, finally, the Grand Commander grade is only given to 8 people. The reigning monarch is always a Grand Commander, and he/she may give the grade to 7 others - most often close family, the Order of the Dannebrog is often used as a tool of diplomacy
39.
Jesus
–
In Christology, the Person of Christ refers to the study of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as they co-exist within one person. There is no discussion in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human. Hence, since the days of Christianity theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures. In the period following the Apostolic Age, specific beliefs such as Arianism and Docetism were criticized. On the other end of the spectrum, Docetism argued that Jesus physical body was an illusion, docetic teachings were attacked by St. Ignatius of Antioch and were eventually abandoned by proto-orthodox Christians. However, after the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos, historically in the Alexandrian school of christology, Jesus Christ is the eternal Logos paradoxically humanized in history, a divine Person who became enfleshed, uniting himself to the human nature. The views of these schools can be summarized as follows, Alexandria, Antioch, Logos assumes a specific human being The First Council of Ephesus in 431 debated a number of views regarding the Person of Christ. At the same gathering the council debated the doctrines of monophysitism or miaphysitism. The council rejected Nestorianism and adopted the term hypostatic union, referring to divine, the language used in the 431 declaration was further refined at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. However, the Chalcedon creed was not accepted by all Christians, because Saint Augustine died in 430 he did not participate in the Council of Ephesus in 431 or Chalcedon in 451, but his ideas had some impact on both councils. On the other hand, the major theological figure of the Middle Ages. The Third Council of Constantinople in 680 held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. John Calvin maintained that there was no element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the person of The Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the Work of Christ in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ, the study of the Person of Christ continued into the 20th century, with modern theologians such as Karl Rahner and Hans von Balthasar. Balthasar argued that the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the absorption of human attributes, thus in his view the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine
40.
Carl Bloch
–
Carl Heinrich Bloch was a Danish painter. He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark and studied with Wilhelm Marstrand at the Royal Danish Academy of Art there, Blochs parents wanted their son to enter a respectable profession - an officer in the Navy. This, however, was not what Carl wanted and his only interest was drawing and painting, and he was consumed by the idea of becoming an artist. He went to Italy to study art, passing through the Netherlands, where he acquainted with the work of Rembrandt. Carl Bloch met his wife, Alma Trepka, in Rome and they were happily married until her early death in 1886. His early work featured rural scenes from everyday life, from 1859 to 1866, Bloch lived in Italy, and this period was important for the development of his historical style. His first great success was the exhibition of his Prometheus Unbound in Copenhagen in 1865, after the death of Marstrand, he finished the decoration of the ceremonial hall at the University of Copenhagen. The sorrow over losing his wife weighed heavily on Bloch, in a New Years letter from 1866 to Bloch, H. C. Andersen wrote the following, What God has arched on solid rock will not be swept away, another letter from Andersen declared Through your art you add a new step to your Jacob-ladder into immortality. In a final ode, from an author to a famous artist. Andersen said Write on the canvas, write your seal on immortality, then you will become noble here on earth. He was then commissioned to produce 23 paintings for the Chapel at Frederiksborg Palace and these were all scenes from the life of Christ which have become very popular as illustrations. The originals, painted between 1865 and 1879, are still at Frederiksborg Palace, the altarpieces can be found at Holbaek, Odense, Ugerloese and Copenhagen in Denmark, as well as Loederup, Hoerup, and Landskrona in Sweden. A second work by Bloch, an 1880 grisaille version of The Mocking of Christ, was purchased by BYU in June 2015, Carl Bloch died of cancer on February 22,1890. His death came as a blow for Nordic art according to an article by Sophus Michaelis. Michaelis stated that Denmark has lost the artist that indisputably was the greatest among the living, kyhn stated in his eulogy at Carl Blochs funeral that Bloch stays and lives. A prominent Danish art critic, Karl Madsen, stated that Carl Bloch reached higher toward the heaven of art than all other Danish art up to that date. Madsen also said If there is an Elysium, where the giant, rich, warm and noble artist souls meet, the most notable example of this is the movie The Testaments of One Fold and One Shepherd
.jpg)
