1.
Semiconductor
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Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high electrical resistance — higher than typical resistance materials and their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. The behavior of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics. Semiconductor devices can display a range of properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance. The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the movement of carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping greatly increases the number of carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called p-type, the semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and n-type regions, although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. Elements near the so-called metalloid staircase, where the metalloids are located on the table, are usually used as semiconductors. Some of the properties of materials were observed throughout the mid 19th. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the Cats-whisker detector, developments in quantum physics in turn allowed the development of the transistor in 1947 and the integrated circuit in 1958. There are several developed techniques that allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials and these modifications have two outcomes, n-type and p-type. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively, an unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow through the material. Heterojunctions Heterojunctions occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined together, for example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped germanium. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials, the n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until equilibrium is reached by a process called recombination, a product of this process is charged ions, which result in an electric field. Excited Electrons A difference in electric potential on a material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called ambipolar diffusion, whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the amount of holes and electrons changes
2.
NXP Semiconductors
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NXP Semiconductors N. V. is a Dutch global semiconductor manufacturer headquartered in Eindhoven, Netherlands. The company employs approximately 45,000 people in more than 35 countries, NXP reported revenue of $6.1 billion in 2015, including one month of revenue contribution from recently merged Freescale Semiconductor. On October 27,2016, it was announced that Qualcomm would buy NXP, NXP said it was the fifth-largest non-memory semiconductor supplier in 2016, and the leading semiconductor supplier for the secure identification, automotive and digital networking industries. The company was founded in 1953 as part of the electronics firm Philips, with manufacturing and development in Nijmegen, known then as Philips Semiconductors, the company was sold to a consortium of private equity investors in 2006, at which point the companys name was changed to NXP. On August 6,2010, NXP completed its Initial public offering, on December 23,2013, NXP Semiconductors was added to the NASDAQ100. Finally, on March 2,2015, it was announced that NXP Semiconductors would merge with chip designer and manufacturer Freescale Semiconductor in a $40 billion US-dollar deal, the merger was closed on December 7,2015. NXP Semiconductors provides mixed signal and standard based on its security, identification, automotive, networking, radio frequency, analog signal. For example, in order to protect against potential hackers, NXP offers gateways to automotive manufacturers that prevent communication with every network within a car independently. NXP is the co-inventor of near field communication technology along with Sony and supplies NFC chip sets that enable mobile phones to be used to pay for goods, in addition, NXP manufactures automotive chips for in-vehicle networking, passive keyless entry and immobilization, and car radios. NXP invented the I²C interface over 30 years ago and supplier of products using it, NXP is also a volume supplier of standard logic devices, and celebrated its 50 years in logic in March 2012. NXP owns over 9,000 issued or pending patents, silicon Valley-based Signetics, the first company in the world established expressly to make and sell integrated circuits and inventor of the 555 timer IC, was acquired by Philips in 1975. At the time, it was claimed that with the Signetics acquisition, in 1987, Philips-Signetics, a unit of Philips, was ranked Europes largest semiconductor maker, with sales of $1.36 billion in 1986. Philips acquired VLSI Technology in June 1999, at the time, the acquisition made Philips the worlds sixth largest semiconductor company. In December 2005, Philips announced its intention to separate its semiconductor division, Philips Semiconductors. The new company name NXP was announced on August 31,2006, the newly independent NXP was ranked as one of the worlds top 10 semiconductor companies. At the time, CEO Frans van Houten emphasized the importance of NXP in enabling vibrant media technologies in mobile phones, digital TVs, portable music players and other consumer electronics devices. Similarly, in April 2008, NXP announced it would acquire the box business of Conexant to complement its existing Home business unit. In October 2009, NXP announced that it would sell its Home business unit to Trident Microsystems
3.
Spin out
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A corporate spin-off, also known as a spin-out, or starburst, is a type of corporate action where a company splits off a section as a separate business. Shareholders of the parent company receive equivalent shares in the new company in order to compensate for the loss of equity in the original stocks. In contrast, divestment can also sever one business from another, many times the management team of the new company are from the same parent organization. Spin-offs also allow high-growth divisions, once separated from other low-growth divisions, the United States Securities and Exchange Commissions definition of spin-off is more precise. Spin-offs occur when the equity owners of the parent company receive equity stakes in the spun off company. For example, when Agilent Technologies was spun off from Hewlett-Packard in 1999, a company not considered a spin-off in the SECs definition may also be called a spin-off in common usage. A second definition of a spin-out is a firm formed when an employee or group of leaves a existing entity to form an independent start-up firm. The prior employer can be a firm, a university, or another organization, spin-outs typically operate at arms length from the previous organizations and have independent sources of financing, products, services, customers, and other assets. In some cases, the spin-out may license technology from the parent or supply the parent with products or services, conversely, such spin-outs are important sources of technological diffusion in high-tech industries. For example, Fosters Group, an Australian beverage company, was prepared to sell its wine business, but due to the lack of a decent offer, it decided to spin off the wine business, which is now called Treasury Wine Estates. Some examples of spin-offs, Guidant was spun off from Eli Lilly and Company in 1994, formed from Lillys Medical Devices, Agilent Technologies spun off from Hewlett-Packard in 1999, formed from HPs former test-and-measurement equipment division. Cenovus Energy was spun off from Encana Corporation in 2009, ocean Rig UDW Inc was spun off from Dryships Inc in September 2011. AOL was a Time Warner spin-off, this effectively was a demerger, DreamWorks Animation was spun off from DreamWorks Studios in 2004. Nuage Networks was spun off from Alcatel Lucent in 2012 News Corporations publishing operations were spun off as News Corp in 2013, the previous News Corporations remaining media properties were retained under the name 21st Century Fox. Over £266 million in external investment has been raised by Isis spin-out companies since 2000, mirror company formation is a specialized form of spin-off used to create a new public company. It simplifies the process of listing the shares on a stock exchange. It works by a public company issuing a bonus share at a 1-for-1 rate in the new company. This new company is sold to another company that does not want to go through the complex
4.
Motorola
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Motorola was an American multinational telecommunications company founded on September 25,1928, based in Schaumburg, Illinois. After having lost $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, Motorola Solutions is generally considered to be the direct successor to Motorola, as the reorganization was structured with Motorola Mobility being spun off. Motorola Mobility was acquired by Lenovo in 2014, Motorola designed and sold wireless network equipment such as cellular transmission base stations and signal amplifiers. Its business and government customers consisted mainly of wireless voice and broadband systems and these businesses are now part of Motorola Solutions. Google sold Motorola Home to the Arris Group in December 2012 for US$2.35 billion, Motorolas wireless telephone handset division was a pioneer in cellular telephones. Also known as the Personal Communication Sector prior to 2004, it pioneered the mobile phone with DynaTAC and it had staged a resurgence by the mid-2000s with the RAZR, but lost market share in the second half of that decade. Later it focused on smartphones using Googles open-source Android mobile operating system, the first phone to use the newest version of Googles open source OS, Android 2.0, was released on November 2,2009 as the Motorola Droid. The handset division was spun off into the independent Motorola Mobility. On May 22,2012, Google CEO Larry Page announced that Google had closed on its deal to acquire Motorola Mobility. On January 29,2014, Page announced that pending closure of the deal, on October 30,2014, Lenovo finalized its purchase of Motorola Mobility from Google. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation set up shop in a section of a rented building. The company had $565 in working capital and five employees, the first weeks payroll was $63. The companys first products were battery-eliminators, devices that enabled battery-powered radios to operate on household electricity, due to advances in radio technology, battery-eliminators soon became obsolete. Paul Galvin learned that some radio technicians were installing sets in cars and his team was successful, and Galvin was able to demonstrate a working model of the radio at the June 1930 Radio Manufacturers Association convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He brought home enough orders to keep the company in business. g, the company sold its first Motorola branded radio on June 23,1930, to H. C. Wall of Fort Wayne, Indiana, for $30, the Motorola brand name became so well-known that Galvin Manufacturing Corporation later changed its name to Motorola, Inc. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation began selling Motorola car-radio receivers to police departments, the companys first public safety customers included the Village of River Forest, Village of Bellwood Police Department, City of Evanston Police, Illinois State Highway Police, and Cook County Police. In the same year, the company built its research and development program with Dan Noble, a pioneer in FM radio and semiconductor technologies, the company produced the hand-held AM SCR-536 radio during World War II, which was vital to Allied communication
5.
Austin, Texas
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Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
6.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
9.
Earnings before interest and taxes
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In accounting and finance, earnings before interest and taxes, is a measure of a firms profit that includes all expenses except interest and income tax expenses. It is the difference between operating revenues and operating expenses, when a firm does not have non-operating income, then operating income is sometimes used as a synonym for EBIT and operating profit. To calculate EBIT, expenses are subtracted from revenues, net income is later obtained by subtracting interest and taxes from the result
10.
Net income
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In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
11.
Herzliya Pituah
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Herzliya Pituach is a wealthy beachfront district in western Herzliya, Israel, home to about 10,000 residents. It is part of the Tel Aviv District, Herzliya Pituach is known for its hotels, restaurants and high-tech industry. The Herzliya marina, built in the 1980s at the initiative of mayor Eli Landau, the marina complex includes the Arena shopping mall and a variety of restaurants overlooking the water. The construction of the marina sparked controversy due to allegations that it damaged the beach, appolonia Beach – Part of a national park containing archeological findings from the Phoenician village of Arsuf dating to the 6th or 5th century BCE. Sidna-Ali Beach – Named for the historic Sidna Ali Mosque, perched on a ledge 100m north of the entrance to the beach is the Hermit House built by Nissim Cachlon out of tires, bottles, broken plates and other debris washed ashore. Sharon Beach Zvulun Beach – Home of the Herzliya Sea Scouts Accadia Beach – Named for the nearby Dan Accadia Hotel, hof HaNechim – A wheelchair-accessible beach with facilities for the handicapped. HaHof HaNifrad – A beach for Orthodox Jews with separate days for men and women, Tel Michal 32. 172852°N34. 811425°E /32.172852,34.811425
12.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
13.
Phoenix, Arizona
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Phoenix is the capital and most populous city of the U. S. state of Arizona. Phoenix is the anchor of the Phoenix metropolitan area, also known as the Valley of the Sun, the metropolitan area is the 12th largest by population in the United States, with approximately 4.3 million people as of 2010. Settled in 1867 as a community near the confluence of the Salt and Gila Rivers. Located in the reaches of the Sonoran Desert, Phoenix has a subtropical desert climate. Despite this, its canal system led to a farming community, many of the original crops remaining important parts of the Phoenix economy for decades, such as alfalfa, cotton, citrus. The city averaged a four percent annual growth rate over a 40-year period from the mid-1960s to the mid-2000s. This growth rate slowed during the Great Recession of 2007–09, and has rebounded slowly, Phoenix is the cultural center of the Valley of the Sun, as well as the entire state. For more than 2,000 years, the Hohokam people occupied the land that would become Phoenix, the Hohokam created roughly 135 miles of irrigation canals, making the desert land arable. Paths of these canals would later used for the modern Arizona Canal, Central Arizona Project Canal. The Hohokam also carried out trade with the nearby Anasazi, Mogollon and Sinagua. It is believed that between 1300 and 1450, periods of drought and severe floods led to the Hohokam civilizations abandonment of the area. After the departure of the Hohokam, groups of Akimel Oodham, Tohono Oodham and Maricopa tribes began to use the area, as well as segments of the Yavapai and Apache. The Oodham were offshoots of the Sobaipuri tribe, who in turn were thought to be the descendants of the formerly urbanized Hohokam and their crops included corn, beans, and squash for food, while cotton and tobacco were also cultivated. Mostly a peaceful group, they did together with the Maricopa for their mutual protection against incursions by both the Yuma and Apache tribes. The Tohono Oodham lived in the region as well, but their concentration was to the south. Living in small settlements, the Oodham were seasonal farmers who took advantage of the rains and they also hunted local game such as deer, rabbit, and javalina for meat. When the Mexican–American War ended in 1848, Mexico ceded its northern zone to the United States, the Phoenix area became part of the New Mexico Territory. In 1863 the mining town of Wickenburg was the first to be established in what is now Maricopa County, at the time Maricopa County had not yet been incorporated, the land was within Yavapai County, which included the major town of Prescott to the north of Wickenburg
14.
Vehicle audio
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Vehicle audio is equipment installed in a car or other vehicle to provide in-car entertainment and information for the vehicle occupants. Until the 1950s it consisted of a simple AM radio, additions since then have included FM radio, CD players, navigation systems, Bluetooth telephone integration, and smartphone controllers like CarPlay and Android Auto. Once controlled from the dashboard with a few buttons, they can now be controlled by steering wheel controls and it is also used to create fake engine noise. For the 2015 Ford Mustang EcoBoost, an Active Noise Control system was developed that amplifies the sound through the car speakers. A similar system is used in the F-150 pickup truck, volkswagen uses a Soundaktor, a special speaker to play sounds in cars such as the Golf GTi and Beetle Turbo. BMW plays a sample of its motors through the car speakers, using a different samples according to the engine’s load. Around 1920, vacuum tube technology had matured to the point where the availability of receivers made radio broadcasting viable. A technical challenge was that the tubes in the radio receivers required 50 to 250 volt direct current. Voltage was stepped up with a vibrator that provided a pulsating DC which could be converted to a higher voltage with a transformer, rectified, in 1930, the American Galvin Manufacturing Corporation marketed a Motorola branded radio receiver for $130. It was expensive, the contemporary Ford Model A cost $540, a Plymouth sedan, wired for Philco Transistone radio without extra cost, is advertised in Ladies Home Journal in 1931. In 1932 in Germany the Blaupunkt AS5 medium wave and longwave radio was marketed for 465 Reichsmark, because it took nearly 10 litres of space, it could not be located near the driver, and was operated via a steering wheel remote control. In 1933 Crossley Motors offer a factory fitted car radio, by the late 1930s, push button AM radios were considered a standard feature. In 1946 there were an estimated 9 million AM car radios in use, an FM receiver was offered by Blaupunkt in 1952. In 1953, Becker introduced the AM/FM Becker Mexico with a Variometer tuner, in April 1955, the Chrysler Corporation had announced that it was offering a Mopar model 914HR branded Philco all transistor car radio, as a $150 option for its 1956 Chrysler and Imperial car models. In 1963 Becker introduced the Monte Carlo, a solid state radio. In 1964 Philips launched the Compact Cassette, and in 1965 Ford, in subsequent years cassettes supplanted the 8-track, and improved with longer play times, better tape quality, auto-reverse, and Dolby noise reduction. They were popular throughout the 1970s and 80s, while the CD had been on the market since 1982, it was in 1984 that Pioneer introduced the CDX-1, the worlds first car CD player. It was known for its sound quality, instant track skipping
15.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
16.
Moon landing
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A Moon landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon. This includes both manned and unmanned missions, the first human-made object to reach the surface of the Moon was the Soviet Unions Luna 2 mission, on 13 September 1959. The United States Apollo 11 was the first manned mission to land on the Moon, on 20 July 1969, there have been six manned U. S. landings and numerous unmanned landings, with no soft landings happening from 22 August 1976 until 14 December 2013. To date, the United States is the country to have successfully conducted manned missions to the Moon. Since then, twelve Soviet and U. S. spacecraft have used braking rockets to make landings and perform scientific operations on the lunar surface. In 1966 the USSR accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the surface during the Luna 9. The U. S. followed with five unmanned Surveyor soft landings, the Soviet Union achieved the first unmanned lunar soil sample return with the Luna 16 probe on 24 September 1970. This was followed by Luna 20 and Luna 24 in 1972 and 1976, following the failure at launch in 1969 of the first Lunokhod, Luna E-8 No.201, the Luna 17 and Luna 21 were successful unmanned lunar rover missions in 1970 and 1973. Many missions were failures at launch, in addition, several unmanned landing missions achieved the Lunar surface but were unsuccessful, including, Luna 15, Luna 18, and Luna 23 all crashed on landing, and the U. S. Surveyor 4 lost all radio contact only moments before its landing, more recently, other nations have crashed spacecraft on the surface of the Moon at speeds of around 8,000 kilometres per hour, often at precise, planned locations. These have generally been end-of-life lunar orbiters that, because of system degradations, japans lunar orbiter Hiten impacted the Moons surface on 10 April 1993. The European Space Agency performed a controlled impact with their orbiter SMART-1 on 3 September 2006. Indian Space Research Organisation performed a controlled impact with its Moon Impact Probe on 14 November 2008. The MIP was a probe from the Indian Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter. The Chinese lunar orbiter Change 1 executed a crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009. The rover mission Change 3 was launched on 1 December 2013, a total of twelve men have landed on the Moon. Cernan was the last to step off the lunar surface, all Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board the Command Module. The last three missions had a rover for increased mobility, in order to go to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave the gravity well of the Earth
17.
Apollo program
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Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon, Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration, Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a lifeboat for these functions, Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds of rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moons composition. The program laid the foundation for NASAs subsequent human spaceflight capability, Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, while the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a station, circumlunar flights. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that I was naming the spacecraft like Id name my baby. Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, in July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs. In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of prestige, pledging to make the US not first but, first and, first if. Despite Kennedys rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president and he knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. On April 12,1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on Americas response to the Soviets
18.
Transponder
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In telecommunication, a transponder is one of two types of devices. The term is a portmanteau for transmitter-responder and it is variously abbreviated as XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP. A communications satellite’s channels are called transponders, because each is a separate transceiver or repeater, with digital video data compression and multiplexing, several video and audio channels may travel through a single transponder on a single wideband carrier. Original analog video only has one channel per transponder, with subcarriers for audio, non-multiplexed radio stations can also travel in single channel per carrier mode, with multiple carriers per transponder. This allows each station to transmit directly to the satellite, rather than paying for a whole transponder, in optical fiber communications, a transponder is the element that sends and receives the optical signal from a fiber. A transponder is typically characterized by its rate and the maximum distance the signal can travel. The difference between the two is that transceivers interface electrically with the host system using an interface, whereas transponders use a parallel interface to do so. In this view, transponders provide easier-to-handle lower-rate parallel signals, but are bulkier, as such, transponders can be considered as two transceivers placed back-to-back. This view also seems to be held by e. g. Fujitsu, as a result, difference in transponder functionality also might influence the functional description of related optical modules like transceivers and muxponders. Primary radar works best with large aircraft, but not so well on small. Its range is limited by terrain and rain or snow and also detects unwanted objects such as automobiles, hills. Furthermore, it cannot always estimate the altitude of an aircraft, secondary radar overcomes these limitations but it depends on a transponder in the aircraft to respond to interrogations from the ground station to make the plane more visible. Another mode called Mode S is designed to help avoiding over-interrogation of the transponder, Mode S transponders are backward compatible with Modes A and C. Mode S is mandatory in controlled airspace in many countries. Some countries have required, or are moving towards requiring. In addition, navigational aids often have transponders called RACON designed to make them out on a ships radar screen. Many modern automobiles have keys with transponders hidden inside the head of the key. The user of the car may not even be aware that the transponder is there, when a key is inserted into the ignition lock cylinder and turned, the cars computer sends a radio signal to the transponder. Unless the transponder replies with a code, the computer will not allow the engine to be started
19.
Walkie-talkie
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A walkie-talkie is a hand-held, portable, two-way radio transceiver. Its development during the Second World War has been credited to Donald L. Hings, radio engineer Alfred J. Gross. First used for infantry, similar designs were created for field artillery and tank units, typical walkie-talkies resemble a telephone handset, with a speaker built into one end and a microphone in the other and an antenna mounted on the top of the unit. They are held up to the face to talk, a walkie-talkie is a half-duplex communication device, multiple walkie-talkies use a single radio channel, and only one radio on the channel can transmit at a time, although any number can listen. The transceiver is normally in receive mode, when the user wants to talk he presses a button that turns off the receiver. The walkie-talkie was developed by the US military during World War 2, the first radio transceiver to be widely nicknamed Walkie-Talkie was the backpacked Motorola SCR-300, created by an engineering team in 1940 at the Galvin Manufacturing Company. The team consisted of Dan Noble, who conceived of the design using frequency modulation, Henryk Magnuski, who was the principal RF engineer, Marion Bond, Lloyd Morris, the first hand-held walkie-talkie was the AM SCR-536 transceiver also made by Motorola, named the Handie-Talkie. The terms are often confused today, but the original walkie-talkie referred to the back mounted model, both devices used vacuum tubes and were powered by high voltage dry cell batteries. Canadian inventor Donald Hings is also credited with the invention of the walkie-talkie and he called the system a packset, but it later became known as the walkie-talkie. In 2001, Hings was formally decorated for its significance to the war effort, Hings model C-58 Handy-Talkie was in military service by 1942, the result of a secret R&D effort that began in 1940. Following World War II, Raytheon developed the SCR-536s military replacement, the AN/PRC-6 circuit used 13 vacuum tubes, a second set of 13 tubes was supplied with the unit as running spares. The unit was set with one crystal which could be changed to a different frequency in the field by replacing the crystal. It used a 24 inch whip antenna, there was an optional handset H-33C/PT that could be connected to the AN/PRC-6 by a 5-foot cable. An adjustable strap was provided for carrying and support while operating, the AN/PRC-68 was first produced in 1976 by Magnavox, was issued to the Marines in the 1980s, and was adopted by the US Army as well. Public safety or commercial users generally refer to their handhelds simply as radios, surplus Motorola Handie Talkies found their way into the hands of ham radio operators immediately following World War II. Motorolas public safety radios of the 1950s and 1960s, were loaned or donated to ham groups as part of the Civil Defense program, to avoid trademark infringement, other manufacturers use designations such as Handheld Transceiver or Handie Transceiver for their products. Some cellular telephone networks offer a push-to-talk handset that allows operation over the cellular network. However, the provider must be accessible
20.
History of mobile phones
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The history of mobile phones, covers mobile communication devices which connect wirelessly to the public switched telephone network. While the transmission of speech by radio has a history, the first models that were wireless, mobile. The first such devices were barely portable compared to todays compact hand-held devices, before the devices that are now referred as mobile phones existed, there were some precursors. In 1908 a Professor Albert Jahnke and the Oakland Transcontinental Aerial Telephone and they were accused of fraud and the charge was then dropped, but they do not seem to have proceeded with production. Beginning in 1918 the German railroad system tested wireless telephony on military trains between Berlin and Zossen, in 1924, public trials started with telephone connection on trains between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1925, the company Zugtelephonie A. G, the portrayal of a Utopia of mobile phone in literature dates back to the year 1931. It is found in Erich Kästners childrens book The 35th of May, or Conrads Ride to the South Seas, hand-held radio transceivers have been available since the 1940s. Mobile telephones for automobiles became available from some companies in the 1940s. Early devices were bulky, consumed high power, and the network supported only a few simultaneous conversations, modern cellular networks allow automatic and pervasive use of mobile phones for voice and data communications. Shortly after, AT&T offered Mobile Telephone Service, a wide range of mostly incompatible mobile telephone services offered limited coverage area and only a few available channels in urban areas. One of the earliest fictional descriptions of a phone was the 1948 science fiction novel Space Cadet by Robert Heinlein. The protagonist, who has just traveled to Colorado from his home in Des Moines, receives a call from his father on a pocket telephone. Before going to space he decides to ship the telephone home since it was limited by its range to the neighborhood of an earth-side relay office. Ten years later, an essay by Arthur C. Clarke envisioned a personal transceiver, so small and he wrote, the time will come when we will be able to call a person anywhere on Earth merely by dialing a number. Such a device would also, in Clarkes vision, include means for global positioning so that no one need ever again be lost, later, in Profiles of the Future, he predicted the advent of such a device taking place in the mid-1980s. U. S. TV series Get Smart depicted spy gadgets with mobile telephones concealed in random objects, in the USSR, Leonid Kupriyanovich, an engineer from Moscow, in 1957-1961 developed and presented a number of experimental models of handheld mobile phones. The weight of one model, presented in 1961, was only 70 g, however, in the USSR the decision at first to develop the system of the automobile Altai phone was made. In 1965, Bulgarian company Radioelektronika presented on the Inforga-65 international exhibition in Moscow the mobile automatic phone combined with a base station, solutions of this phone were based on a system developed by Leonid Kupriyanovich
21.
Motorola 6800
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The 6800 was an 8-bit microprocessor designed and first manufactured by Motorola in 1974. The MC6800 microprocessor was part of the M6800 Microcomputer System that also included serial and parallel interface ICs, RAM, ROM, a significant design feature was that the M6800 family of ICs required only a single five-volt power supply at a time when most other microprocessors required three voltages. The M6800 Microcomputer System was announced in March 1974 and was in production by the end of that year. The 6800 architecture and instruction set were influenced by the then popular Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-11 mini computer, the 6800 has a 16-bit address bus that could directly access 64 KB of memory and an 8-bit bi-directional data bus. It has 72 instructions with seven addressing modes for a total of 197 opcodes, the original MC6800 could have a clock frequency of up to 1 MHz. Later versions had a clock frequency of 2 MHz. In addition to the ICs, Motorola also provided an assembly language development system. The customer could use the software on a timeshare computer or on an in-house minicomputer system. The Motorola EXORciser was a computer built with the M6800 ICs that could be used for prototyping and debugging new designs. The 6800 was popular in computer peripherals, test equipment applications, the MC6802, introduced in 1977, included 128 bytes of RAM and an internal clock oscillator on chip. The MC6801 and MC6805 included with RAM, ROM and I/O on a single chip were popular in automotive applications, galvin Manufacturing Corporation was founded in 1928, the company name was changed to Motorola in 1947. They began commercial production of transistors at a new US$1.5 million facility in Phoenix in 1955, Motorolas transistors and integrated circuits were used in-house for their communication, military, automotive and consumer products and they were also sold to other companies. By 1973 the Semiconductor Products Division had sales of $419 million and was the second largest semiconductor company after Texas Instruments, in the early 1970s Motorola started a project that developed their first microprocessor, the MC6800. This was followed by single-chip microcontrollers such as the MC6801 and MC6805, Motorola did not chronicle the development of the 6800 microprocessor the way that Intel did for their microprocessors. In 2008 the Computer History Museum interviewed four members of the 6800 microprocessor design team and their recollections can be confirmed and expanded by magazine and journal articles written at the time. They were all located in Mesa, Arizona, by the time the project was finished, Bennett had 17 chip designers and layout people working on five chips. LaVell had 15 to 20 system engineers and there was another applications engineering group of similar size, Tom Bennett had a background in industrial controls and had worked for Victor Comptometer in the 1960s designing the first electronic calculator to use MOS ICs, the Victor 3900. In May 1969 Ted Hoff showed Bennett early diagrams of the Intel 4004 to see if it would meet their calculator needs, Bennett joined Motorola in 1971 to design calculator ICs
22.
Motorola 68000
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The Motorola 68000 is a 32-bit CISC microprocessor with a 16-bit external data bus, designed and marketed by Motorola Semiconductor Products Sector. After 38 years in production, the 68000 architecture is still in use, the 68000 grew out of the MACSS project, begun in 1976 to develop an entirely new architecture without backward compatibility. It would be a higher-power sibling complementing the existing 8-bit 6800 line rather than a compatible successor, in the end, the 68000 did retain a bus protocol compatibility mode for existing 6800 peripheral devices, and a version with an 8-bit data bus was produced. However, the designers focused on the future, or forward compatibility. For instance, the CPU registers are 32 bits wide, though few self-contained structures in the processor itself operate on 32 bits at a time. The MACSS team drew heavily on the influence of minicomputer processor design, such as the PDP-11 and VAX systems, in the mid 1970s, the 8-bit microprocessor manufacturers raced to introduce the 16-bit generation. National Semiconductor had been first with its IMP-16 and PACE processors in 1973–1975, Intel had worked on their advanced 16/32-bit Intel iAPX432 since 1975 and their Intel 8086 since 1976. Arriving late to the 16-bit arena afforded the new processor more transistors, 32-bit macroinstructions, the original MC68000 was fabricated using an HMOS process with a 3.5 µm feature size. Formally introduced in September 1979, Initial samples were released in February 1980, Initial speed grades were 4,6, and 8 MHz.10 MHz chips became available during 1981, and 12.5 MHz chips by June 1982. The 16.67 MHz 12F version of the MC68000, the fastest version of the original HMOS chip, was not produced until the late 1980s, tom Gunter, retired Corporate Vice President at Motorola, is known as the Father of the 68000. The 68000 was used in Microsoft Xenix systems as well as an early NetWare Unix-based Server, the 68000 was used in the first generation of desktop laser printers including the original Apple Inc. In 1982, the 68000 received an update to its ISA allowing it to virtual memory and to conform to the Popek. The updated chip was called the 68010, a further extended version which exposed 31 bits of the address bus was also produced, in small quantities, as the 68012. To support lower-cost systems and control applications with smaller sizes, Motorola introduced the 8-bit compatible MC68008. This was a 68000 with an 8-bit data bus and an address bus. After 1982, Motorola devoted more attention to the 68020 and 88000 projects, several other companies were second-source manufacturers of the HMOS68000. These included Hitachi, who shrank the size to 2.7 µm for their 12.5 MHz version, Mostek, Rockwell, Signetics, Thomson/SGS-Thomson. Toshiba was also a maker of the CMOS 68HC000
23.
Digital Revolution
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Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during the latter half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age. Central to this revolution is the production and widespread use of digital logic circuits, and its derived technologies, including the computer, digital cellular phone. The motor of this incessant force of destruction is technological change. Each one of those so-called long waves has been characterized by a period of social modernization. The Agricultural Revolution led to cities in the ancient world in the Middle East, Mesoamerica, China. Then the Industrial Revolution led to cities in the 19th century such as Manchester, Newcastle Upon Tyne. In the 20th century the rise of the economy caused people to leave the industrial cities. In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the worlds technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, the year 2002 is estimated to be the year when human kind was able to store more information in digital, than in analog format. It is estimated that the capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 exabytes in 1986. Digital communication became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer, claude Shannon, a Bell Labs mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of digitalization in his pioneering 1948 article, A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The digital revolution converted technology that had been analog into a digital format, by doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal, of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely. The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music, during the 1980s the digital format of optical compact discs gradually replaced analog formats, such as vinyl records and cassette tapes, as the popular medium of choice. In 1947 the transistor was invented, leading the way to more advanced digital computers, in the 1950s and 1960s the military, governments and other organizations had computer systems. From 1969 to 1971, Intel developed the Intel 4004, a microprocessor that laid the foundations for the microcomputer revolution that began in the 1970s. The public was first introduced to the concepts that would lead to the Internet when a message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, the ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks
24.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
25.
Commodore International
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Commodore International was a North American home computer and electronics manufacturer. Commodore International, along with its subsidiary Commodore Business Machines, participated in the development of the computer industry in the 1970s and 1980s. The company developed and marketed one of the worlds best-selling desktop computers, the company that would become Commodore Business Machines, Inc. was founded in 1954 in Toronto as the Commodore Portable Typewriter Company by Polish immigrant and Auschwitz survivor Jack Tramiel. He moved to Toronto to start production, by the late 1950s a wave of Japanese machines forced most North American typewriter companies to cease business, but Tramiel instead turned to adding machines. In 1955, the company was incorporated as Commodore Business Machines. In 1962, Commodore went public on the New York Stock Exchange, in the late 1960s, history repeated itself when Japanese firms started producing and exporting adding machines. The companys main investor and chairman, Irving Gould, suggested that Tramiel travel to Japan to understand how to compete, instead, he returned with the new idea to produce electronic calculators, which were just coming on the market. Commodore soon had a profitable calculator line and was one of the popular brands in the early 1970s. However, in 1975, Texas Instruments, the supplier of calculator parts, entered the market directly. Commodore obtained an infusion of cash from Gould, which Tramiel used beginning in 1976 to purchase several second-source chip suppliers, including MOS Technology, Inc. in order to assure his supply. He agreed to buy MOS, which was having troubles of its own, through the 1970s, Commodore also produced numerous peripherals and consumer electronic products such as the Chessmate, a chess computer based around a MOS6504 chip, released in 1978. In December 2007 when Tramiel was visiting the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, for the 25th anniversary of the Commodore 64 and he said, I wanted to call my company General, but theres so many Generals in the U. S. Then I went to Admiral, but that was taken, so I wind up in Berlin, Germany, with my wife, and we were in a cab, and the cab made a short stop, and in front of us was an Opel Commodore. Tramiel gave this account in interviews, but Opels Commodore didnt debut until 1967. Once Chuck Peddle had taken over engineering at Commodore, he convinced Jack Tramiel that calculators were already a dead end, from PETs 1977 debut, Commodore would be a computer company. The operational headquarters, where research and development of new products occurred, retained the name Commodore Business Machines, in 1980 Commodore launched production for the European market in Braunschweig. By 1980 Commodore was one of the three largest microcomputer companies, and the largest in the Common Market and this was addressed with the introduction of the VIC-20 in 1981, which was introduced at a cost of US$299 and sold in retail stores. Commodore took out ads featuring William Shatner asking consumers Why buy just a video game
26.
Atari Corporation
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Atari Corporation was an American manufacturer of computers and video game consoles from 1984 to 1996. Atari Corp. was founded in July 1984 when Warner Communications sold the home computing and game console divisions of Atari and its chief products were the Atari ST, Atari XE, Atari 7800, Atari Lynx, and Atari Jaguar. The company reverse merged with JTS Inc. in 1996, becoming a small division, the company was founded by Commodore Internationals founder Jack Tramiel soon after his resignation from Commodore in January 1984. Initially named Tramel Technology, Ltd. the companys goal was to design, on July 1,1984 TTL bought the Consumer Division assets of Atari, Inc. from its owner Warner Communications, and TTL was renamed Atari Corporation. Warner sold the division for $240 million in stocks under the new company, under Tramiels ownership, Atari Corp. used the remaining stock of game console inventory to keep the company afloat while they finished development of their 16-bit computer system, the Atari ST. In 1985, they released their update to the 8-bit computer line—the Atari XE series—as well as the 16-bit Atari ST line. Then in 1986, Atari Corp. launched two consoles designed under the Warner Atari, Atari 2600 Jr and Atari 7800, which had a release in 1984. Atari Corp. rebounded, producing a $25 million profit that year, the Atari ST line proved very successful, ultimately selling more than 5 million units. Its built-in MIDI ports made it popular among musicians. Still, its closest competitor in the marketplace, the Commodore Amiga, Atari eventually released a line of inexpensive IBM PC compatibles as well as an MS-DOS compatible palm computer called the Atari Portfolio. Atari under Tramiel had a reputation in the marketplace. Pretty soon, you dont believe anything they say and he concluded, I think Atari Corp. had better start considering how theyre perceived by the non-Atari-using public. In 1987, Atari acquired Federated Group for $67.3 million to have their own retail store shelf space, Atari quickly discovered that Federateds financial problems were far worse than they had believed. During this time, the FBI investigated Atari for reselling Japanese DRAM chips in the US, in violation of U. S. import laws, Federated was eventually sold to Silo in 1989. In 1989, Atari Corp. released the Atari Lynx—a handheld console with color graphics—to critical acclaim, however, a shortage of parts kept the system from being released nationwide for the 1989 Christmas season. The Lynx lost market share to Nintendos Game Boy, which had only a display, but a much better battery life. Also in 1989, Atari Corp. lost a $250 million lawsuit alleging that Nintendo had an illegal monopoly, as the fortunes of Atari Corporations ST and PC compatible computers faded, consoles and software again became the companys main focus. In 1993, Atari Corp. released its last console, the Atari Jaguar, after a period of initial success, it failed to meet expectations
27.
Sega
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Nonetheless, Sega remains the worlds most prolific arcade producer, with over 500 games in over 70 franchises on more than 20 different arcade system boards since 1981. Sega, along with their sub-studios, are known for their multi-million selling game franchises, such as Sonic the Hedgehog, Virtua Fighter, Phantasy Star, Yakuza, Segas head offices are located in Tokyo. Segas North American division, Sega of America, is headquartered in Irvine, California, Segas European division, Sega Europe, is headquartered in London. After the war, the founders sold that company and established a new distributor called Service Games and this company provided coin-operated slot machines to U. S. bases in Japan and changed its name again to Service Games of Japan by 1953. David Rosen, an American officer in the United States Air Force stationed in Japan and this company eventually became Rosen Enterprises, and in 1957, began importing coin-operated games to Japan. On May 31,1960, Service Games Japan was closed, Three days later, two new companies were established to take over its business activities, Nihon Goraku Bussan and Nihon Kikai Seizo. By 1965, Rosen Enterprises grew to a chain of over 200 arcades, Rosen then orchestrated a merger between Rosen Enterprises and Nihon Goraku Bussan, becoming chief executive of the new company, Sega Enterprises, which derived its name from Service Games. Within a year, Sega began the transition from importer to manufacturer, with the release of the submarine simulator game, the game sported light and sound effects considered innovative for that time, eventually becoming quite successful in Japan. It was soon exported to both Europe and the United States, becoming the first arcade game in the US to cost 25 cents per play, in 1969, Rosen sold Sega to American conglomerate Gulf and Western Industries, although he remained as CEO following the sale. Under Rosens leadership, Sega continued to grow and prosper, and in 1974, Gulf and Western made Sega Enterprises, a subsidiary of an American company renamed Sega Enterprises, Inc. allowing them to take the companys stock public. Sega prospered heavily from the gaming boom of the late 1970s. In 1982, Segas revenues surpassed $214 million and that year they introduced the first game with isometric graphics, Zaxxon, the industrys first stereoscopic 3D game, SubRoc 3D, and the first laserdisc video game, Astron Belt. Astron Belt wasnt released in the U. S. until 1983, other notable games from Sega during this period are Head On, Monaco GP, Carnival, Turbo, Space Fury, Astro Blaster, and Pengo. In 1983-4, Sega published Atari 2600 versions of some of its arcade games, Carnival, Space Fury, Turbo, and Zaxxon were licensed to Coleco as launch titles for the ColecoVision console in 1982. Some of these and other titles were licensed to different companies for 8-bit computer versions, the Atari 8-bit computer port of Zaxxon is from Datasoft, for example, while the Commodore 64 port is from Synapse. An overabundance of games in 1983 led to the game crash. Seeking an alternate source of revenue from the arcade market, Sega designed and released its first home video game console. G&W sold the U. S. assets of Sega Enterprises that same year to pinball manufacturer Bally Manufacturing, nakayama became the new CEO of Sega, Robert Deith chairman of the board, and Rosen became head of its subsidiary in the United States
28.
Sun Microsystems
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Sun contributed significantly to the evolution of several key computing technologies, among them Unix, RISC processors, thin client computing, and virtualized computing. Sun was founded on February 24,1982, at its height, the Sun headquarters were in Santa Clara, California, on the former west campus of the Agnews Developmental Center. On January 27,2010, Oracle Corporation acquired Sun by for US$7.4 billion, other technologies include the Java platform, MySQL, and NFS. Sun was a proponent of open systems in general and Unix in particular, the initial design for what became Suns first Unix workstation, the Sun-1, was conceived by Andy Bechtolsheim when he was a graduate student at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California. Bechtolsheim originally designed the SUN workstation for the Stanford University Network communications project as a personal CAD workstation and it was designed around the Motorola 68000 processor with an advanced memory management unit to support the Unix operating system with virtual memory support. He built the first ones from spare parts obtained from Stanfords Department of Computer Science, on February 24,1982, Vinod Khosla, Andy Bechtolsheim, and Scott McNealy, all Stanford graduate students, founded Sun Microsystems. Bill Joy of Berkeley, a developer of the Berkeley Software Distribution. The Sun name is derived from the initials of the Stanford University Network, Sun was profitable from its first quarter in July 1982. By 1983 Sun was known for producing 68000-based systems with high-quality graphics that were the only computers other than DECs VAX to run 4. 2BSD and it licensed the computer design to other manufacturers, which typically used it to build Multibus-based systems running Unix from UniSoft. Suns initial public offering was in 1986 under the stock symbol SUNW, the symbol was changed in 2007 to JAVA, Sun stated that the brand awareness associated with its Java platform better represented the companys current strategy. Suns logo, which features four interleaved copies of the sun in the form of a rotationally symmetric ambigram, was designed by professor Vaughan Pratt. The initial version of the logo was orange and had the sides oriented horizontally and vertically, but it was rotated to stand on one corner and re-colored purple. In the dot-com bubble, Sun began making more money. It also began spending more, hiring workers and building itself out. Some of this was because of demand, but much was from web start-up companies anticipating business that would never happen. Sales in Suns important hardware division went into free-fall as customers closed shop, several quarters of steep losses led to executive departures, rounds of layoffs, and other cost cutting. In December 2001, the fell to the 1998, pre-bubble level of about $100. But it kept falling, faster than many other tech companies, a year later it had dipped below $10 but bounced back to $20
29.
Hewlett-Packard
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The Hewlett-Packard Company or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in a garage in Palo Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett and David Dave Packard. HP was the worlds leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q22013 and it specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.4 billion in 2008, in November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12,2010. On April 28,2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, on September 2,2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6,2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products, the split closed on November 1,2015, and resulted in two publicly traded companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. William Redington Hewlett and David Packard graduated with degrees in engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. In 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with a capital investment of US$538. Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett, HP incorporated on August 18,1947, and went public on November 6,1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was an audio oscillator. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200, the Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. They worked on technology and artillery shell fuses during World War II. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use, instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products, the products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture in 1963 to market HP products in Japan, HP bought Yokogawa Electrics share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. HP spun off a company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse image of the logo dy of the new company
30.
Anti-lock braking system
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It is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking which were practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It does this at a faster rate and with better control than many drivers could manage. Since initial widespread use in cars, anti-lock braking systems have been improved considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also control the front-to-rear brake bias. The concept for ABS predates the modern systems that were introduced in the 1950s, in 1908, for example, J. E. Francis introduced his Slip Prevention Regulator for Rail Vehicles. In 1920 the French automobile and aircraft pioneer Gabriel Voisin experimented with systems that modulated the hydraulic braking pressure on his aircraft brakes to reduce the risk of tire slippage and these systems use a flywheel and valve attached to a hydraulic line that feeds the brake cylinders. The flywheel is attached to a drum that runs at the speed as the wheel. In normal braking, the drum and flywheel should spin at the same speed, however, when a wheel slows down, then the drum would do the same, leaving the flywheel spinning at a faster rate. This causes the valve to open, allowing a small amount of fluid to bypass the master cylinder into a local reservoir, lowering the pressure on the cylinder. The use of the drum and flywheel meant the only opened when the wheel was turning. In testing, a 30% improvement in braking performance was noted, an additional benefit was the elimination of burned or burst tires. The first patented system was created by German engineer Karl Wessel in 1928, Wessel, however, never developed a working product and neither did Robert Bosch who produced a similar patent eight years later. In 1958, a Royal Enfield Super Meteor motorcycle was used by the Road Research Laboratory to test the Maxaret anti-lock brake, the experiments demonstrated that anti-lock brakes can be of great value to motorcycles, for which skidding is involved in a high proportion of accidents. Stopping distances were reduced in most of the tests compared with locked wheel braking, particularly on slippery surfaces, enfields technical director at the time, Tony Wilson-Jones, saw little future in the system, however, and it was not put into production by the company. The first fully electronic anti lock system was developed in the late 60s for the Concorde aircraft, chrysler, together with the Bendix Corporation, introduced a computerized, three-channel, four-sensor all-wheel ABS called Sure Brake for its 1971 Imperial. It was available for years thereafter, functioned as intended. In 1970, Ford added an antilock braking system called Sure-track to the wheels of Lincoln Continentals as an option. In 1971, General Motors introduced the Trackmaster rear-wheel only ABS as an option on their rear-wheel drive Cadillac models, in the same year, Nissan offered an EAL developed by Japanese company Denso as an option on the Nissan President, which became Japans first electronic ABS
31.
Microelectromechanical systems
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Microelectromechanical systems is the technology of microscopic devices, particularly those with moving parts. It merges at the nano-scale into nanoelectromechanical systems and nanotechnology, MEMS are also referred to as micromachines in Japan, or micro systems technology in Europe. They usually consist of a unit that processes data and several components that interact with the surroundings such as microsensors. MEMS technology is distinguished from molecular nanotechnology or molecular electronics in that the latter must also consider surface chemistry, the potential of very small machines was appreciated before the technology existed that could make them. MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor device fabrication technologies and these include molding and plating, wet etching and dry etching, electro discharge machining, and other technologies capable of manufacturing small devices. An early example of a MEMS device is the resonistor – an electromechanical monolithic resonator, silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern industry. The economies of scale, ready availability of inexpensive high-quality materials, silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its material properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. Even though the industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex. Polymers on the hand can be produced in huge volumes. Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements, while metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability. Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes, commonly used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver. The nitrides of silicon, aluminium and titanium as well as silicon carbide, alN crystallizes in the wurtzite structure and thus shows pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties enabling sensors, for instance, with sensitivity to normal and shear forces. TiN, on the hand, exhibits a high electrical conductivity. Moreover, the resistance of TiN against biocorrosion qualifies the material for applications in biogenic environments. One of the building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of material with a thickness anywhere between a few nanometres to about 100 micrometres. There are two types of processes, as follows. Physical vapor deposition consists of a process in which a material is removed from a target, chemical deposition techniques include chemical vapor deposition, in which a stream of source gas reacts on the substrate to grow the material desired
32.
Inertial measurement unit
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IMUs are typically used to maneuver aircraft, including unmanned aerial vehicles, among many others, and spacecraft, including satellites and landers. Recent developments allow for the production of IMU-enabled GPS devices, an IMU allows a GPS receiver to work when GPS-signals are unavailable, such as in tunnels, inside buildings, or when electronic interference is present. A wireless IMU is known as a WIMU, the IMU is the main component of inertial navigation systems used in aircraft, spacecraft, watercraft, drones, UAV and guided missiles among others. In this capacity, the data collected from the IMUs sensors allow a computer to track a crafts position, and some also include a magnetometer, mostly to assist calibration against orientation drift. Inertial navigation systems contain IMUs which have angular and linear accelerometers to measure changes in position, some IMUs also have a gyroscopic element for maintaining an absolute angular reference. Angular accelerometers measure how the vehicle is rotating in space, generally, there is at least one sensor for each of the three axes, pitch, yaw and roll. Linear accelerometers measure non-gravitational accelerations of the vehicle, since it can move in three axes, there is a linear accelerometer for each axis. A computer continually calculates the current position. First, for each of the six degrees of freedom, it integrates over time the sensed acceleration, together with an estimate of gravity, then it integrates the velocity to calculate the current position. Inertial guidance is difficult without computers, the desire to use inertial guidance in the Minuteman missile and Project Apollo drove early attempts to miniaturize computers. Inertial guidance systems are now combined with satellite navigation systems through a digital filtering system. The inertial system provides short term data, while the satellite system corrects accumulated errors of the inertial system, the term IMU is widely used to refer to a box containing three accelerometers and three gyroscopes and optionally three magnetometers. The accelerometers are placed such that their axes are orthogonal to each other. They measure inertial acceleration, also known as G-forces, Three gyroscopes are placed in a similar orthogonal pattern, measuring rotational position in reference to an arbitrarily chosen coordinate system. Recently, more and more manufacturers also include three magnetometers in IMUs and this allows better performance for dynamic orientation calculation in Attitude and heading reference systems which base on IMUs. IMUs are used in vehicle-installed inertial guidance systems, today almost every commercial or military water-going vessel has one. Most aircraft are equipped with IMUs. IMUs are also used alone on air- and spacecraft, in order to report inertial measurements to a pilot and they are critical during space missions to maneuver manned or unmanned landers and other craft
33.
Airbag
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An airbag is a type of vehicle safety device and is an occupant restraint system. The airbag module is designed to inflate extremely rapidly then quickly deflate during a collision or impact with a surface or a sudden deceleration. It consists of the cushion, a flexible fabric bag, inflation module. The airbag provides an absorbing surface between the vehicles occupant and a steering wheel, instrumental panel, A-B-C- structural body frame pillars, headliner. Working as a restraint system to the vehicles seat-belt systems. Newer side-impact airbag modules consist of compressed air cylinders that are triggered in the event of a side impact vehicle impact, the first commercial designs were introduced in passenger automobiles during the 1970s with limited success. Over time, various manufacturers have used different terms for airbags, in the 1970s, General Motors marketed its first airbag modules under the unwieldy name Air Cushion Restraint System. Common terms in North America refer to a role as a supplement to active restraints. Because no action by an occupant is required to activate or use the airbag. This is in contrast to seat belts, which are considered active devices because the occupant must act to enable them. In this usage, a car Anti-lock Braking System will qualify as an active-safety device, further confusing the terminology, the aviation safety community uses the terms active and passive in the opposite sense from the automotive industry. In patent applications, various airbag manufacturers sometimes use the term inflatable occupant restraint systems for vehicle airbags. The airbag specified for automobile use traces its origins to air-filled bladders as early as 1941, the invention is also credited independently to the German engineer Walter Linderer, and to the American John W. Hetrick who in 1951 registered for the first of his airbag patents. Linderers airbag was based on an air system, either released by bumper contact or by the driver. Later research during the 1960s showed that air could not inflate Linderers airbag fast enough for maximum safety. Hetrick was an engineer and member of the United States Navy. Hetrick worked with the major American automobile corporations at the time, in Japan, Yasuzaburou Kobori started developing an airbag safety net system in 1964, for which he was later awarded patents in 14 countries. He died in 1975 without seeing widespread adoption of airbag systems, in 1967, a breakthrough occurred in the development of airbag crash sensors when Allen K
34.
PowerPC 5000
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The PowerPC5000 family is a series of Power Architecture microprocessors from Freescale and STMicroelectronics designed for automotive and industrial microcontroller and system on a chip use. The MPC5000 family consists of two lines that really dont share a common heritage, the MGT5100 was introduced in 2002 and Motorolas first CPU for its mobileGT SoC-platform for telematic, information and entertainment applications in cars. The MPC5121e was introduced in May 2007 and is based on the MPC5200B and it is a 400 MHz highly integrated SoC processor targeted for telematics applications and includes controllers for USB, PCI, networking, DDR RAM and disk storage. The MPC5123 was introduced in April 2008 and is essentially a MPC5121e without the PowerVR coprocessor and its designed for telematics, point of sales systems, health care equipment, display kiosks and industrial automation. The MPC5200 family is based on the e300 core MGT5100 processor and is also a part of Freescales mobileGT platform, MPC5200 – 266–400 MHz, on-chip controllers for DDR-RAM, PCI, Ethernet, USB, ATA, serial, DMA and other I/O. Introduced in 2003, replaced by the MPC5200B, MPC5200B – 266-466 MHz, enhanced MPC5200, introduced in 2005. Also used in the small EFIKA computer, based on the e200 core that stems from the MPC5xx core, it is upwards-compatible with the newer e500 core and the older PowerPC Book E specification. Focus is on automotive and industrial systems, like robotics, power train. The cores are the basis for a multitude of SoC controllers ranging from 40 to 600 MHz with a variety of functionality, like Flash-ROM, Ethernet controllers. All MPC55xx processors are compliant with the Power ISA v.2.03 specification, the MPC55xx family have four slightly different cores from the really low end and to the high end. MPC5510 – uses a core, with an optional e200z0 core as co-processor. MPC5533 and MPC5534 – uses e200z3 cores, mPC5553, MPC5554, MPC5561, MPC5565, MPC5566 and MPC5567 – uses e200z6 cores. The MPC56xx family are PowerPC e200 core based microcontrollers jointly developed by Freescale, built on a 90 nm fabrication process. Freescale calls these processors MPC56xx and ST names them SPC56x, mPC560xB/C or SPC560B/C – Uses a single e200z0 core at up to 64 MHz, up to 512 kB Flash memory,64 kB EEPROM, up to 48 kB RAM. Used for automotive body electronics applications, mPC560xP or SPC560P – Uses a single e200z0 core at up to 60 MHz, up to 512 kB Flash memory, up to 64 kB EEPROM, up to 40 kB RAM. Used for chassis and airbag control, mPC560xS or SPC560S – Uses a single e200z0 core at up to 64 MHz, up to 1 MB Flash memory,64 kB EEPROM, up to 48 kB RAM, and an on-chip display controller with up to 160 kB VRAM. Used for TFT color display control, mPC563xM or SPC563M – Uses a single e200z3 core at up to 80 MHz, up to 1.5 MB Flash memory, up to 111 kB SRAM. MPC564xL or SPC56EL – Uses dual e200z4 cores at 120 MHz,1 MB Flash memory,128 kB SRAM, mPC5668G – Uses one e200z6 core and one e200z0 core at up to 128 MHz, up to 2 MB Flash memory,592 kB SRAM, integrated Ethernet controller
35.
Telematics
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Telematics is an interdisciplinary field that encompasses telecommunications, vehicular technologies, road transportation, road safety, electrical engineering, and computer science. Though typically applied in the testing of flight objects, telemetry has multiple other uses, Telematics is a translation of the French word télématique which was first coined by Simon Nora and Alain Minc in a 1978 report to the French government on the computerization of society. It referred to the transfer of information over telecommunications and was a merging of the French words telecommunications, the original broad meaning of telematics continues to be used in academic fields but in commerce it now generally means vehicle telematics. GPS navigation, integrated hands-free cell phones, wireless safety communications, the science of telecommunications and informatics applied in wireless technologies and computational systems. Vehicle telematics can help improve the efficiency of an organization, practical applications include, Vehicle tracking is monitoring the location, movements, status and behaviour of a vehicle or fleet of vehicles. This is achieved through a combination of a GPS receiver and a device installed in each vehicle, communicating with the user. The data is turned into information by management reporting tools in conjunction with a display on computerised mapping software. Vehicle tracking systems may also use odometry or dead reckoning as an alternative or complementary means of navigation, GPS tracking is usually accurate to around 10–20 metres, but the European Space Agency has developed the EGNOS technology to provide accuracy to 1.5 metres. An increasingly sophisticated array of sensors, many incorporating RFID technology, is being used to ensure the cold chain, benefits of this approach include increased security and the possibility to reschedule the container transport movements based on accurate information about its location. According to Berg Insight the installed base of tracking units in the shipping container segment reached 190,000 at the end of 2013. Growing at an annual growth rate of 38.2 percent. Fleet management is the management of a companys fleet, Fleet management includes the management of ships and or motor vehicles such as cars, vans and trucks. These functions can either be dealt with by an in-house Fleet Management department or an outsourced Fleet Management provider, the Association of Equipment Management Professionals developed the industrys first telematics standard. This committee consisted of developers provided by the Caterpillar/Trimble joint venture known as Virtual Site Solutions, Volvo CE and this group worked from February 2009 through September 2010 to develop the industrys first standard for the delivery of telematics data. The result, the AEMP Telematics Data Standard V1.1 was released in 2010, komatsu, Topcon, and others are finishing beta testing and have indicated that they will be able to support customers before the end of 2010. The AEMPs telematics data standard was developed to allow end users to integrate key telematics data into their fleet management reporting systems. As such, the standard was intended to facilitate importation of these data elements into enterprise software systems such as those used by many medium to large construction contractors. This option was cumbersome and labor-intensive, a second option was for the end user to develop an API, or program, to integrate the data from each telematics provider into his or her database
36.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
37.
OnStar
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A similar service is known as Opel OnStar in western Europe and ChevyStar in Latin American markets. In September 2011 the president of OnStar stated that the service had more than six million customers, a new aftermarket interior rear-view mirror with a built-in OnStar module, branded as OnStar FMV, became available to the public on July 24,2011. It provides some of the features an OEM system has, such as Automatic Crash Response, Stolen Vehicle Tracking, Turn-by-Turn Navigation, aT&T announced the contract to replace Verizon in 2013 based on 4G technology from 2014. Drivers and passengers can use its interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services, vehicle diagnostics. The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency, OnStar has 24-hour emergency call centers in Warren, Michigan, Charlotte, North Carolina, and Ontario, Canada, and other call centers in Makati, Philippines, and Oshawa, Ontario. This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response efforts, all OnStar-equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking, which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location, speed, and direction of movement. Starting in the 2009 model year, General Motors began equipping some new vehicles with Stolen Vehicle Slowdown and this feature allows OnStar to remotely slow down the stolen vehicle. The service is expected to help reduce the risk of property damage. Customers may opt out of that function, the first successful use of this service occurred in October 2009 when a stolen Chevrolet Tahoe was recovered and its suspected thief was apprehended. All Stolen Vehicle Assistance services can be requested by the OnStar subscriber, OnStar subscribers may be eligible for anti-theft and low mileage insurance discounts. Since OnStar can help with the recovery of a vehicle, some insurance companies recognize this. Also, with insurance companies and with subscriber permission, OnStar will send the insurance company the vehicles odometer reading every month. If the subscriber qualifies as a driver, they may be eligible for an insurance discount. In 1996, GM North America Operations President Rick Wagoner officially launched OnStar at the Chicago Auto Show, OnStar delivered its first product and service to the market in 11 months, in the fall of 1996 for model-year 1997 Cadillac DeVille, Cadillac Seville and Cadillac Eldorado models. From 2002 to 2006, OnStar service was available on vehicles produced by Acura, Isuzu, Subaru, customers who purchased a prepaid, non-refundable, non-transferable 1-year OnStar Safe & Sound subscription were scheduled to receive an equipment upgrade. If the vehicle is from the 2003,2004, or 2005 model year, if it is older, it will simply no longer be usable. A law firm in Pennsylvania representing some of the affected customers sought to have a class certified for a class action lawsuit for damages claimed in the cancellation of OnStar service. On December 19,2011, GM said OnStar would join with Verizon Wireless to offer video chat, since 2014 OnStar offers LTE Wi-Fi service on select GM cars
38.
Insulin pump
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An insulin pump is a medical device used for the administration of insulin in the treatment of diabetes mellitus, also known as continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion therapy. The device configuration may vary depending on design, for instance, more recent models may include disposable or semi-disposable designs for the pumping mechanism and may eliminate tubing from the infusion set. Users report better quality of life compared to using other devices for administering insulin, the improvement in QOL is reported in type 1 and insulin-requiring type 2 diabetes subjects on pumps. The use of rapid-acting insulin for basal needs offers relative freedom from a structured meal, programmable basal rates allow for scheduled insulin deliveries of varying amounts at different times of the day. This is especially useful in controlling events such as the dawn phenomenon resulting in low blood sugar during the night. Many users feel that bolusing insulin from a pump is more convenient, Insulin pumps make it possible to deliver more precise amounts of insulin than can be injected using a syringe. This supports tighter control over blood sugar and hemoglobin A1c levels and this is predicted to result in a long-term cost savings relative to multiple daily injections. Many modern smart pumps have a wizard that calculates how much bolus insulin you need taking into account expected carbohydrate intake, blood sugar level. Insulin pumps can provide a record of insulin usage through their history menus. On many insulin pumps, this history can be uploaded to a computer, neuropathy is a troublesome complication of diabetes resistant to usual treatment. There are reports of alleviation or even total disappearance of resistant neuropathic pain with the use of insulin pumps, recent studies of use of insulin pumps in Type 2 diabetes have shown profound improvements in HbA1c, sexual performance, and neuropathy pain. Another disadvantage of insulin pump use is a risk of developing diabetic ketoacidosis if the pump malfunctions. Therefore, pump users typically monitor their blood sugars more frequently to evaluate the effectiveness of insulin delivery. Since the insulin pump needs to be worn most of the time, pump users need strategies to participate in activities that may damage the pump, such as rough sports, Some users may find that wearing the pump all the time is uncomfortable or unwieldy. Possibility of insulin pump malfunctioning, and having to back to multiple daily injections until a replacement becomes available. However most pump manufacturers will usually have a program that will get a new pump to the user within 24 hours or allow the user to buy a pump as a backup for a small fee. Additionally the pump itself will make many safety checks throughout the day, in cases up to 4,000,000. Users may experience scar tissue buildup around the inserted cannula, resulting in a bump under the skin after the cannula is removed
39.
Microcontroller
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A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. In modern terminology, it is a system on a chip or SoC, a microcontroller contains one or more CPUs along with memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of Ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also included on chip. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the used in personal computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discrete chips. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems, some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a signal processor, with higher clock speeds. The first microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with the Intel 8008, however, both processors required external chips to implement a working system, raising total system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerize appliances. One book credits TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran with the creation of the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS1000, which became available in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems and it combined RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would find its way into one billion PC keyboards. At that time Intels President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful in the companys history, most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent variants. One had an erasable EPROM program memory, with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light, often used for prototyping. The PROM was of type of memory as the EPROM. The erasable versions required ceramic packages with quartz windows, making them more expensive than the OTP versions. The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory, other companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types. Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for under 0.25 USD in quantity in 2009, nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large online communities around certain processors. In the future, MRAM could potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance, in 2002, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors
40.
Accelerometer
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An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration, proper acceleration is not the same as coordinate acceleration. For example, an accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure an acceleration due to Earths gravity, by contrast, accelerometers in free fall will measure zero. Accelerometers have multiple applications in industry and science, highly sensitive accelerometers are components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles. Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery, accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright. Accelerometers are used in drones for flight stabilisation, coordinated accelerometers can be used to measure differences in proper acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space, i. e. gradient of the gravitational field. This gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak effect, micromachined accelerometers are increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the device or provide for game input. An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. Put another way, at any point in spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of an inertial frame. Such accelerations are popularly denoted g-force, i. e. in comparison to standard gravity, an accelerometer at rest relative to the Earths surface will indicate approximately 1 g upwards, because any point on the Earths surface is accelerating upwards relative to the local inertial frame. The reason for the appearance of an offset is Einsteins equivalence principle. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any type of free fall and this includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic zero-g arc, or any free-fall in vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected. However this does not include a fall in air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration. At terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards, Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second, in the cgs unit gal, or popularly in terms of standard gravity. For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in a navigation system. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest, conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring. When the accelerometer experiences an acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is able to accelerate the mass at the rate as the casing. The displacement is measured to give the acceleration
41.
Guitar Hero
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Players match notes that scroll on-screen to colored fret buttons on the controller, strumming the controller in time to the music in order to score points, and keep the virtual audience excited. The games attempt to mimic features of playing a real guitar, including the use of fast-fingering hammer-ons and pull-offs. Most games support single player modes, typically a Career mode to play all the songs in the game. With the introduction of Guitar Hero World Tour in 2008, the game support for a four-player band including vocals. Later titles in the series feature support for content in the form of new songs. They enlisted Harmonix, who developed several music video games. The first game in the series was made on a budget of $1 million, the series became extremely successful, leading to the acquisition of RedOctane by Activision in 2007. Harmonix was acquired by MTV Games and went on to create the Rock Band series of games in the same vein as Guitar Hero. Activision brought Neversoft on board for development duties. Additional companies, such as Budcat Creations and Vicarious Visions have assisted in the adaptation of the games for other systems, the series currently has eight major releases and five expansions on gaming consoles. There are spin-offs for Windows and Macintosh systems, mobile phones, the Nintendo DS, the Guitar Hero franchise was a primary brand during the emergence of the popularity of rhythm games as a cultural phenomenon in North America. Such games have been utilized as a learning and development tool for medical purposes, the first game in the series was considered by several journalists to be one of the most influential video games of the first decade of the 21st century. Despite early success, the series, along with the rhythm game genre. Company spokesman Eric Hollreiser said consumer research suggested continued solid demand for the series, Activision later shut down sales of the series downloadable content, although users who purchased material from it previously may still play what they bought. In 2015, Activision announced the first new title to the series in 5 years, Guitar Hero Live, the title is considered a reboot of the series, with development being performed by FreeStyleGames, who had developed the DJ Hero games previously. Both companies agreed to it, and went on to produce Guitar Hero in 2005, the title was highly successful, leading to the development of its successful sequel Guitar Hero II in 2006. Both RedOctane and Harmonix experienced changes in 2006, RedOctane was bought by Activision in June — who spent US$100 million to acquire the Guitar Hero franchise — while it was announced in October that Harmonix would be purchased by MTV Networks. As a result of the two purchases, Harmonix would no longer develop future games in the Guitar Hero series, instead, that responsibility would go to Neversoft, a subsidiary of Activision known for developing the Tony Hawks series of skateboarding games
42.
E-reader
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An e-reader, also called an e-book reader or e-book device, is a mobile electronic device that is designed primarily for the purpose of reading digital e-books and periodicals. Any device that can display text on a screen may act as an e-reader, but specialized e-reader devices may optimize portability, readability and their main advantage over printed books is portability, an e-reader is capable of holding thousands of books while weighing less than one. An e-reader is similar in form to a tablet computer, a tablet typically has an LCD screen capable of higher refresh rates which makes it more suitable for interaction. Tablet computers also are more versatile, allowing one to multiple types of content as well as create it. The main advantages of electronic paper e-readers are better readability of their screens, especially in sunlight, commercially sold electronic paper is mostly available in black and white. The Sony Librie, released in 2004 and the precursor to the Sony Reader, was the first e-reader to use electronic paper, the Ectaco jetBook Color was the first color e-reader on the market, but its muted colors were criticized. An e-reader may also download e-books from a computer or read them from a memory card, there have been several generations of dedicated hardware e-readers. The Rocket eBook was the first commercial e-reader and several others were introduced around 1998, the Kindle includes access to the Kindle Store for e-book sales and delivery. As of 2009, new marketing models for e-books were being developed, e-books have yet to achieve global distribution. In the United States, as of September 2009, the Amazon Kindle model, by March 2010, some reported that the Barnes & Noble Nook may be selling more units than the Kindle in the US. Research released in March 2011 indicated that e-books and e-readers are more popular with the older generation than the generation in the UK. The survey carried out by Silver Poll found that around 6% of people over 55 owned an e-reader, compared with just 5% of 18- to 24-year-olds. On January 27,2010 Apple Inc. launched a tablet computer called the iPad. The iPad includes a built-in app for e-book reading called iBooks and had the iBookstore for content sales, the growth in general-purpose tablet use allowed for further growth in popularity of e-books in the 2010s. In 2012, there was a 26% decline in sales worldwide from a maximum of 23.2 million in 2011. The reason given for this alarmingly precipitous decline was the rise of general purpose tablets that provide e-book reading apps along with many other abilities in a similar form factor. In 2013, ABI Research claimed that the decline in the market was due to the aging of the customer base. At the end of 2015, eMarketer estimates that there are 83.4 million e-reader users in the US, until late 2013, use of an e-reader was not allowed on airplanes during takeoff and landing
43.
Transverse mode
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A transverse mode of electromagnetic radiation is a particular electromagnetic field pattern of radiation measured in a plane perpendicular to the propagation direction of the beam. Transverse modes occur in waves and microwaves confined to a waveguide. Transverse modes occur because of conditions imposed on the wave by the waveguide. For this reason, the supported by a waveguide are quantized. The allowed modes can be found by solving Maxwells equations for the conditions of a given waveguide. Unguided electromagnetic waves in space, or in a bulk isotropic dielectric, can be described as a superposition of plane waves. However in any sort of waveguide where boundary conditions are imposed by a physical structure and these modes generally follow different propagation constants. When two or more modes have a propagation constant along the waveguide, then there is more than one modal decomposition possible in order to describe a wave with that propagation constant. Modes in waveguides can be classified as follows, Transverse electromagnetic modes. Transverse electric modes, no field in the direction of propagation. These are sometimes called H modes because there is only a field along the direction of propagation. Transverse magnetic modes, no field in the direction of propagation. These are sometimes called E modes because there is only a field along the direction of propagation. Hybrid modes, non-zero electric and magnetic fields in the direction of propagation, hollow metallic waveguides filled with a homogeneous, isotropic material support TE and TM modes but not the TEM mode. In coaxial cable energy is transported in the fundamental TEM mode. The TEM mode is usually assumed for most other electrical conductor line formats as well. In an optical fiber or other dielectric waveguide, modes are generally of the hybrid type, in circular waveguides, circular modes exist and here m is the number of full-wave patterns along the circumference and n is the number of half-wave patterns along the diameter. In a laser with cylindrical symmetry, the transverse mode patterns are described by a combination of a Gaussian beam profile with a Laguerre polynomial, the modes are denoted TEMpl where p and l are integers labeling the radial and angular mode orders, respectively
44.
Base station
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Base station is – according to article 1.71 of the International Telecommunication Union´s ITU Radio Regulations – defined as A land station in the land mobile service. In mobile telephony it provides the connection between mobile phones and the telephone network. In a computer network it is a transceiver acting as a router for computers in the network, in the context of external land surveying, a base station is a GPS receiver at an accurately-known fixed location which is used to derive correction information for nearby portable GPS receivers. It typically consists of a transmitter and wireless router. The base station is one end of a communications link, the other end is a movable vehicle-mounted radio or walkie-talkie. Examples of base station uses in two-way radio include the dispatch of tow trucks, professional base station radios are often one channel. In lightly used stations, a multi-channel unit may be employed. In heavily used systems, the capability for additional channels, where needed, is accomplished by installing an additional station for each channel. Each base station appears as a channel on the dispatch center control console. In a properly designed dispatch center with several members, this allows each dispatcher to communicate simultaneously, independently of one another. For example, a taxi company dispatch center may have one station on a high-rise building in Boston. Each taxi dispatcher could communicate with taxis in either Boston or Providence by selecting the respective base station on his or her console, in dispatching centers it is common for eight or more radio base stations to be connected to a single dispatching console. Dispatching personnel can tell which channel a message is being received on by a combination of local protocol, unit identifiers, volume settings, a typical console has two speakers identified as select and unselect. Audio from a selected channel is routed to the select speaker. Each channel has a light which flashes when someone talks on the associated channel. Base stations can be controlled or remote controlled. Local controlled base stations are operated by front panel controls on the base station cabinet, remote control base stations can be operated over tone- or DC-remote circuits. The dispatch point console and remote base station are connected by leased private line telephone circuits, the consoles multiplex transmit commands onto remote control circuits
45.
Magnetometer
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A compass is a simple example of a magnetometer, one that measures the direction of an ambient magnetic field. Magnetometers are widely used for measuring the Earths magnetic field and in geophysical surveys to detect anomalies of various types. They are also used in the military to detect submarines, consequently, some countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australia, classify the more sensitive magnetometers as military technology, and control their distribution. Magnetic fields are vector quantities characterized by strength and direction. The strength of a field is measured in units of tesla in the SI units. 10,000 gauss are equal to one tesla, measurements of the Earths magnetic field are often quoted in units of nanotesla, also called a gamma. Gaussmeters and teslameters are magnetometers that measure in units of gauss or tesla, in some contexts, magnetometer is the term used for an instrument that measures fields of less than 1 millitesla and gaussmeter is used for those measuring greater than 1 mT. There are two types of magnetometer measurement. Vector magnetometers measure the components of a magnetic field. Total field magnetometers or scalar magnetometers measure the magnitude of the magnetic field. Magnetometers used to study the Earths magnetic field may express the components of the field in terms of declination. Absolute magnetometers measure the magnitude or vector magnetic field, using an internal calibration or known physical constants of the magnetic sensor. Relative magnetometers measure magnitude or vector magnetic field relative to a fixed but uncalibrated baseline, also called variometers, relative magnetometers are used to measure variations in magnetic field. Magnetometers may also be classified by their situation or intended use, stationary magnetometers are installed to a fixed position and measurements are taken while the magnetometer is stationary. Portable or mobile magnetometers are meant to be used while in motion, laboratory magnetometers are used to measure the magnetic field of materials placed within them and are typically stationary. The performance and capabilities of magnetometers are described through their technical specifications, major specifications include Sample rate is the amount of readings given per second. The inverse is the time in seconds per reading. Sample rate is important in mobile magnetometers, the sample rate, bandwidth or bandpass characterizes how well a magnetometer tracks rapid changes in magnetic field
$4.634 billion USD (2014)
