1.
Johannes Gehrts
–
He depicted scenes from Germanic and Norse mythology, legends and sagas, pirate stories, travel adventures and fairy-tales. He also illustrated reports on the expeditions of the German physician. Gehrts attended the art academy of Weimar from 1873 to 1876, list of German painters Collected illustrations from Walhall, Germanische Götter- und Heldensagen by Felix Dahn and Therese Dahn,1885. Works by or about Johannes Gehrts in libraries
Johannes Gehrts
–
Odin flanked by his ravens
Huginn and Muninn, and the wolves
Geri and Freki (1901)
2.
Norse religion
–
Norse religion refers to the religious traditions of the Norsemen prior to the Christianization of Scandinavia, specifically during the Viking Age. Norse religion is a folk religion and it was the northern variation of the religion practiced in the lands inhabited by the Germanic tribes across most of Northern and Central Europe prior to Roman and Holy Roman incursions. However, it was not formalized nor categorized as a subset of Germanic paganism until it was described by outsiders who came into contact with native practitioners. The Norse - or people of Scandinavia - have always had contact with cultures outside Scandinavia. They were well aware of foreign religions and they traded, intermarried and sometimes worked as henchmen for other cultures, including the Romans. Most titles bestowed upon Norse religion are the ones which were used to describe the religion in a competitive manner, some of these terms were hedendom, Heidentum, Heathenry or Pagan. A more romanticized name for Norse religion is the medieval Icelandic term Forn Siðr or Old Custom, knowledge about Norse religion has been gathered from archaeological discoveries and from literature produced after the Christianization of Scandinavia. The literary sources that reference Norse paganism were written after the religion had declined, the vast majority of this came from 13th-century Iceland, where Christianity had taken longest to gain hold because of its remote location. The key literary texts for the study of Norse religion are the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson, the Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus and the Poetic Edda, by an unknown writer or writers. Saga literature informs us of the not only of the literate elite. Sagas are categorized on the basis of events described in the saga took place. Though Sagas are often mythical in nature, the ambitions are to give a realistic description of past events. Many sites in Scandinavia have yielded information about early Scandinavian culture. The oldest extant cultural examples are petroglyphs or helleristninger/hällristningar and these are usually divided into two categories according to age, hunting-glyphs and agricultural-glyphs. The hunting glyphs are the oldest and are found in Northern Scandinavia. These finds seem to indicate an existence based on hunting and fishing. These motifs were gradually subsumed by glyphs with more zoomorphic, or perhaps religious, the glyphs from the region of Bohuslän are later complemented with younger agricultural glyphs, which seem to depict an existence based more heavily on agriculture. These later motifs primarily depict ships, solar and lunar motifs, geometrical spirals and anthropomorphic beings and these finds shows several signs of rituals in a seemingly religious context, including some strong indications of human sacrifice such as the case of the Tollund Man bog body
Norse religion
–
An 18th century copy of the Prose Edda, one of the key literary sources for
Norse mythology.
Norse religion
–
Mjölnir pendants were worn by Norse pagans during the 9th to 10th centuries. This drawing of a 4.6 cm gold-plated silver Mjolnir pendant was found at Bredsätra in
Öland,
Sweden.
Norse religion
–
Gamla Uppsala, the centre of worship in
Sweden until the temple was destroyed in the late 11th century.
Norse religion
–
"Freyr" (1901) by
Johannes Gehrts, The god associated with sacral kingship, virility and prosperity, with sunshine and fair weather, and was pictured as a phallic fertility god.
3.
Proto-Norse language
–
Proto-Norse, was an Indo-European language spoken in Scandinavia that is thought to have evolved as a northern dialect of Proto-Germanic over the first centuries CE. It is the earliest stage of a characteristically North Germanic language, and it evolved into the dialects of the Old Norse language, at the beginning of the Viking Age about AD800, which later themselves evolved into modern North Germanic languages. Proto-Norse phonology probably did not differ substantially from that of Proto-Germanic, although the phonetic realisation of several phonemes had probably changed over time, the overall system of phonemes and their distribution remained largely unchanged. /n/ assimilated to a velar consonant. It was before a velar, and probably before a labial-velar consonant. Unlike its Proto-Germanic ancestor /x/, the phoneme /h/ was probably no longer a fricative and it eventually disappeared except word-initially. and were allophones of /b/, /d/ and /ɡ/, and occurred in most word-medial positions. Plosives appeared when the consonants were lengthened, and also after a nasal consonant, word-finally, and were devoiced and merged with /p/, /t/, /k/. The exact realisation of the phoneme /z/, traditionally written as ʀ in transcriptions of runic Norse, is unclear, while it was a simple alveolar sibilant in Proto-Germanic, it eventually underwent rhotacization and merged with /r/ towards the end of the runic period. It may have been pronounced as or, tending towards a trill in the later period, the sound was still written with its own letter in runic Old East Norse around the end of the millennium. The system of vowels differed somewhat more from that of Proto-Germanic than the consonants, earlier /ɛː/ had been lowered to /ɑː/, and unstressed /ai/ and /au/ had developed into /eː/ and /ɔː/. Shortening of word-final vowels had eliminated the Proto-Germanic overlong vowels, /o/ had developed from /u/ through a-mutation. It also occurred word-finally as a result of the shortening of Proto-Germanic /ɔː/, the long nasal vowels /ɑ̃ː/, /ĩː/ and /ũː/ occurred only before /h/. Their presence was noted in the 12th century First Grammatical Treatise, all other nasal vowels occurred only word-finally, although it is unclear whether they had retained their nasality in Proto-Norse or had already merged with the oral vowels. The vowels /o/ and /ɔ̃/ were contrastive, however, as the former eventually developed into /u/ while the latter was lowered to /ɑ/, towards the end of the Proto-Norse period, stressed /e/ underwent breaking, becoming a rising diphthong /ja/. Also towards the end of the Proto-Norse period, u-mutation began to take effect, at least the following diphthongs were present, /æi/, /ɑu/, /eu/, /iu/. /ɑu/ was later rounded to /ɒu/ due to u-mutation, /eu/ eventually underwent breaking to become the triphthong /jɒu/. This was preserved in Old Gutnish, but simplified to a long rising /joː/ or /juː/ in other areas, as /iu/ occurred exclusively in environments with i-mutation, its realisation was probably fronted. This then developed further into, which then became /yː/, Old Norse had a stress accent which fell on the first syllable
Proto-Norse language
–
Composite photograph of the
Einang stone inscription (ca. AD 400)
4.
Frawjaz
–
*Fraujaz or *Frauwaz, feminine *Frawjōn is a Common Germanic honorific meaning lord, lady, especially of deities. The epithet came to be taken as the name of two separate deities in Norse mythology, Freyr and Freyja. Both Freyr and Freyja are represented zoomorphically by the pig, Freyr has Gullinbursti while Freyjahas Hildisvíni has, the terms etymology is ultimately from a PIE *pro-w-o-s, containing *pro- in front. The stem was confused from early times with *frīj-, which has variants frēo-, frīo-, frēa- beside a less frequent frīg-, the goddess should be in Swed. Frøe, the Swed. folk-song of Thors hammer calls Freyja Froijenborg, saxo is silent about this goddess and her father altogether, he would no doubt have named her Fröa. The Second Merseburg Charm may have Frûa = Frôwa as the name of the goddess. In Germanic Christianity, the became a name of God, translating κύριος. In Old High German, the full form *frouwo was already lost, in the Old Low German, it survives in the vocative, as frô mîn. The Heliand has frô mîn the gôdo, waldand frô mîn, drohtîn frô mîn, Old English freá is more common in poetry, as in freá ælmihtig, and it also forms compounds, âgendfreá, aldorfreá, folcfreá and even combines with dryhten. It survives in Modern German as Fron- in compounds such as Frondienst socage, frô, and even for the grammatical immobility of frôno, it is as though an echo of heathenism could still be detected in them. Skaldic fiörnis freyr, myrðifreyr means hero or man, in the same way the Kormakssaga uses fem. freyja in the sense woman, lady. In Total War, Rome II, Fraujaz is one of the six principal deities of the Suebi, along with Thunaraz, Frijjō, Teiwaz, Wōdanaz, drohtin Frijjō Yngvi Irmin Dís God Names of God in Old English poetry Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, ch.10
Frawjaz
–
the
ithyphallic Rällinge statue, interpreted as a Viking Age depiction of Freyr
5.
Sacred king
–
In many historical societies, the position of kingship carries a sacral meaning, that is, it is identical with that of a high priest and of judge. The concept of theocracy is related, although a sacred king need not necessarily rule through his religious authority, rather, the concept was identified, or invented, by Sir James George Frazer in The Golden Bough whose title refers to the myth of the Rex Nemorensis. Frazer gives numerous examples, cited below, and is regarded as an exponent of the myth and ritual school. However, the myth and ritual, or myth-ritualist, theory is disputed, many now believe that myth and ritual share common paradigms. According to Frazer, the notion has prehistoric roots and is worldwide, on Java as in sub-Saharan Africa, with shaman-kings credited with rainmaking and assuring fertility. Among the Ashanti, a new king was flogged before being enthroned, from the Bronze Age Near East, the enthronement and anointment of a monarch is a central religious ritual, reflected in the titles Messiah or Christ which became separated from worldly kingship. Thus, Sargon of Akkad described himself as deputy of Ishtar, the king is styled as a shepherd from earliest times, e. g. the term was applied to Sumerian princes such as Lugalbanda in the 3rd millennium BCE. The image of the shepherd combines the themes of leadership and the responsibility to supply food, as the mediator between the people and the divine, the sacral king was credited with special wisdom or vision. Devaraja, cult of divine kings in Southeast Asia, germanic kingship Holy Roman Emperor Imperial cult The Omukama of Kitara ruled as a heavenly sovereign. The High King of Ireland, according to tradition, married the sovereignty goddess. The Eze Nri, title of the ruler of the defunct Igbo Nri Kingdom in present-day Nigeria and he was addressed as Igwe, meaning heavenly one in the Igbo language, and has the pretender of a contemporary traditional state of the same name as his successor. The Emperor of Japan is known in Japanese as Tennō, heavenly sovereign, the Kende was the sacred king of the Magyars in the 9th century. The Khagan The Kings of Luba became deities after death, the temporal power of the Papacy Pharaoh, title of Ancient Egyptian rulers. The pharaoh adopted names symbolizing holy might, the school of Pan-Babylonianism derived much of the religion described in the Hebrew Bible from cults of sacral kingship in ancient Babylonia. The so-called British and Scandinavian cult-historical schools maintained that the king personified a god and stood at the center of the national or tribal religion, the English myth and ritual school concentrated on anthropology and folklore, while the Scandinavian Uppsala school emphasized Semitological study. A sacred king, according to the interpretation of mythology developed by Frazer in The Golden Bough, was a king who represented a solar deity in a periodically re-enacted fertility rite. According to Frazer, the king represented the spirit of vegetation. He came into being in the spring, reigned during the summer, the spirit of vegetation was therefore a dying and reviving god
Sacred king
–
Figure of Christ from the
Ghent Altarpiece (1432).
6.
Phallus
–
A phallus is a penis, especially when erect, an object that resembles a penis, or a mimetic image of an erect penis. Any object that symbolically—or, more precisely, iconically—resembles a penis may also be referred to as a phallus, however, such symbols often represent fertility and cultural implications that are associated with the male sexual organ, as well as the male orgasm. The term is a loanword from Latin phallus, itself borrowed from Greek φαλλός, compare with Old Norse boli bull, Old English bulluc bullock, Greek φαλλή whale. The Hohle phallus, a 28, 000-year-old siltstone phallus discovered in the Hohle Fels cave, in traditional Greek mythology, Hermes, god of boundaries and exchange is considered to be a phallic deity by association with representations of him on herms featuring a phallus. There is no consensus on this depiction and it would be speculation to consider Hermes a type of fertility god. Pan, son of Hermes, was depicted as having an exaggerated erect phallus. Priapus is a Greek god of fertility whose symbol was an exaggerated phallus, the son of Aphrodite and either Dionysus or Adonis, according to different forms of the original myth, he is the protector of livestock, fruit plants, gardens, and male genitalia. His name is the origin of the medical term priapism, the city of Tyrnavos in Greece holds an annual Phallus festival, a traditional phallophoric event on the first days of Lent. The phallus was ubiquitous in ancient Roman culture, particularly in the form of the fascinum, the ruins of Pompeii produced bronze wind chimes that featured the phallus, often in multiples, to ward off the evil eye and other malevolent influences. Statues of Priapus similarly guarded gardens, Roman boys wore the bulla, an amulet that contained a phallic charm, until they formally came of age. According to Augustine of Hippo, the cult of Father Liber, the phallic deity Mutunus Tutunus promoted marital sex. A sacred phallus was among the objects considered vital to the security of the Roman state which were in the keeping of the Vestal Virgins, sexuality in ancient Rome has sometimes been characterized as phallocentric. Evidence of phallic worship in India dates back to prehistoric times, stone Lingams with several varieties of stylized heads, or the glans, are found to this date in many of the old temples, and in museums in India and abroad. The almost naturalistic giant lingam is distinguished by its prominent, bulbous glans, linguistic evidence indicates that the post-Vedic Hindus not only adopted the tradition/ cult of the linga from the pre-Vedic non-Aryans, but even the term itself is of Austric origin. Chakravarti further says that when two words entered Sanskrit, they, along with another word langula were derivations of the same root syllable lang or lng. Stone lingams have been found in several Indus Civilization sites, varying in size from 3 feet in length to very small pieces and these are found to be of steatite, sandstone and burnt clay. Some among these are unmistakably naturalistic in their rendition, Phallic worship was prevalent in India from the Chalcolithic period itself, and it was closely associated with magical rites based religion of that time. The phallus played a role in the cult of Osiris in ancient Egyptian religion, supposedly, Isis made a wooden replacement
Phallus
–
Mural of
Priapus depicted with the attributes of Mercury in a fresco found in
Pompeii
Phallus
–
Tintinnabulum from Pompeii showing a phallus
Phallus
–
Polyphallic wind chime from Pompeii; a bell hung from each phallus
Phallus
–
Herm
7.
Fertility god
–
A fertility deity is a god or goddess associated with sex, fertility, pregnancy, and childbirth. In some cases these deities are associated with these experiences. Fertility rites may accompany their worship, the following is a list of fertility deities. Anahit, goddess of fertility, birth, beauty and water Aramazd, creator-god and source of the Earths fertility Tonacatecuhtli, coatlicue, goddess of fertility, life, death and rebirth. Chimalma, goddess of fertility, life, death and rebirth, xochitlicue, goddess of fertility, life, death and rebirth. Xochipilli, god of love, art, games, beauty, dance, flowers, maize, fertility, xochiquetzal, goddess of fertility, beauty, female sexual power, protection of young mothers, pregnancy, childbirth, and womens crafts. Toci, is the Mother of the Men, see Temazcalteci Temazcalteci, see Intercession of saints and Hagiography for details about those aspects of Catholic doctrine. Parvati, goddess associated with fertility, marital felicity, devotion to the spouse, asceticism, freyr, god associated with farming, weather and fertility Frigg, goddess associated with prophecy, marriage and childbirth Gefjun, goddess of ploughing and possibly fertility Odin The allfather. God of war, wisdom and seiðr Thor, god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, yúcahu, masculine spirit of fertility along with his mother Atabey who was his feminine counterpart
Fertility god
–
Coatlicue, Aztec goddess of fertility, life, death and rebirth
Fertility god
–
Min, ancient Egyptian god of fertility and lettuce
Fertility god
–
Priapus, Greek god of fertility, gardens and male genitalia
Fertility god
–
Parvati
8.
Yngvi
–
Old Norse Yngvi, Old High German Inguin and Old English Ingwine are names that relate to a theonym which appears to have been the older name for the god Freyr. Proto-Germanic *Ingwaz was the ancestor of the Ingaevones, or more accurately Ingvaeones. Old Norse Yngvi as well as Old High German Inguin and Old English Ingwine are all derived from the Proto-Germanic *Ingwaz, sound changes in late-Proto-Germanic transformed *Ingwaz into *Ingwi in the nominative and *Ingwin in the accusative. Tacitus asserts their descent from the three sons of Mannus or *Mannaz, the Proto-Germanic first man, of whom *Ingwaz may have been one, other names that retain the theonym are Inguiomerus or Ingemar and Yngling, the name of an old Scandinavian dynasty. The ŋ rune together with Peorð and Eihwaz is among the cases of runes of uncertain derivation unattested in early inscriptions. The rune first appears independently on the row of the Kylver Stone. There are a number of attestations of the i͡ŋ bind rune or, the Old English rune poem contains these obscure lines, ᛝ Ing wæs ærest mid Eástdenum gesewen secgum, oð he síððan eást ofer wæg gewát. ᛝ Ing was first amidst the East Danes so seen, until he went eastward over the sea, thus the Heardings named that hero. Yngvi is a name of the god Freyr, perhaps Freyrs true name, in the Íslendingabók Yngvi Tyrkja konungr Yngvi king of Turkey appears as the father of Njörðr who in turn is the father of Yngvi-Freyr, ancestor of the Ynglings. According to the Skjöldunga saga Odin came from Asia and conquered Northern Europe and he gave Sweden to his son Yngvi and Denmark to his son Skjöldr. Since then the kings of Sweden were called Ynglings and those of Denmark Skjöldungs, in the Gesta Danorum and in the Ynglinga saga, Freyr is euhemerized as a king of Sweden. In the Ynglinga saga, Yngvi-Freyr reigned in succession to his father Njörðr who had – in this variant – succeeded Odin, snorri here does not identify Yngvi and Freyr, although Freyr occasionally appears elsewhere as a son of Odin instead of a son of Njörðr. In the related account in the Ættartolur Genealogies attached to Hversu Noregr byggðist, the Ynglinga Saga section of Snorris Heimskringla introduces a second Yngvi, son of Alrekr, who is a descendant of Yngvi-Freyr and who shared the Swedish kingship with his brother Álf. The element Ing- was widely used in Germanic names from a period, it is not clear whether it originally referred to the Ingaevones. Inguiomer was a relative of the Cheruscan Arminius in the first century, ingundis was a wife of the Frankish king Chlothar I, whose son Charibert I married an Ingoberga. Other combinations such as masculine Inguin, Ingulf, Ingobald, feminine Inghildis, Ingedrudis, Ingoflidis, as well as the short forms Ingo and Inga are recorded in the early medieval period. In Scandinavia and Germany, names in Ing survived into modern usage, e. g. Ingmar, Ingvar, Ingvild, Ingeborg, Ingrid, Ingegerd
Yngvi
–
"Yngvi-Freyr builds the Uppsala temple" (1830) by Hugo Hamilton.
9.
Iceland
–
Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
Iceland
–
Norsemen Landing in Iceland – a 19th Century depiction by
Oscar Wergeland.
Iceland
–
Flag
Iceland
–
Ingólfr Arnarson (modern Icelandic: Ingólfur Arnarson), the first permanent Scandinavian settler in Iceland
Iceland
–
Ósvör, a replica of an old fishing outpost outside
Bolungarvík
10.
Poetic Edda
–
Poetic Edda is the modern attribution for an unnamed collection of Old Norse anonymous poems, which is different from the Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all consisting primarily of text from the Icelandic mediaeval manuscript known as the Codex Regius, poets who have acknowledged their debt to the Codex Regius include Vilhelm Ekelund, August Strindberg, J. R. R. Tolkien, Ezra Pound, Jorge Luis Borges, and Karin Boye, Codex Regius was written in the 13th century, but nothing is known of its whereabouts until 1643, when it came into the possession of Brynjólfur Sveinsson, then Bishop of Skálholt. At the time, versions of the Edda were known in Iceland, but scholars speculated that once was another Edda, an Elder Edda. Brynjólfur attributed the manuscript to Sæmundr the Learned, a larger-than-life 12th century Icelandic priest and that attribution is rejected by modern scholars, but the name Sæmundar Edda is still sometimes associated with both the Codex Regius and versions of Poetic Edda using it as a source. Bishop Brynjólfur sent Codex Regius as a present to the Danish king, for centuries, it was stored in the Royal Library in Copenhagen but in 1971, it was returned to Iceland. The Eddic poems are composed in alliterative verse, most are in fornyrðislag, while málaháttr is a common variation. The rest, about a quarter, are composed in ljóðaháttr, the language of the poems is usually clear and relatively unadorned. Kennings are often employed, though they do not arise as frequently, nor are they as complex, like most early poetry, the Eddic poems were minstrel poems, passing orally from singer to singer and from poet to poet for centuries. None of the poems are attributed to an author, though many of them show strong individual characteristics and are likely to have been the work of individual poets. Scholars sometimes speculate on hypothetical authors, but firm and accepted conclusions have never been reached, the dating of the poems has been a source of lively scholarly argument for a long time, and firm conclusions are hard to reach. Lines from the Eddic poems sometimes appear in poems by known poets, for example, Eyvindr skáldaspillir composed in the latter half of the 10th century, and he uses a couple of lines in his Hákonarmál which are also found in Hávamál. It is possible that he was quoting a poem, but it is also possible that Hávamál. The few demonstrably historical characters mentioned in the poems, such as Attila, the dating of the manuscripts themselves provides a more useful terminus ante quem. Individual poems have individual clues to their age, for example, Atlamál hin groenlenzku is claimed by its title to have been composed in Greenland, and seems so by some internal evidence. If so, it can be no earlier than about 985, in some cases, old poems may have been interpolated with younger verses or merged with other poems. For example, stanzas 9-16 of Völuspá, the Dvergatal or Roster of Dwarfs, is considered by scholars to be an interpolation. The problem of dating the poems is linked with the problem of finding out where they were composed, Iceland was not settled until about 870, so anything composed before that time would necessarily have been elsewhere, most likely in Scandinavia
Poetic Edda
–
The title page of Olive Bray's English translation of the Poetic Edda depicting the tree
Yggdrasil and a number of its inhabitants (1908) by W. G. Collingwood.
Poetic Edda
–
The cover of Lee M. Hollander's English translation of the Poetic Edda.
11.
Prose Edda
–
The Prose Edda, also known as the Younger Edda, Snorris Edda or, historically, simply as Edda, is an Old Norse work of literature written in Iceland in the early 13th century. The work is assumed to have been written, or at least compiled, by the Icelandic scholar. It begins with a euhemerized Prologue, a section on the Norse cosmogony, pantheon and this is followed by three distinct books, Gylfaginning, Skáldskaparmál and Háttatal. Seven manuscripts, dating from around 1300 to around 1600, have independent textual value, Sturluson planned the collection as a textbook. It was to enable Icelandic poets and readers to understand the subtleties of alliterative verse, at that time, versions of the Edda were well known in Iceland, but scholars speculated that there once was an Elder Edda which contained the poems which Snorri quotes in his Edda. The etymology of Edda remains uncertain, there are many hypotheses, and little agreement. Some argue that the word derives from the name of Oddi, Edda could therefore mean book of Oddi. However, this assumption is generally rejected, Faulkes in his English translation of the Prose Edda commented that this is unlikely, both in terms of linguistics and history since Snorri was no longer living at Oddi when he composed his work. Another connection was made with the word óðr, which means poetry or inspiration in Old Norse, Edda also means great-parent, a word used by Snorri himself in the Skáldskaparmál. That is, with the meaning, the name of a character in the Rigsthula. A final hypothesis is derived from the Latin edo, meaning I write and it relies on the fact that the word kredda is certified and comes from the Latin credo, I believe. It seems likely Snorri would have been able to invent the word, Edda in this case could be translated as Poetic Art. This is the meaning that the word was given in the Middle Ages. The name Sæmundar Edda was given by the Bishop Brynjólfur Sveinsson to the collection of poems contained in the Codex Regius, many of which are quoted by Snorri. Brynjólfur, along many others of his time incorrectly believed that they were collected by Sæmundr fróði. Seven manuscripts of the Edda have survived, six compositions of the Middle Ages, no one manuscript is complete, and each has variations. In addition to three fragments, the four manuscripts are Codex Regius, Codex Wormianus, Codex Trajectinus. Codex Upsaliensis, was composed in the first quarter of the century and is the oldest manuscript preserved of the Edda of Snorri
Prose Edda
–
Gylfi and three speakers. Manuscript SAM 66 (Iceland, 1765–1766),
Reykjavík,
Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies.
Prose Edda
–
Thjazi and
Loki. Beginning of the myth of the abduction of
Idun, reported by Skáldskaparmál. Manuscript NKS 1867 4to (Iceland, 1760), Copenhagen, Royal Library
12.
Vanir
–
In Norse mythology, the Vanir are a group of gods associated with fertility, wisdom, nature, magic, and the ability to see the future. The Vanir are one of two groups of gods and are the namesake of the location Vanaheimr, after the Æsir–Vanir War, the Vanir became a subgroup of the Æsir. Subsequently, members of the Vanir are sometimes referred to as members of the Æsir. The Vanir are only attested in these Old Norse sources, Vanir is sometimes anglicized to Wanes. All sources describe the deities Njörðr, Freyr and Freyja as members of the Vanir, a euhemerized prose account in Heimskringla adds that Njörðrs sister—whose name is not provided—and Kvasir were Vanir. In addition, Heimskringla reports a tale involving king Sveigðirs visit to Vanaheimr, where he meets a woman by the name of Vana, while not attested as Vanir, the gods Heimdallr and Ullr have been theorized as potential members of the group. In the Prose Edda, a name listed for boars is Van-child and they have speculated whether the Vanir originally represented pre-Indo-European deities or Indo-European fertility gods, and have theorized a form of the gods as venerated by the pagan Anglo-Saxons. Numerous theories have proposed for the etymology of Vanir. Page says that, while there are no shortages of etymologies for the word, it is tempting to link the word with Old Norse vinr, friend, and Latin Venus, goddess of physical love. In the Poetic Edda, the Vanir, as a group, are referenced in the poems Völuspá, Vafþrúðnismál, Skírnismál, Þrymskviða. In Vafþrúðnismál, Gagnráðr engages in a game of wits with the jötunn Vafþrúðnir, Gagnráðr asks Vafþrúðnir where the Van god Njörðr came from, for though he rules over many hofs and hörgrs, Njörðr was not raised among the Æsir. Vafþrúðnir responds that Njörðr was created in Vanaheimr by wise powers and details that during the Æsir–Vanir War, in addition, when the world ends, Njörðr will return to the wise Vanir. Alvíssmál consists of question and answer exchanges between the dwarf Alvíss and the god Thor, in the poem, Alvíss supplies terms that various groups, including the Vanir, use to refer to various subjects. Alvíss attributes nine terms to the Vanir, one for Earth, Heaven, clouds, calm, the sea, fire, wood, seed, the poem Þrymskviða states that the god Heimdallr possesses foreknowledge, as the Vanir also can. Sigrdrífumál records that the Vanir are in possession of a sacred mead, in the poem, the valkyrie Sigrdrífa provides mystical lore about runes to the hero Sigurd. Sigrdrífa notes that runes were carved on to various creatures, deities and other figures. This mead is possessed by the Æsir, the elves, mankind, in Skírnismál, the beautiful jötunn Gerðr first encounters the god Freyrs messenger Skírnir, and asks him if he is of the elves, of the Æsir, or of the wise Vanir. Skírnir responds that he is not of any of the three groups, later in the poem, Skírnir is successful in his threats against Gerðr, and Gerðr offers Skírnir a crystal cup full of mead, noting that she never thought that she would love one of the Vanir
Vanir
–
Freja by
John Bauer (1882–1918).
Vanir
–
The sun shining behind them, the Vanir god
Freyr stands with his boar
Gullinbursti (1901) by
Johannes Gehrts.
Vanir
–
Flanked by her boar
Hildisvini, the Vanr goddess
Freyja (right) (1895) by
Lorenz Frølich.
Vanir
–
A
wild boar in Northern Europe. In the Prose Edda, "Van-child" is listed as a name for boars. Both Freyja and Freyr are attested as accompanied by boars.
13.
Freyja
–
In Norse mythology, Freyja is a goddess associated with love, sex, beauty, fertility, gold, seiðr, war, and death. Along with her brother Freyr, her father Njörðr, and her mother, stemming from Old Norse Freyja, modern forms of the name include Freya, Freyia, and Freja. Freyja rules over her heavenly afterlife field Fólkvangr and there receives half of those that die in battle, whereas the other half go to the god Odins hall, within Fólkvangr is her hall, Sessrúmnir. Freyjas husband, the god Óðr, is frequently absent and she cries tears of red gold for him, and searches for him under assumed names. Freyja has numerous names, including Gefn, Hörn, Mardöll, Sýr, Valfreyja, Freyjas name appears in numerous place names in Scandinavia, with a high concentration in southern Sweden. Various plants in Scandinavia once bore her name, but it was replaced with the name of the Virgin Mary during the process of Christianization, rural Scandinavians continued to acknowledge Freyja as a supernatural figure into the 19th century, and Freyja has inspired various works of art. The name Freyja is transparently lady and ultimately derives from Proto-Germanic *frawōn, Freyja is cognate with, for example, Old Saxon frūa lady, mistress and Old High German frouwa. The theonym Freyja is thus considered to have been an epithet in origin, in the Poetic Edda, Freyja is mentioned or appears in the poems Völuspá, Grímnismál, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Oddrúnargrátr, and Hyndluljóð. Völuspá contains a stanza that mentions Freyja, referring to her as Óðs girl, Freyja being the wife of her husband, the stanza recounts that Freyja was once promised to an unnamed builder, later revealed to be a jötunn and subsequently killed by Thor. In the poem Grímnismál, Odin tells the young Agnar that every day Freyja allots seats to half of those that are slain in her hall Fólkvangr, while Odin owns the other half. In the poem Lokasenna, where Loki accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity and/or unfaithfulness, the introduction to the poem notes that among other gods and goddesses, Freyja attends a celebration held by Ægir. Loki tells her to be silent, and says that he knows all about her—that Freyja is not lacking in blame, for each of the gods and elves in the hall have been her lover. She says that Loki is lying, that he is just looking to blather about misdeeds, and since the gods and goddesses are furious at him, he can expect to go home defeated. Loki tells Freyja to be silent, calls her a malicious witch, Njörðr interjects—he says that a woman having a lover other than her husband is harmless, and he points out that Loki has borne children, and calls Loki a pervert. The poem Þrymskviða features Loki borrowing Freyjas cloak of feathers and Thor dressing up as Freyja to fool the lusty jötunn Þrymr, in the poem, Thor wakes up to find that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir, is missing. Thor tells Loki of his hammer, and the two go to the beautiful court of Freyja. Thor asks Freyja if she will lend him her cloak of feathers, Freyja agrees, Loki flies away in the whirring feather cloak, arriving in the land of Jötunheimr. He spies Þrymr sitting on top of a mound, Þrymr reveals that he has hidden Thors hammer deep within the earth and that no one will ever know where the hammer is unless Freyja is brought to him as his wife
Freyja
–
Nuzzled by her boar
Hildisvíni, Freyja gestures to a jötunn in an illustration (1895) by
Lorenz Frølich
Freyja
–
Freya (1882) by
Carl Emil Doepler
Freyja
–
Freyja and Loki
flyte in an illustration (1895) by Lorenz Frølich
Freyja
–
While Freyja's cats look on, the god
Thor is unhappily dressed as Freyja in Ah, what a lovely maid it is! (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith
14.
Norse dwarves
–
In Germanic mythology, a dwarf is a being that dwells in mountains and in the earth, and is variously associated with wisdom, smithing, mining, and crafting. Dwarfs are often described as short and ugly, although some scholars have questioned whether this is a later development stemming from comical portrayals of the beings. The concept of the dwarf has had influence in popular culture. The modern English noun dwarf descends from the Old English dweorg and it has a variety of cognates in other Germanic languages, including Old Norse dvergr and Old High German twerg. According to Vladimir Orel, the English noun and its cognates ultimately descend from Proto-Germanic *đwerȝaz, beyond the Proto-Germanic reconstruction, the etymology of the word dwarf is highly contested. Competing etymologies include a basis in the Indo-European root *dheur-, the Indo-European root *dhreugh, modern English has two plurals for the word dwarf, dwarfs and dwarves. Dwarfs remains the most commonly employed plural, regarding the plural, Tolkien wrote in 1937, I am afraid it is just a piece of private bad grammar, rather shocking in a philologist, but I shall have to go with it. Norse mythology provides different mythical origins for the beings, as recorded in the Poetic Edda, the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá details that the dwarfs were the product of the primordial blood of the being Brimir and the bones of Bláinn. The Prose Edda, however, describes dwarfs as beings similar to maggots that festered in the flesh of Ymir before being gifted with reason by the gods. The Poetic Edda and Prose Edda contain over 100 dwarf names, while the Prose Edda gives the four dwarfs Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri a cosmological role, they hold up the sky. In addition, scholars have noted that the Svartálfar appear to be the same beings as dwarfs, one dwarf named Alvíss claimed the hand of Thors daughter Þrúðr in marriage, but he was kept talking until daybreak and turned to stone, much like some accounts of trolls. After the Christianization of the Germanic peoples, tales of dwarfs continued to be told in the folklore of areas of Europe where Germanic languages were spoken, in the late legendary sagas, dwarfs demonstrate skill in healing as well as in smithing. In the early Norse sources, there is no mention of their short, in the legendary sagas, however, they are small. Anatoly Liberman suggests that dwarfs may have originally been thought of as supernatural beings. Old Norse dwarf names include Fullangr and Hár, whereas Anglo-Saxon glosses use dweorg to render Latin terms such as nanus and pygmaeus, dwarfs in folklore are usually described as old men with long beards. Female dwarfs are hardly ever mentioned, however, in the Swedish ballad Herr Peder och Dvärgens Dotter, the role of supernatural temptress is played by a dwarfs daughter. The Anglo-Saxon charm Wið Dweorh appears to relate to sleep disturbances, in the Old English Herbal, it translates Latin verrucas, warts. Lotte Motz theorized that the Germanic dwarfs, particularly as smiths and gatekeepers, there were seven dwarfs in the Brothers Grimms fairy tale Snow White
Norse dwarves
–
Two dwarfs as depicted in a 19th-century edition of the
Poetic Edda poem
Völuspá (1895) by
Lorenz Frølich.
Norse dwarves
–
Beings
15.
Mythology
–
Mythology refers variously to the collected myths of a group of people or to the study of such myths. Myths are the people tell to explain nature, history. Myth is a feature of every culture, mythologizing continues, as shown in contemporary mythopoeia such as urban legends and the expansive fictional mythoi created by fantasy novels and comics. A cultures collective mythology helps convey belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioral models, the study of myth began in ancient history. Rival classes of the Greek myths by Euhemerus, Plato and Sallustius were developed by the Neoplatonists, the nineteenth-century comparative mythology reinterpreted myth as a primitive and failed counterpart of science, a disease of language, or a misinterpretation of magical ritual. Recent approaches often view myths as manifestations of psychological, cultural, or societal truths, the term mythology predates the word myth by centuries. It first appeared in the fifteenth-century, borrowed from the Middle French term mythologie, the word mythology, comes from Middle French mythologie, from Late Latin mythologia, from Greek μυθολογία mythología from μῦθος mythos and -λογία -logia. The word mythología appears in Plato, but was used as a term for fiction or story-telling of any kind, combining mỹthos. From Lydgate until the seventeenth or eighteenth-century, mythology was similarly used to mean a moral, fable, from its earliest use in reference to a collection of traditional stories or beliefs, mythology implied the falsehood of the stories being described. It came to be applied by analogy with similar bodies of traditional stories among other cultures around the world. The Greek loanword mythos and Latinate mythus both appeared in English before the first example of myth in 1830, in present use, mythology usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths. For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures, dundes defined myth as a sacred narrative that explains how the world and humanity evolved into their present form. Lincoln defined myth as ideology in narrative form, scholars in other fields use the term myth in varied ways. In a broad sense, the word can refer to any traditional story, due to this pejorative sense, some scholars opted for the term mythos. Its use was similarly pejorative and now commonly refers to its Aristotelian sense as a plot point or to a collective mythology. The term is distinguished from didactic literature such as fables. Main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods or supernatural humans, however, many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid. Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and are linked to religion or spirituality
Mythology
–
Prometheus (1868) by
Gustave Moreau. In the mythos of
Hesiodus and possibly
Aeschylus (the
Greek trilogy
Prometheus Bound,
Prometheus Unbound and
Prometheus Pyrphoros), Prometheus is bound and tortured for giving fire to humanity at its creation.
Mythology
–
1929
Belgian banknote, depicting
Ceres,
Neptune and
caduceus.
Mythology
–
Fu Xi and
Nüwa represented as half-snake, half-human creatures
16.
Magic sword
–
A magic sword is any mythological or fictional sword imbued with magical power to increase its strength or grant it other supernatural qualities. The archetype originated in myth and legend, and occurs regularly in fantasy fiction, renowned swords appear in the folklore of every nation that used swords. Sometimes the sword is ascribed no powers of its own and it is famous because it is the heros sword, or because of its origin, as when a god gives it to the hero. Other swords keep their wielders safe or destroy their enemies, a more localized motif is the sword that has been broken and must be reforged, commonly found in Northern Europe. Such a sword symbolizes the defeat and loss of honor of its wielder. Subsequent victory and the restoration of honor is achieved by reforging it and it is probable that the roots of the sentient weapon myths stem from ancient peoples belief that sword making and metallurgy was in fact a magical process. Through the fires of the forge a lump of earth was transformed into a shiny usable object that could be hammered into many shapes. Extending further from the transformation of ore into metal, the difficulty of obtaining a quality blade. While any blacksmith could manufacture a knife or an axehead only a swordsmith could create a high quality sword, the secrets of doing so were jealously guarded as well as formulas for alloys. A few degrees too hot or too cold within a limited temperature range. A lack of expertise in knowing when and how to apply carbon and flux, thus the swordsmith almost felt like he was one with his work, giving the process his complete devotion of concentration and thought. This led to the belief that he was actually imbuing the blade with an essence of his spirit, One would only have to see how they are referenced within the Holy Books of Christians, Jews and Muslims to make this point evident. The Vikings prized their swords above all things, handing them down from generation to generation. The value of the blade was not only determined by its quality, polynesian people such as the Māori also had comparable reverence for their weapons. They believed a weapon contained a force called mana and that the weapon held the spirits of its maker, its line of owners. These weapons where highly prized for their mana and cherished as heirlooms, the Samurai of Japan believed that their swords had their own soul that could possess them. It was not the wielder but their swords that desired to kill, since most of them were Buddhists, that train of thought gave them some peace of mind in their killing vocation. Magic swords may exhibit various degrees of sentience, from being influenced by the wielder to being able to think for itself or even control its owner
Magic sword
–
Faroe stamp by
Anker Eli Petersen depicting the magical sword
Gram
Magic sword
–
Ahimelech giving the sword of Goliath to David, by
Aert de Gelder.
Magic sword
–
"Excalibur the Sword" Illustration of Arthur receiving it from the Lady of the Lake, by
Howard Pyle for The Story of King Arthur and his Knights.
Magic sword
–
"Sigmund's Sword" (1889) by Johannes Gehrts.
17.
Antler
–
Antlers are extensions of the skull grown by members of the deer family. They are not true bone structures but they grow in symmetrical pairs. In many temperate species, antlers are shed and regrow each year. Antler comes from the Old French antoillier possibly from some form of an unattested Latin word *anteocularis, the ancestors of deer had tusks. Antlers are usually only on males. Only reindeer have antlers on the females, and these are smaller than those of the males. Nevertheless, fertile does from other species of deer have the capacity to produce antlers on occasion, the horns of a pronghorn meet some of the criteria of antlers, but are not considered true antlers because they contain keratin. Each antler grows from an attachment point on the skull called a pedicle, while an antler is growing, it is covered with highly vascular skin called velvet, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone. Antlers are considered one of the most exaggerated cases of secondary sexual traits in the animal kingdom. Growth occurs at the tip, and is initially cartilage, which is replaced by bone tissue. Once the antler has achieved its full size, the velvet is lost and this dead bone structure is the mature antler. In most cases, the bone at the base is destroyed by osteoclasts, in most arctic and temperate-zone species, antler growth and shedding is annual, and is controlled by the length of daylight. Although the antlers are regrown each year, their size varies with the age of the animal in many species, increasing annually over several years before reaching maximum size. In tropical species, antlers may be shed at any time of year, some equatorial deer never shed their antlers. Antlers function as weapons in combats between males, which cause serious wounds, and as dominance and sexual displays. The principal means of evolution of antlers is sexual selection, which operates via two mechanisms, male-to-male competition and female mate choice, male-male competition can take place in two forms. Males with the largest antlers are more likely to obtain mates and achieve the highest fertilization success due to their competitiveness, dominance and high phenotypic quality. Whether this is a result of fighting or display, or of female choosiness differs depending on the species as the shape, size
Antler
–
An antler on a
red deer stag. Velvet covers a growing antler, providing blood flow that supplies oxygen and nutrients.
Antler
–
Male
fallow deer fighting
Antler
–
Increasing size of antlers year on year in different European game species
Antler
–
Mature
red deer stag
18.
Surtr
–
In Norse mythology, Surtr is a jötunn. Surtr is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from traditional sources. Surtr has been the subject of names and artistic depictions. Surtr is mentioned twice in the poem Völuspá, where a völva divulges information to the god Odin. The next stanza relates that Odin is to be killed by the wolf Fenrir, and that Surtr will go to battle against Belis bane, a kenning for the god Freyr, no further detail is given about the fight between Surtr and Freyr in the poem. In the poem Vafþrúðnismál, the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir poses the question to Odin what the plain is called where in battle Surt, Odin responds that the ordained field is Vígríðr, and that it stretches a hundred leagues in every direction. Later in the poem, Odin, still disguised and now questioning Vafþrúðnir, Vafþrúðnir responds that, when Surts fire is slaked the god Thors sons Móði and Magni shall possess Thors hammer Mjöllnir. In the poem Fáfnismál, the hero Sigurd asks the mortally wounded dragon Fáfnir the name of the island where Surtr, the late Eddic poem Fjölsvinnsmál, stanza 24, contains the line Surtur sinn mautu or surtur sinn mantu according to the best manuscripts. The last two words, which are otherwise without meaning, are sometimes emended to Sinmöru and the phrase is taken to mean that Surtr has a female companion named Sinmara. Based on the passage, Lee Hollander tentatively identifies Sinmara as Surts wife. In chapter 4 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, the figure of Third tells Gangleri about the location of Múspell. Third says that the bright and flaming region of Múspell existed prior to Niflheim, to defend Múspell, Surtr is stationed at its frontier. Third adds that Surtr has a sword, and that at the end of the world he will go and wage war and defeat all the gods. The stanza from Völuspá that foretells Surtr moving from the south is then quoted, in chapter 18, Gangleri asks what will protect the fair hall Gimlé when Surtrs fire burns heaven and earth. In chapter 51 of Gylfaginning, High describes the events of Ragnarök, High says that amid this turmoil the sky will open and from it will ride the sons of Muspell. Surtr will ride in front, and both before and behind him there will be burning fire and his sword will be very fine. Light will shine from it more brightly than from the sun, High continues that when the sons of Múspell ride over the bridge Bifröst it will break, and that they will continue to the field of Vígríðr. The wolf Fenrir and the Midgard Serpent will also arrive there, by then, Loki will have arrived with all of Hels people, Hrym, and all of the frost jötnar, but Muspells sons will have their own battle array, it will be very bright
Surtr
–
The Devil Giant with the Flaming Sword (1909) by
John Charles Dollman
Surtr
–
Surtr with the Flaming Sword (1882) by F. W. Heine, based on a plaster frieze designed by Friedrich Wilhelm Engelhard (1859)
Surtr
–
Battle of the Doomed Gods (1882) by
Friedrich Wilhelm Heine
Surtr
–
The battle between Surtr and Freyr at Ragnarök, illustration (1895) by
Lorenz Frølich
19.
Heathenry (new religious movement)
–
Heathenry, also termed Heathenism or Germanic Neopaganism, is a modern Pagan religion. Classified as a new movement, its practitioners model their faith on the pre-Christian belief systems adhered to by the Germanic peoples of Iron Age. To reconstruct these past belief systems, Heathenry uses surviving historical, archaeological, although lacking a unified theology, Heathenry is typically polytheistic, centering on a pantheon of deities from pre-Christian Germanic Europe which includes both gods and goddesses. It adopts cosmological views from these religions, including an animistic view of the cosmos in which the natural world is imbued with spirits. The faiths deities and these spirits are honored in sacrificial rites known as blóts in which food and these are often accompanied by symbel, the act of ceremonially toasting the gods with an alcoholic beverage. Heathen ethical systems place great emphasis on honor, personal integrity, a central division within the Heathen movement surrounds the issue of race. Many groups eschew racialist ideas, adopting a universalist perspective which holds that the religion is open to all, some folkish Heathens further combine the religion with explicitly racist and white supremacist perspectives. Although the term Heathenry is used widely to describe the religion as a whole, many groups prefer different forms of designation, influenced by their regional focus and their attitude to race. While a number of groups venerating Scandinavian deities use Ásatrú or Forn Sed, the religions origins lie in the 19th and early 20th century Romanticist movement which glorified the pre-Christian beliefs of Germanic societies. In the 1970s, new Heathen groups emerged in Europe and North America, in recent decades, the Heathen movement has been the subject of academic study by scholars active in the field of Pagan studies. Scholarly estimates put the number of Heathens at no more than 20,000 worldwide, with communities of practitioners being active in Europe, North America, scholars of religious studies classify Heathenry as a new religious movement, and more specifically as a reconstructionist form of modern Paganism. Heathenry is a movement to revive and/or reinterpret for the present day the practices, practitioners seek to revive these past belief systems by using surviving historical source materials. Some Heathens also adopt ideas from the evidence of pre-Christian Northern Europe and from recorded folk tales. Some, for instance, adapt their practices according to unverified personal gnosis that they have gained through spiritual experiences, conversely, others draw inspiration from the beliefs and practices of a specific geographical area and chronological period within Germanic Europe, such as Anglo-Saxon England or Viking Age Iceland. The anthropologist Murphy Pizza suggested that Heathenry could be understood as an example of what the historian Eric Hobsbawm termed an invented tradition, no central religious authority exists to impose a particular terminological designation on all practitioners. Academics studying the religion have typically favoured the terms Heathenry and Heathenism to describe it and this term is the most commonly used option by practitioners in the United Kingdom, with growing usage in North America and elsewhere. Many practitioners favor the term Heathen over Pagan because the term originated among Germanic languages. A further term used in academic contexts is Germanic Neopaganism
Heathenry (new religious movement)
–
A modern reconstruction of a historical
Viking Age pendant worn by North Germanic pagans in the Viking Age—
Mjölnir, the hammer of the god
Thor —now popularly worn in modern Germanic Neopaganism
Heathenry (new religious movement)
–
Outdoor temporary altar of the
Swedish Forn Sed Association.
Heathenry (new religious movement)
–
Icelandic Heathen rite at Sigurblót 2009
Heathenry (new religious movement)
–
Many followers of Germanic Neopaganism venerate the Æsir, deities found in Norse mythology. Here, they are pictured gathered around the body of
Baldur. Painting by
Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, 1817
20.
Adam of Bremen
–
Adam of Bremen was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the half of the eleventh century. He is most famous for his chronicle Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from Meissen in Saxony, the dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 October of an unknown year. From his chronicles it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors, the honorary name of Magister Adam shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the Magdeburger Domschule, in 1066 or 1067 he was invited by archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg to join the Church of Bremen. Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the cathedrals school, soon thereafter he began to write the history of Bremen/Hamburg and of the northern lands in his Gesta. His position and the activity of the church of Bremen allowed him to gather information on the history. A stay at the court of Svend Estridson gave him the opportunity to find information about the history and geography of Denmark, among other things he wrote about in Scandinavia, includes the sailing passages across Øresund such as todays Elsinore to Helsingborg route Chłopacka Hanna, Adam Bremeński. Literature by and about Adam of Bremen in the German National Library catalogue Adamus Bremensis, repertorium Historical Sources of the German Middle Ages
Adam of Bremen
–
Beginning of Book 1 in the Vienna manuscript (
Codex Vindobonensis 521, fol. 3r).
Adam of Bremen
–
First page of the descriptio insularum aquilonis in the Vienna manuscript (Codex Vindobonensis 521, fol. 69v).
21.
Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
–
Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum is a historical treatise written between 1073 and 1076 by Adam of Bremen, who made additions to the text until his death. It is one of the most important sources of the history of Northern Europe. It covers the period known as the Viking Age, from the foundation of the bishopric under Willehad in 788 until the rule of prince-bishop Adalbert in Adams own time. The text focuses on the history of the Hamburg-Bremen diocese and its bishops, as the bishops had jurisdiction over the missions to Scandinavia, it also gives a report of the Norse paganism of the period. The existence of the work was forgotten in the medieval period, until it was re-discovered in the late 16th century in the library of Sorø Abbey. It covers the relations between Saxons, Wends and Danes, the third book is focussed on the biography of archbishop Adalbert of Bremen. Adam based his works in part on Einhard, Cassiodorus, and other earlier historians, the text as presented to bishop Liemar was completed in 1075/1076. The historical context is Bremens position as a trading town. After the death of Bishop Leuderich, the see was given to Ansgar, it lost its independence, thor, they say, presides over the air, which governs the thunder and lightning, the winds and rains, fair weather crops. The other, Wotan – that is, Fury – carries on war, the third is Frikko, who bestows peace and pleasure on mortals. His likeness, too, they fashion with an immense phallus, the fourth book describes the geography of Scandinavia and the Baltic region. It mentions numerous episcopal seats and churches, including Meldorf, Schenefeld, Verden, Pahlen, Ratzeburg, Mecklenburg, Oldenburg in Holstein, Adam of Bremen had been at the court of Danish king Sven Estridson and was informed about the Viking discoveries in the North Atlantic there. Adam is believed to have come from Meissen in Saxony and he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 October of an unknown year. From his chronicles it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors, the honorary name of Magister Adam shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the Magdeburger Domschule, in 1066 or 1067 he was invited by archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg to join the Church of Bremen. Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the cathedrals school, soon thereafter he began to write the history of Hamburg-Bremen and of the northern lands in his Gesta. His position and the activity of the church of Bremen allowed him to gather information on the history. A stay at the court of Svend Estridson gave him the opportunity to find information about the history and geography of Denmark, none of the three archetypes has been preserved
Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
–
Beginning of Book 1 in the Vienna manuscript (
Codex Vindobonensis 521, fol. 3r).
Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
–
First page of the descriptio insularum aquilonis in the Vienna manuscript (Codex Vindobonensis 521, fol. 69v).
22.
Latinized name
–
Latinisation is the practice of rendering a non-Latin name in a Latin style. It is commonly found with personal names, with toponyms. It goes further than romanisation, which is the transliteration of a word to the Latin alphabet from another script and this was often done in the classical era for much the same reason as English-speaking cultures produce English versions of some foreign names. In the case of names in the post-Roman era this may be done to emulate Latin authors. In a scientific context, the purpose of Latinisation may be to produce a name which is internationally consistent. Humanist names, assumed by Renaissance humanists, were very largely Latinised names, Latinisation in humanist names may consist of translation from vernacular European languages, sometimes involving a playful element of punning. Such names could be a cover for social origins. Latinisation is a practice for scientific names. For example, Livistona, the name of a genus of trees, is a Latinisation of Livingstone. In English, place names appear in Latinised form. This is a result of many text books mentioning the places being written in Latin. Because of this, the English language often uses Latinised forms of place names instead of anglicised forms or the original names. Examples of Latinised names for countries or regions are, Estonia Ingria Livonia During the age of the Roman Empire, additionally, Latinised versions of Greek substantives, particularly proper nouns, could easily be declined by Latin speakers with minimal modification of the original word. During the medieval period, following the collapse of the Empire in Western Europe, in the early medieval period, most European scholars were priests and most educated people spoke Latin, and as a result, Latin became firmly established as the scholarly language for the West. Though during modern times Europe has largely abandoned Latin as a scholarly language, by tradition, it is still common in some fields to name new discoveries in Latin. Romanization, conversion of a text in Latin letters Nicolson, Dan H, orthography of Names and Epithets, Latinization of Personal Names
Latinized name
–
Frontispiece of a 1743 legal text by
Barnabé Brisson shows his name Latinised in the genitive Barnabae Brissonii (‘of Barnabas Brissonius ’)
23.
Cult image
–
In the practice of religion, a cult image is a human-made object that is venerated or worshipped for the deity, spirit or daemon that it embodies or represents. Cultus, the outward religious formulas of cult, often centers upon the treatment of cult images, religious images cover a wider range of all types of images made with a religious purpose, subject, or connection. In many contexts cult image specifically means the most important image in a temple, kept in an inner space, as opposed to what may be many other images decorating the temple. The term idol is often synonymous with cult image, but may be used especially of an image believed not just to depict or represent a deity or spirit. Sometimes the image is believed to have its own powers, to grant wishes or otherwise affect the world, in cultures where idolatry is not viewed negatively, the word idol is not generally seen as pejorative, such as in Indian English. Cult of images is the practice of worshipping or venerating religious or cult images representing divine figures, common in a number of ancient religions, the practice continues most prominently today in Hinduism. Assertions by others outside the group concerned that such beliefs are held by the group are however common. Cult images were a presence in Ancient Egypt, and still are in modern-day Kemetism. A common example of an image in ancient Egypt was the Apis Bull. The term is confined to the relatively small images, typically in gold. These images usually showed the god in their sacred barque or boat, the Parthenon contained a cult image of Athena, the Greek goddess of civilization and the noble side of war. This cult image, known as Athena Parthenos, was created by Phidias and this cult image was used for religious sacrifices at this Athenian temple. Hinduism allows for many forms of worship and therefore it neither prescribes nor proscribes worship of images, in Hinduism, a murti typically refers to an image that expresses a Divine Spirit. Meaning literally embodiment, a murti is a representation of a divinity, made usually of stone, wood, or metal, hindus consider a murti worthy of serving as a focus of divine worship only after the divine is invoked in it for the purpose of offering worship. The depiction of the divinity must reflect the gestures and proportions outlined in religious tradition, members of Abrahamic religions identify cult images as idols and their worship as idolatry, the worship of hollow forms. The avoidance of such a degrading paradox was expressed in the early Christian idea of miraculous icons that were not made by human hands, acheiropoietoi. Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians make an exception for the veneration of image of saints, the word idol entered Middle English in the 13th century from Old French idole adapted in Ecclesiastical Latin from the Greek eidolon. Greek eidos was employed by Plato and the Platonists to signify perfect immutable forms, the local tribes, of the Arabian peninsula, came to this centre of commerce to place their idols in the Kaaba, in the process being charged tithes
Cult image
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African Songye Power Figure
Cult image
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Vermilion on a stone is a common form of a Hindu
murti
Cult image
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A fanciful reconstruction of
Phidias '
Statue of Zeus at Olympia, 1572
Cult image
–
A clay
Ganesha murti, worshipped during
Ganesh Chaturthi festival.
24.
Skara
–
Skara is a locality and the seat of Skara Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden with 18,580 inhabitants in 2013. Despite its small size, it is one of the oldest cities in Sweden, one of Swedens oldest high schools, Katedralskolan, is situated in Skara. Skara is located by the E20 motorway, about 130 km northeast of Gothenburg and its proximity to Kattegat and lake Vänern contributes to summers being slightly cooler than areas to the north-east, and winter temperatures mostly hover around the freezing point. According to local legend, Skara was founded in AD988 and it was one of only two cities in what was to become Västergötland, the other being Lödöse. Skara was the location for the assembly, the Thing of all Geats. With the Christianization of Sweden, around 1000 AD, Skara became the seat for the bishop, there have been bishops of Skara in an unbroken succession to this day. Many important assemblies were held in Skara in medieval times, examples include the important Swedish chancellor meeting in 1326. A meeting of Swedish, Danish and Norwegians in 1458, decided upon the later Kalmar Union, in the ensuing medieval centuries, monasteries and other churches were completed in the town. The first monastery was for the Dominican order, called the monastery of Saint Olaf, opened in 1234, the foundations of the Skara Cathedral are believed to stem from around 1050. The current cathedral was inaugurated in 1150, but findings during the last 50 years show it must be at least a century older and its current appearance, however, stems from renovations in the 1880s by Helgo Zettervall, who also renovated the Cathedral of Uppsala. Medieval artifacts have been found in or near the Skara cathedral, a chalice from bishop Adalvard the Elder, dead in 1064, was found in his grave in the 18th century. For a while the Adalvardskalken was used in the Holy Communion, some 44 pages of a book containing texts and hymns of 11th-century Catholic rituals, the Skara Missal, is held and exhibited in Skara. Other ancient objects have found during excavations of the monasteries and churches. There is a branch of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences in Skara, there are several music and entertainment artists in Skara, giving it a notable spot among the cities. The Skara Sommarland is an amusement park with a reputation well known throughout the nation. Most notable is its park with water chutes, artificial rafts. The official museum of Västergötland is in Skara, radviliškis, Lithuania Diocese of Skara Norra Härene Runestone Nordisk Familjebok, see link below. Skara Tourist Office Skara - Official site Skara, in Nordisk familjebok
Skara
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Skara Cathedral
Skara
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Skara Cathedral in central Skara, 2005
25.
Egino (Bishop of Dalby)
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Egino was the only bishop of Dalby in Scania, from 1060 to 1066. He was ordained by archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg-Bremen, thereby all of Terra Scania was subordinated to Hamburg-Bremen. Egino initiated the erection of a church in Dalby, the first in Scandinavia. Egino is also known as a missionary in Bornholm and Blekinge. Adam of Bremen Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
Egino (Bishop of Dalby)
–
Sculpture of Egino in Dalby Heligkorskyrka
26.
Temple at Uppsala
–
In Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, Adam of Bremen provides a description of the temple. Adam records that a famous temple called Ubsola exists in a town close to Sigtuna. Adam details that the temple is adorned with gold and that the people there worship statues of three gods that sit on a triple throne. Thor, whom Adam refers to as the mightiest, sits in the throne, while Wodan. Adam adds that, in addition, they also worship gods who were once men, Adam says that the three gods have a priest appointed to them each who offer up sacrifices to the deities from the people. If famine or plague occurs, a sacrifice is made to Thor, if there is war, a sacrifice is made to Wodan, if a marriage is to be held, a sacrifice is made to Fricco. Adam details sacrificial practices held at the temple, Adam describes that nine males of every living creature are offered up for sacrifice, the corpses of the nine males are hung within the grove beside the temple. Adam reveals that one Christian informed him that he had seen seventy-two cadavers of differing species hanging within the grove. Adam expresses disgust at the songs they sing during these sacrificial rites, quipping that the songs are so many, Adam describes that near the temple stands a massive tree with far-spreading branches, which is evergreen both in summer and winter. At the tree is also a spring where sacrifices are also held, according to Adam, a custom exists where a man, alive, is thrown into the spring, and if he fails to return to the surface, the wish of the people will be fulfilled. Adam writes that a golden chain surrounds the temple that hangs from the gables of the building, the chain is very visible to those approaching the temple from a distance due to the landscape where the temple was built, it is surrounded by hills, like an amphitheatre. The feasts and sacrifices continue for a total of nine days, therefore, in a total of nine days twenty-seven sacrifices occur, and, Adam notes, these sacrifices occur about the time of the spring equinox. Simek says that details of Adams accounts have cited as potentially influenced by the description of Solomons Temple in the Old Testament. Orchard states that it is unclear to what extent Adams description has a basis in fact rather than lurid fiction yet that Adams account contains a good deal of useful information. In the Ynglinga saga compiled in Heimskringla, Snorri presents an origin of the Norse gods. In chapter 5, Snorri asserts that the æsir settled in what is now Sweden, Snorri writes that Odin took up his residence at the Maelare lake, at the place now called Old Sigtun. There he erected a temple, where there were sacrifices according to the customs of the Asaland people. He appropriated to himself the whole of district, and called it Sigtun
Temple at Uppsala
–
A woodcut depicting the Temple at Uppsala as described by
Adam of Bremen, including the golden chain around the temple, the well and the tree, from
Olaus Magnus '
Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (1555).
Temple at Uppsala
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Yngvi-Freyr constructs the Temple at Uppsala (1830) by Hugo Hamilton
Temple at Uppsala
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Gamla Uppsala, the centre of worship in Sweden until the temple was destroyed in the late 11th century.
27.
Thor
–
In Norse mythology, Thor is a hammer-wielding god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, the protection of mankind, and also hallowing and fertility. The cognate deity in wider Germanic mythology and paganism was known in Old English as Þunor and in Old High German as Donar, into the modern period, Thor continued to be acknowledged in rural folklore throughout Germanic regions. Thor is frequently referred to in place names, the day of the week Thursday bears his name, in Norse mythology, largely recorded in Iceland from traditional material stemming from Scandinavia, numerous tales and information about Thor are provided. With Sif, Thor fathered the goddess Þrúðr, with Járnsaxa, he fathered Magni, with a mother whose name is not recorded, he fathered Móði, and he is the stepfather of the god Ullr. The same sources list Thor as the son of the god Odin and the earth, Jörð. Thor has two servants, Þjálfi and Röskva, rides in a cart or chariot pulled by two goats, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr, and is ascribed three dwellings. Thor wields the mountain-crushing hammer, Mjölnir, wears the belt Megingjörð and the iron gloves Járngreipr, Thor has inspired numerous works of art and references to Thor appear in modern popular culture. Like other Germanic deities, veneration of Thor is revived in the period in Heathenry. The name of the god is the origin of the weekday name Thursday, by employing a practice known as interpretatio germanica during the Roman Empire period, the Germanic peoples adopted the Roman weekly calendar, and replaced the names of Roman gods with their own. Latin dies Iovis was converted into Proto-Germanic *Þonares dagaz, from which stems modern English Thursday, beginning in the Viking Age, personal names containing the theonym Thórr are recorded with great frequency. Prior to the Viking Age, no examples are recorded, thórr-based names may have flourished during the Viking Age as a defiant response to attempts at Christianization, similar to the wide scale Viking Age practice of wearing Thors hammer pendants. They regard it as a duty to offer to him, on fixed days. Hercules and Mars they appease by animal offerings of the permitted kind, in this instance, Tacitus refers to the god Odin as Mercury, Thor as Hercules, and the god Týr as Mars, and the identity of the Isis of the Suebi has been debated. In Thors case, the identification with the god Hercules is likely at least in part due to similarities between Thors hammer and Hercules club. In his Annals, Tacitus again refers to the veneration of Hercules by the Germanic peoples, Donar, the southern Germanic form of the gods name. According to an account, the Christian missionary Saint Boniface felled an oak tree dedicated to Jove in the 8th century. Around the second half of the 8th century, Old English mentions of a figure named Thunor are recorded, gabriel Turville-Petre saw this as an invented origin for the placename demonstrating loss of memory that Thunor had been a gods name. Adam details that Thor, they reckon, rules the sky, he governs thunder and lightning, winds and storms, fine weather and fertility and that Thor, with his mace, looks like Jupiter
Thor
–
Thor's Battle Against the
Jötnar (1872) by
Mårten Eskil Winge
Thor
–
The
Teutoburg Forest in northwestern Germany
Thor
–
Boniface bears his crucifix after felling Thor's Oak in Bonifacius (1905) by
Emil Doepler
Thor
–
16th-century depiction of Norse gods by
Olaus Magnus; from left to right,
Frigg, Thor, and Odin
28.
Woden
–
In Germanic mythology, Odin is a widely revered god. In the modern period, Odin continued to be acknowledged in the folklore of Germanic Europe. Forms of his name appear frequently throughout the Germanic record, though narratives regarding Odin are mainly found in Old Norse works recorded in Iceland and these texts make up the bulk of modern understanding of Norse mythology. In Old Norse texts, Odin is depicted as one-eyed and long-bearded, frequently wielding a spear named Gungnir, and wearing a cloak, Odin is attested as having many sons, most famously the god Baldr with Frigg, and is known by hundreds of names. Odin has an association with Yule, and mankinds knowledge of both the runes and poetry is also attributed to him. In Old Norse texts, Odin is given primacy over female beings associated with the battlefield—the valkyries—and oversees Valhalla, where he receives half of those who die in battle, the other half are chosen by the goddess Freyja for her afterlife location, Fólkvangr. In later folklore, Odin appears as a leader of the Wild Hunt and he has also been associated with charms and other forms of magic, particularly in Old English and Old Norse texts. Odin has been a frequent subject of study in Germanic studies, in the modern period, Odin has inspired numerous works of poetry, music, and other forms of media. He is venerated in most forms of the new religious movement Heathenry, together with other gods venerated by the ancient Germanic peoples, some branches focus particularly on him. The Old Norse theonym Óðinn and its cognates, including Old English Wōden, Old Saxon Wōden, the masculine noun *wōđanaz developed from the Proto-Germanic adjective *wōđaz, related to Latin vātēs and Old Irish fáith, both meaning seer, prophet. Adjectives stemming from *wōđaz include Gothic woþs possessed, Old Norse óðr, mad, frantic, furious, additionally the Old Norse noun æði rage, fury and Old High German wuotī madness derive from the feminine noun *wōđīn, from *wōđaz. Over 170 names are recorded for the god Odin and these names are variously descriptive of attributes of the god, refer to myths involving him, or refer to religious practices associated with the god. This multitude of names makes Odin the god with the most names known among the Germanic peoples, the weekday name Wednesday derives from Old English wōdnesdæg. Cognate terms are found in other Germanic languages, such as Middle Low German wōdensdach, all of these terms derive from Proto-Germanic *Wodensdag, itself a Germanic interpretation of Latin Dies Mercurii. However, in Old High German, the derived from Odins was replaced by a translation of Church Latin media hebdomas. The earliest records of the Germanic peoples were recorded by the Romans and they regard it as a religious duty to offer to him, on fixed days, human as well as other sacrificial victims. Hercules and Mars they appease by animal offerings of the permitted kind, in this instance, Tacitus refers to the god Odin as Mercury, Thor as Hercules, and Týr as Mars, and the identity of the Isis of the Suebi has been debated. But their rankings in their respective religious spheres may have very different
Woden
–
Odin the Wanderer (1896) by
Georg von Rosen
Woden
–
Godan and Frea look down from their window in the heavens to the Winnili women in an illustration by
Emil Doepler, 1905
Woden
–
Winnili women with their hair tied as beards look up at Godan and Frea in an illustration by Emil Doepler, 1905
Woden
–
"Wodan Heals Balder's Horse" by Emil Doepler, 1905
29.
Libation
–
A libation is a ritual pouring of a liquid as an offering to a god or spirit, or in memory of those who have passed on. It was common in many religions of antiquity and continues to be offered in various cultures today, various substances have been used for libations, most commonly wine or olive oil, and in India, ghee. The vessels used in the ritual, including the patera, often had a significant form which differentiated them from secular vessels, the libation could be poured onto something of religious significance, such as an altar, or into the earth. In East Asia, pouring an offering of rice into a stream, symbolises the unattachment from karma. Libation was part of ancient Egyptian society where it was an offering to honor and please the various divinities, sacred ancestors, humans present and not present. It is suggested that libation originated somewhere in the upper Nile Valley and spread out to other regions of Africa, isaiah uses libation as a metaphor when describing the end of the Suffering Servant figure who poured out his life unto death. Libation was a central and vital aspect of ancient Greek religion and it is one of the basic religious acts that define piety in ancient Greece, dating back to the Bronze Age and even prehistoric Greece. Libations were a part of life, and the pious might perform them every day in the morning and evening. A libation most often consisted of mixed wine and water, but could also be unmixed wine, honey, oil, water, the form of libation called spondē is typically the ritualized pouring of wine from a jug or bowl held in the hand. The most common ritual was to pour the liquid from an oinochoē into a phiale, after wine was poured from the phiale, the remainder of the contents was drunk by the celebrant. A libation is poured any time wine is to be drunk, the etiquette of the symposium required that when the first bowl of wine was served, a libation was made to Zeus and the Olympian gods. Heroes received a libation from the second krater served, and Zeus the Finisher from the third, an alternative was to offer a libation from the first bowl to the Agathos Daimon and from the third bowl to Hermes. An individual at the symposium could also make an invocation of, the Greeks stood when they prayed, either with their arms uplifted, or in the act of libation with the right arm extended to hold the phiale. In conducting animal sacrifice, wine is poured onto the victim as part of its ritual slaughter and preparation and this scene is commonly depicted in Greek art, which also often shows sacrificers or the gods themselves holding the phiale. The Greek verb spendō, pour a libation, also conclude a pact, derives from the Indo-European root *spend-, make an offering, perform a rite, the noun is spondē or spondai, libation. In the middle voice, the verb means enter into an agreement, blood sacrifice was performed to begin a war, spondai marked the conclusion of hostilities, and is often thus used in the sense of armistice, treaty. Libations poured onto the earth are meant for the dead and for the chthonic gods, in the Book of the Dead in the Odyssey, Odysseus digs an offering pit around which he pours in order honey, wine and water. For the form of libation called choē, a vessel is tipped over and emptied onto the ground for the chthonic gods
Libation
–
Ancient Roman bronze statuette of a priest, his
head ritually covered, extending a
patera in a gesture of libation.
Libation
–
Buryat shaman performing a libation.
Libation
–
Apollo pouring a libation from a
phiale onto the
omphalos, with his sister
Artemis attending; a
bucranium hangs above
Libation
–
Scene of sacrifice, with a libation poured from a jug (Pothos Painter,
Attic red-figure krater, 430–420 BC)
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