1.
Types of business entity
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A business entity is an entity that is formed and administered as per commercial law in order to engage in business activities, charitable work, or other activities allowable. Most often, business entities are formed to sell a product or a service, there are many types of business entities defined in the legal systems of various countries. These include corporations, cooperatives, partnerships, sole traders, limited liability company, the specific rules vary by country and by state or province. Some of these types are listed below, by country, for guidance, approximate equivalents in the company law of English-speaking countries are given in most cases, ≈ public limited company ≈ Ltd. When creating or restructuring a business, the legal responsibilities will depend on the type of business entity chosen, Shoqëri komandite, ≈ limited partnership Shoqëri kolektive, ≈ general partnership S. A. ≈ plc S. R. L. ≈ Ltd. ≈ limited liability company S. C. S. ≈ limited partnership S. C. p. A, S. E. ≈ state-owned enterprise S. G. R. Inc. restricted to non-profit associations Ltd. ≈ plc. The suffix Ltd. may also be used by a company limited by guarantee. NL, A type of mining, speculative, or research company with no right to call up the issue price of shares. In Australia companies can act as a trustee for a trust, pty. company with a share capital, A company, similar to its limited company counterpart, but where the liability of the members or shareholders is not limited. Gen, ≈ cooperative Privatstiftung, ≈ private foundation Verein, ≈ nonprofit association European business entities e. U. ≈ sole trader, sole proprietorship Kapitalgesellschaften, ≈ companies AG, Incorporated, OG, ≈ general partnership KG, ≈ limited partnership GmbH & Co. KG, KG in which a GmbH is the general partner, EBVBA / SPRLU, single member Ltd. NV / SA, ≈ plc co-operative companies, CVBA / SCRL, ≈ limited liability cooperative CVOA / SCRI, ≈ GmbH k. d. ≈ limited partnership s. p. ≈ Sole proprietorship Sociedade limitada, ≈ Ltd, a private company contains the term Sendirian Berhad or Sdn. Bhd. as part of its name where as for a public company Berhad or Bhd. is used. KD / КД, ≈ limited partnership KDA / КДА, limited partnership with shares SD / СД, ≈ general partnership, ≈ Plc Ltd. ≈ plc PEEC State Company, ≈ plc State Joint Venture Company, ≈ plc Import Export Co. Ltd In Canada entities can be incorporated under federal or provincial law. Unlimited liability corporations can be formed in Alberta AULC and Nova Scotia NSULC, the word or expression Limited, Limitée, Incorporated, Incorporée, Corporation or Société par actions de régime fédéral or the corresponding abbreviation Ltd. Forms part of the name of every entity incorporated under the Canada Business Corporations Act, ≈ Ltd. or Plc As an exception, entities registered prior to 1985 may continue to be designated Société commerciale canadienne or by the abbreviation S. C. C
Types of business entity
2.
Kuala Lumpur
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Kuala Lumpur, officially the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, or more commonly called KL is the national capital of Malaysia as well as its largest city. Being rated as an Alpha world city, Kuala Lumpur is the global city in Malaysia which covers an area of 243 km2 and has an estimated population of 1.73 million as of 2016. Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an agglomeration of 7.25 million people as of 2017. It is among the fastest growing regions in South-East Asia, in terms of population. Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia, the city was once home to the executive and judicial branches of the federal government, but they were moved to Putrajaya in early 1999. Some sections of the judiciary still remain in the city of Kuala Lumpur. The official residence of the Malaysian King, the Istana Negara, is situated in Kuala Lumpur. Kuala Lumpur is the cultural, financial and economic centre of Malaysia due to its position as the capital as well as being a key city. Kuala Lumpur is one of three Federal Territories of Malaysia, enclaved within the state of Selangor, on the central west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Since the 1990s, the city has played host to international sporting, political and cultural events including the 1998 Commonwealth Games. Kuala Lumpur has undergone rapid development in recent decades and it is home to the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers, which have become an iconic symbol of Malaysias futuristic development. Kuala Lumpur means muddy confluence, kuala is the point where two rivers join together or an estuary, and lumpur means mud. One suggestion is that it was named after Sungai Lumpur, it was recorded in 1824 that Sungei Lumpoor was the most important tin-producing settlement up the Klang River. It has also proposed that Kuala Lumpur was originally named Pengkalan Lumpur in the same way that Klang was once called Pengkalan Batu. Another suggestion is that it was initially a Cantonese word lam-pa meaning flooded jungle or decayed jungle, there is however no firm contemporary evidence for these suggestions other than anecdotes. It is also possible that the name is a form of an earlier. It is unknown who founded or named the settlement called Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur was originally a small hamlet of just a few houses and shops at the confluence of Sungai Gombak and Sungai Klang before it grew into a town. The miners landed at Kuala Lumpur and continued their journey on foot to Ampang where the first mine was opened
Kuala Lumpur
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Clockwise from top left:
Petronas Twin Towers,
Petaling Street, Masjid Jamek and
Gombak /
Klang river confluence,
National Monument,
National Mosque, skyline of KL. Centre:
KL Tower
Kuala Lumpur
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Jamek Mosque at the confluence of
Gombak (left) and
Klang (right) rivers. The earliest settlement of Kuala Lumpur developed on the eastern side of the river bank (to the right in this picture).
Kuala Lumpur
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Japanese troops advancing up High Street (now
Jalan Tun H S Lee) in Kuala Lumpur in December 1941 during
World War II.
Kuala Lumpur
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The Majestic Theatre on Pudu Road was an early pioneer in Kuala Lumpur's cinema scene. It was converted into an amusement park in the 1990s and demolished in 2009.
3.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
Malaysia
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"Malaysia" used as a label for the
Malay Archipelago on a 1914 map from a United States atlas
Malaysia
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Flag
Malaysia
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The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the
Dutch–Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control of
Malacca.
Malaysia
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Statue of
Francis Light in the
Fort Cornwallis of Penang, marking the first step of
British expansion in the 18th century over the Malay Archipelago.
4.
Slogan
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The Oxford Dictionary of English defines a slogan as a short and striking or memorable phrase used in advertising. A slogan usually has the attributes of being memorable, very concise and these attributes are necessary in a slogan, as it is only a short phrase. Therefore, it is necessary for slogans to be memorable, as well as concise in what the organisation or brand is trying to say, the word slogan is derived from slogorn which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic and Irish sluagh-ghairm. Slogans vary from the written and the visual to the chanted and their simple rhetorical nature usually leaves little room for detail and a chanted slogan may serve more as social expression of unified purpose than as communication to an intended audience. George E. Shankels research states that, English-speaking people began using the term by 1704, the term at that time meant the distinctive note, phrase or cry of any person or body of persons. Slogans were common throughout the European continent during the Middle Ages, crimmins research suggests that brands are an extremely valuable corporate asset, and can make up a lot of a businesss total value. With this in mind, if we take into consideration Kellers research and these include, name, logo and slogan. Brands names and logos both can be changed by the way the receiver interprets them, therefore, the slogan has a large job in portraying the brand. Therefore, the slogan should create a sense of likability in order for the name to be likable. Dass, Kumar, Kohli, & Thomas research suggests there are certain factors that make up the likability of a slogan. The clarity of the message the brand is trying to encode within the slogan, the slogan emphasizes the benefit of the product or service it is portraying. The creativity of a slogan is another factor that had an effect on the likability of a slogan. Lastly, leaving the name out of the slogan will have a positive effect on the likability of the brand itself. The original usage refers to the usage as a clan motto among Highland clans, marketing slogans are often called taglines in the United States or straplines in the United Kingdom. Europeans use the terms baselines, signatures, claims or pay-offs, sloganeering is a mostly derogatory term for activity which degrades discourse to the level of slogans. Slogans are used to convey a message about the product, service or cause that it is representing and it can have a musical tone to it or written as a song. Slogans are often used to capture the attention of the audience it is trying to reach, if the slogan is used for commercial purposes, often it is written to be memorable/catchy in order for a consumer to associate the slogan with the product it is representing. A slogan is part of the aspect that helps create an image for the product
Slogan
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In 1995,
FDA's assertion of authority to regulate
tobacco drew heavy opposition from the tobacco community, which erupted into lawsuits and slogans urging "Keep FDA Off the Farm."
5.
Alexa Internet
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Alexa Internet, Inc. is a California-based company that provides commercial web traffic data and analytics. It is an owned subsidiary of Amazon. com. Founded as an independent company in 1996, Alexa was acquired by Amazon in 1999 and its toolbar collects data on browsing behavior and transmits them to the Alexa website, where they are stored and analyzed. This is the basis for the web traffic reporting. According to its website, Alexa provides traffic data, global rankings, as of 2015, its website has been visited by over 6.5 million people monthly. Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle, Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited, to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how other sites pointed to it. Alexas operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are crawled and this database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its vision of providing an intelligent search engine. Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003, in May 2006, replaced Google with Bing as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search, built in-house, it was the first major application built on the companys Web platform. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a set of Web services. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexas own servers or elsewhere. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements. In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, Alexa v. Hornbaker, in the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexas servers. Hornbaker removed the term Alexa from his name on March 19,2007. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company, on March 31,2009, Alexa launched a major website redesign
Alexa Internet
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Alexa Internet, Inc.
Alexa Internet
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2014 screenshot of Alexa.com home page
6.
Online advertising
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Consumers view online advertising as an unwanted distraction with few benefits and have increasingly turned to ad blocking for a variety of reasons. It includes email marketing, search marketing, social media marketing, many types of display advertising. In 2011, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television, in 2013, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $42.8 billion, a 17% increase over the $36.57 billion in revenues in 2012. U. S. internet ad revenue hit a high of $20.1 billion for the first half of 2013. Online advertising is used across virtually all industry sectors. Many common online advertising practices are controversial and increasingly subject to regulation, Online ad revenues may not adequately replace other publishers revenue streams. Declining ad revenue has led publishers to hide their content behind paywalls. In early days of the Internet, online advertising was mostly prohibited, for example, two of the predecessor networks to the Internet, ARPANET and NSFNet, had acceptable use policies that banned network use for commercial activities by for-profit institutions. The NSFNet began phasing out its commercial use ban in 1991, the first widely publicized example of online advertising was conducted via electronic mail. On 3 May 1978, a marketer from DEC, Gary Thuerk, sent an email to most of the ARPANETs American west coast users, despite the prevailing acceptable use policies, electronic mail marketing rapidly expanded and eventually became known as spam. The first known large-scale non-commercial spam message was sent on 18 January 1994 by an Andrews University system administrator, by cross-posting a religious message to all USENET newsgroups. Four months later, Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, partners in a law firm, Canter and Siegels Green Card USENET spam raised the profile of online advertising, stimulating widespread interest in advertising via both Usenet and traditional email. More recently, spam has evolved into an industrial operation. Online banner advertising began in the early 1990s as page owners sought additional revenue streams to support their content, commercial online service Prodigy displayed banners at the bottom of the screen to promote Sears products. The first clickable web ad was sold by Global Network Navigator in 1993 to a Silicon Valley law firm, in 1994, web banner advertising became mainstream when HotWired, the online component of Wired Magazine, sold banner ads to AT&T and other companies. The first AT&T ad on HotWired had a 44% click-through rate, and instead of directing clickers to AT&Ts website, goTo. com created the first search advertising keyword auction in 1998. More recently, companies have sought to merge their advertising messages into editorial content or valuable services, examples include Red Bulls Red Bull Media House streaming Felix Baumgartners jump from space online, Coca-Colas online magazines, and Nikes free applications for performance tracking. Advertisers are also embracing social media and mobile advertising, mobile ad spending has grown 90% each year from 2010 to 2013, display advertising conveys its advertising message visually using text, logos, animations, videos, photographs, or other graphics
Online advertising
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Online advertising serving process - simple publisher case
7.
Registered user
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A registered user is a user of a website, program, or other system who has previously registered. Registered users normally provide some sort of credentials to the system in order to prove their identity, systems intended for use by the general public often allow any user to register simply by selecting a register or sign up function and providing these credentials for the first time. Registered users may be granted privileges beyond those granted to unregistered users, user registration and login enables a system to personalize itself. For example, a website might display a welcome banner with the users name, a system could even sell information it has gathered on its users to third parties for advertising or other purposes. Depending on the nature of the system, a user might not have any way of knowing for certain exactly what information is stored, how it is used, the subject of systems transparency in this regard is one of ongoing debate. Registration may also be seen as an annoyance or hindrance, especially if it is not inherently necessary or important or if the system repeatedly prompts users to register. A systems registration process might also be time-consuming or require that the user provide information they might be reluctant to, such as a home address or social security number
Registered user
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An
Opte Project visualization of
routing paths through a portion of the Internet
8.
Social networking service
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Most social network services are web-based and provide means for users to interact over the Internet, such as by e-mail and instant messaging and online forums. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, digital photos and videos, posts, depending on the social media platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In other cases, members can contact anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that contact has a connection to, LinkedIn, a career social networking service, generally requires that a member personally know another member in real life before they contact them online. Some services require members to have a connection to contact other members. The main types of social networking services are those that contain category places, means to connect with friends, there have been attempts to standardize these services to avoid the need to duplicate entries of friends and interests. A study reveals that India has recorded worlds largest growth in terms of media users in 2013. A2013 survey found that 73% of U. S. adults use social networking sites, the variety and evolving range of stand-alone and built-in social networking services in the online space introduces a challenge of definition. Furthermore, the idea that these services are defined by their ability to bring people together provides too broad a definition, such a broad definition would suggest that the telegraph and telephone were social networking services – not the Internet technologies scholars are intending to describe. The terminology is unclear, with some referring to social networking services as social media. The potential for computer networking to facilitate newly improved forms of computer-mediated social interaction was suggested early on, efforts to support social networks via computer-mediated communication were made in many early online services, including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV, and bulletin board services. Many prototypical features of social networking sites were present in online services such as America Online, Prodigy, CompuServe, ChatNet. Early social networking on the World Wide Web began in the form of generalized online communities such as Theglobe. com, Geocities, some communities – such as Classmates. com – took a different approach by simply having people link to each other via email addresses. In the late 1990s, user profiles became a feature of social networking sites, allowing users to compile lists of friends. New social networking methods were developed by the end of the 1990s and it also became one of the first companies to profit from the sale of virtual goods. Friendster was followed by MySpace and LinkedIn a year later, friendster became very popular in the Pacific Islands. Orkut became the first popular social networking service in Brazil and quickly grew in popularity in India, attesting to the rapid increase in social networking sites popularity, by 2005, it was reported that Myspace was getting more page views than Google. Facebook, launched in 2004, became the largest social networking site in the world in early 2009, Facebook was first introduced as a Harvard social networking site, expanding to other universities and eventually, anyone. The term social media was introduced and soon became widespread, web-based social networking services make it possible to connect people who share interests and activities across political, economic, and geographic borders
Social networking service
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The
European Southern Observatory uses social networks to engage people in astronomical observations.
Social networking service
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Banner in
Bangkok, observed on the 30th of June 2014 during the
2014 Thai coup d'état, informing the
Thai public that 'like' or 'share' activity on social media could land them in prison.
9.
Website
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A website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol network, such as the Internet, or a local area network. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website for a company. Websites are typically dedicated to a topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, Web pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language. They may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors, Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which may optionally employ encryption to provide security and privacy for the user. The users application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal. Hyperlinking between web pages conveys to the reader the site structure and guides the navigation of the site, Some websites require user registration or subscription to access content. As of 2016 end users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktop and laptop computers, tablet computers, smartphones, the World Wide Web was created in 1990 by the British CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone, before the introduction of HTML and HTTP, other protocols such as File Transfer Protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a directory structure which the user navigates and chooses files to download. Documents were most often presented as text files without formatting. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website. Websites can be the work of an individual, a business or other organization, any website can contain a hyperlink to any other website, so the distinction between individual sites, as perceived by the user, can be blurred. Websites are written in, or converted to, HTML and are accessed using a software interface classified as a user agent. Web pages can be viewed or otherwise accessed from a range of computer-based and Internet-enabled devices of various sizes, including computers, laptops, PDAs. A website is hosted on a system known as a web server. These terms can refer to the software that runs on these systems which retrieves
Website
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NASA.gov homepage as it appeared in April 2015
10.
The Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
The Philippines
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King Philip II of Spain.
The Philippines
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Flag
The Philippines
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Tabon Cave and its carvings.
The Philippines
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The
Banaue Rice Terraces where
Ifugao/Igorot utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over 2000 years ago.
11.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
Singapore
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Raffles Square around 1900.
Singapore
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Flag
Singapore
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Victorious Japanese troops marching through Singapore City after the British capitulation at the
Battle of Singapore in 1942.
Singapore
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A cheering crowd welcome the return of British forces, 1945
12.
Asia
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Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres, about 30% of Earths total land area and 8. 7% of the Earths total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its large size and population. In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, the western boundary with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains, China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 A. D. The accidental discovery of America by Columbus in search for India demonstrates this deep fascination, the Silk Road became the main East-West trading route in the Asian hitherland while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties, the boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia, the border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. In Sweden, five years after Peters death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Urals as the border of Asia, the Russians were enthusiastic about the concept, which allowed them to keep their European identity in geography. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg, the latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century, the border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, the border between Asia and the loosely defined region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the possessions of the various empires there. Lewis and Wigen assert, The narrowing of Southeast Asia to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process, Asia is larger and more culturally diverse than Europe. It does not exactly correspond to the borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them
Asia
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Two-point equidistant projection of Asia and surrounding landmasses.
Asia
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Asia
Asia
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The racial diversity of Asia's peoples,
Nordisk familjebok (1904)
Asia
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Ptolemy's Asia
13.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
Philippines
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King Philip II of Spain.
Philippines
Philippines
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Tabon Cave and its carvings.
Philippines
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The
Banaue Rice Terraces where
Ifugao/Igorot utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over 2000 years ago.
14.
Indonesia
–
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
Indonesia
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A
Borobudur ship carved on
Borobudur, c. 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.
Indonesia
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Flag
Indonesia
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The
nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's
Banda Islands.
Indonesia
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Tan Malaka, Indonesian philosopher, guerilla, and national hero.
15.
Thailand
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Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula in Southeast Asia. With a total area of approximately 513,000 km2, Thailand is the worlds 51st-largest country and it is the 20th-most-populous country in the world, with around 66 million people. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and has switched between parliamentary democracy and military junta for decades, the latest coup being in May 2014 by the National Council for Peace and Order. Its capital and most populous city is Bangkok and its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. The Thai economy is the worlds 20th largest by GDP at PPP and it became a newly industrialised country and a major exporter in the 1990s. Manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy and it is considered a middle power in the region and around the world. The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens, by outsiders prior to 1949, it was usually known by the exonym Siam. The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma, the names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word. The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin, but a learned, another theory is the name derives from Chinese, Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late fourteenth century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam, the signature of King Mongkut reads SPPM Mongkut King of the Siamese, giving the name Siam official status until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand. Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949, after which it reverted to Thailand. According to George Cœdès, the word Thai means free man in the Thai language, ratcha Anachak Thai means kingdom of Thailand or kingdom of Thai. Etymologically, its components are, ratcha, -ana- -chak, the Thai National Anthem, written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as, prathet Thai. The first line of the anthem is, prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai, Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh. There is evidence of habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present. Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia, Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire. The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons, and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century, the History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282
Thailand
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The ruins of
Wat Chaiwatthanaram at
Ayutthaya.
Thailand
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Flag
Thailand
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Stupas,
Ayutthaya Historical Park.
Thailand
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Pottery discovered near
Ban Chiang in Udon Thani Province, the earliest dating to 2100 BCE.
16.
United Arab Emirates
–
In 2013, the UAEs population was 9.2 million, of which 1.4 million are Emirati citizens and 7.8 million are expatriates. The country is a federation of seven emirates, and was established on 2 December 1971, the constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain. Each emirate is governed by a monarch, together, they jointly form the Federal Supreme Council. One of the monarchs is selected as the President of the United Arab Emirates, Islam is the official religion of the UAE and Arabic is the official language. The UAEs oil reserves are the seventh-largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the worlds seventeenth-largest, Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure. The UAEs economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, while its most populous city of Dubai is an important global city, nevertheless, the country remains principally reliant on its export of petroleum and natural gas. The UAE is criticised for its rights record, including the specific interpretations of Sharia used in its legal system. The UAEs rising international profile has led analysts to identify it as a regional. It appears the land of the Emirates has been occupied for thousands of years, there is no proof of contact with the outside world at that stage, although in time it developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia and Iran. This contact persisted and became wide-ranging, probably motivated by trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, in ancient times, Al Hasa was part of Al Bahreyn and adjoined Greater Oman. Sassanid groups were present on the Batinah coast, in 637, Julfar was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sassanian Empire. The area of the Al Ain/Buraimi Oasis was known as Tuam and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior. The earliest Christian site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, a monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island. Thought to be Nestorian and built in 600 AD, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 AD and it forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 AD following trade routes. Certainly, by the 5th century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 AD. This led to a group of travelling to Medina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids. Following the death of Prophet Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders. The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory with the battle of Dibba in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost
United Arab Emirates
–
Dubai in 1950; the area in this photo shows
Bur Dubai in the foreground (centered on Al-Fahidi Fort);
Deira in middle-right on the other side of the creek; and
Al Shindagha (left) and
Al Ras (right) in the background across the creek again from Deira
United Arab Emirates
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Flag
United Arab Emirates
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Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was the first President of UAE.
United Arab Emirates
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View of
Sharjah city
17.
Sudan
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Sudan, also known as North Sudan since South Sudans independence and officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northern Africa. It is the third largest country in Africa, the River Nile divides the country into eastern and western halves. Before the Sudanese Civil War, South Sudan was part of Sudan, Sudan was home to numerous ancient civilizations, such as the Kingdom of Kush, Kerma, Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria, Meroë and others, most of which flourished along the Nile. During the pre-dynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were identical, by virtue of its proximity to Egypt, the Sudan participated in the wider history of the Near East inasmuch as it was Christianized by the 6th century, and Islamized in the 15th. As a result of Christianization, the Old Nubian language stands as the oldest recorded Nilo-Saharan language, Sudan was the largest country in Africa and the Arab world until 2011, when South Sudan separated into an independent country, following an independence referendum. Sudan is now the third largest country in Africa and also the third largest country in the Arab world and its capital is Khartoum, the political, cultural and commercial centre of the nation. It is a representative democratic federal republic. The politics of Sudan are regulated by an organization called the National Assembly. The Sudanese legal system is based on Islamic law, the countrys place name Sudan is a name given to a geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān, or the lands of the Blacks, during the fifth millennium BC migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed social hierarchy over the centuries become the Kingdom of Kush at 1700 BC. The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centered on the confluences of the Blue Nile and White Nile, and the Atbarah River and it was established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, centered at Napata in its early phase. After King Kashta invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt for a century before being defeated and driven out by the Assyrians. At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what is now known as South Kordofan all the way to the Sinai, pharaoh Piye attempted to expand the empire into the Near East, but was thwarted by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Sennacheribs successor Esarhaddon went further, and invaded Egypt itself, deposing Taharqa, Taharqa fled back to his homeland where he died two years later. Egypt became an Assyrian colony, however, king Tantamani, after succeeding Taharqa, Esarhaddon died while preparing to leave the Assyrian capital of Nineveh in order to eject him. However, his successor Ashurbanipal sent an army into southern Egypt and routed Tantamani. During Classical Antiquity, the Nubian capital was at Meroë, in ancient Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Ethiopia
Sudan
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The large mud brick temple, known as the shrek or Western Deffufa, in the ancient city of
Kerma
Sudan
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Flag
Sudan
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Nubian pyramids in
Meroë.
Sudan
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Ruins of
Old Dongola.
18.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
South Korea
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Flag
South Korea
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Balhae and
Silla, 830 CE
South Korea
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Jikji, the first known book printed with movable metal type in 1377. Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris
19.
Bangladesh
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Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
Bangladesh
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Mahasthangarh is the oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh. It dates back to 700 BCE and was the ancient capital of the
Pundra Kingdom
Bangladesh
Bangladesh
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Asia in 323 BC, the
Gangaridai Empire in relation to the
Nanda Empire,
Alexander 's Empire and neighbours
Bangladesh
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The
Somapura Mahavihara, once the largest
Buddhist vihara in South Asia, built by Emperor
Dharmapala of Bengal
20.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
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Flag
India
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The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
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Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
21.
Canadians
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Canadians are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural, for most Canadians, several of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian. Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada, Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States. Canadian independence from the United Kingdom grew gradually over the course of years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867. World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire among Canadians to have their country recognized as a sovereign state with a distinct citizenship. Canadas nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom, legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development. As of 2010, Canadians make up 0. 5% of the total population, having relied upon immigration for population growth. Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first- or second-generation immigrants, and 20 percent of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country. Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign-born or have one foreign-born parent. Aboriginal peoples, according to the 2011 Canadian Census, numbered at 1,400,685 or 4. 3% of the countrys 33,476,688 population. The French originally settled New France, in present-day Quebec and Ontario, approximately 100 Irish-born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700, assimilating into the Canadien population and culture. This arrival of newcomers led to the creation of the Métis, after the War of 1812, British, Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Ruperts Land, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Between 1815 and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America and these new arrivals included some Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia. Descendants of Francophone and Anglophone northern Europeans who arrived in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries are often referred to as old stock Canadians. Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants, in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The population of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately every 40 years, from the mid- to late 19th century, Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted Home Children from Britain. Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves. Canada was now receiving a number of European immigrants, predominantly Italians, Germans, Scandinavians, Dutch, Poles
Canadians
–
Tommy Douglas
Canadians
Canadians
–
Adélard Godbout
Canadians
–
Oscar Peterson
22.
Computer programmer
–
A programmer, computer programmer, developer, dev, coder, or software engineer is a person who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst, a programmers primary computer language is often prefixed to these titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with web. The use of the term programmer for these positions is sometimes considered an insulting or derogatory oversimplification. Because Babbages machine was never completed to a standard in her time. The first person to run a program on a functioning modern electronically based computer was computer scientist Konrad Zuse, the ENIAC programming team, consisting of Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman were the first regularly working programmers. International Programmers Day is celebrated annually on 7 January, in 2009, the government of Russia decreed a professional annual holiday known as Programmers Day to be celebrated on 13 September. It had also been an international holiday before that. Some of this section is from the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–07 Edition, Computer programmers write, test, debug, and maintain the detailed instructions, called computer programs, that computers must follow to perform their functions. Programmers also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving problems by computer, job titles and descriptions may vary, depending on the organization. Programmers work in many settings, including corporate information technology departments, big companies, small service firms. Many professional programmers also work for consulting companies at client sites as contractors, licensing is not typically required to work as a programmer, although professional certifications are commonly held by programmers. Programming is widely considered a profession, Programmers work varies widely depending on the type of business for which they are writing programs. For example, the involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator. In most cases, several work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision. Programmers write programs according to the specifications determined primarily by more senior programmers, after the design process is complete, it is the job of the programmer to convert that design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. The programmer codes these instructions in one of many programming languages, different programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the program. COBOL, for example, is used for business applications that typically run on mainframe and midrange computers, whereas Fortran is used in science
Computer programmer
–
Student programmers at the
Technische Hochschule in
Aachen, Germany in 1970
Computer programmer
–
Ada Lovelace is considered the first computer programmer.
Computer programmer
–
A computer programmer writing Java code
23.
MySpace
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Myspace is a social networking website offering an interactive, user-submitted network of friends, personal profiles, blogs, groups, photos, music, and videos. It is headquartered in Beverly Hills, California, Myspace was acquired by News Corporation in July 2005 for $580 million. From 2005 to 2009, Myspace was the largest social networking site in the world, since then, the number of Myspace users has declined steadily in spite of several redesigns. As of March 2017, Myspace was ranked 3,178 by total Web traffic, Myspace had a significant influence on pop culture and music and created a gaming platform that launched the successes of Zynga and RockYou, among others. Despite an overall decline, in 2015 Myspace still had 50.6 million unique visitors and has a pool of nearly 1 billion active and inactive registered users. In June 2009, Myspace employed approximately 1,600 employees, in June 2011, Specific Media Group and Justin Timberlake jointly purchased the company for approximately $35 million. In August 2003, several employees with Friendster accounts saw potential in its social networking features. The group decided to mimic the popular features of the website. Within 10 days, the first version of Myspace was ready for launch, a complete infrastructure of finance, human resources, technical expertise, bandwidth, and server capacity was available for the site. The project was overseen by Brad Greenspan, who managed Chris DeWolfe, Josh Berman, Tom Anderson, the first Myspace users were eUniverse employees. The company held contests to see who could sign up the most users, eUniverse used its 20 million users and e-mail subscribers to breathe life into Myspace, and move it to the head of the pack of social networking websites. A key architect was tech expert Toan Nguyen who helped stabilize the Myspace platform when Brad Greenspan asked him to join the team. Despite over ten times the number of developers, Friendster, which was developed in JavaServer Pages, could not keep up with the speed of development of Myspace and cfm. The MySpace. com domain was owned by YourZ. com, Inc. intended until 2002 for use as an online data storage. By 2004, it was transitioned from a storage service to a social networking site. A friend, who worked in the data storage business. DeWolfe suggested they charge a fee for the basic Myspace service, Brad Greenspan nixed the idea, believing that keeping Myspace free was necessary to make it a successful community. Myspace quickly gained popularity among teenage and young adult social groups, in February 2005, DeWolfe held talks with Mark Zuckerberg over acquiring Facebook but DeWolfe rejected Zuckerbergs $75 million asking price
MySpace
–
Fox Interactive Media headquarters, 407 North Maple Drive,
Beverly Hills, California, where Myspace is also housed.
MySpace
–
Myspace LLC
MySpace
–
Oxfam America President Raymond C. Offenheiser,
Wendi Deng, and
Rupert Murdoch with Myspace co-founders Anderson and DeWolfe at the 2006
Oxfam /Myspace Rock for Darfur event
24.
Facebook
–
Facebook is an American for-profit corporation and an online social media and social networking service based in Menlo Park, California. Facebook gradually added support for students at other universities. Since 2006, anyone age 13 and older has been allowed to become a user of Facebook, though variations exist in the minimum age requirement. The Facebook name comes from the face book directories often given to United States university students, Facebook may be accessed by a large range of desktops, laptops, tablet computers, and smartphones over the Internet and mobile networks. After registering to use the site, users can create a user profile indicating their name, occupation, schools attended and so on. Additionally, users may join common-interest user groups organized by workplace, school, hobbies or other topics, in groups, editors can pin posts to top. Additionally, users can complain about or block unpleasant people, because of the large volume of data that users submit to the service, Facebook has come under scrutiny for its privacy policies. Facebook makes most of its revenue from advertisements which appear onscreen, Facebook, Inc. held its initial public offering in February 2012, and began selling stock to the public three months later, reaching an original peak market capitalization of $104 billion. On July 13,2015, Facebook became the fastest company in the Standard & Poors 500 Index to reach a market cap of $250 billion, Facebook has more than 1.86 billion monthly active users as of December 31,2016. As of April 2016, Facebook was the most popular social networking site in the world, Facebook classifies users from the ages of 13 to 18 as minors and therefore sets their profiles to share content with friends only. Zuckerberg wrote a program called Facemash on October 28,2003 while attending Harvard University as a sophomore, to accomplish this, Zuckerberg hacked into protected areas of Harvards computer network and copied private dormitory ID images. Facemash attracted 450 visitors and 22,000 photo-views in its first four hours online, the site was quickly forwarded to several campus group list-servers, but was shut down a few days later by the Harvard administration. Zuckerberg faced expulsion and was charged by the administration with breach of security, violating copyrights, Zuckerberg expanded on this initial project that semester by creating a social study tool ahead of an art history final exam. He uploaded 500 Augustan images to a website, each of which was featured with a corresponding comments section and he shared the site with his classmates, and people started sharing notes. The following semester, Zuckerberg began writing code for a new website in January 2004 and he said that he was inspired by an editorial about the Facemash incident in The Harvard Crimson. On February 4,2004, Zuckerberg launched Thefacebook, originally located at thefacebook. com. com and they claimed that he was instead using their ideas to build a competing product. The three complained to The Harvard Crimson and the newspaper began an investigation and they later filed a lawsuit against Zuckerberg, subsequently settling in 2008 for 1.2 million shares. Membership was initially restricted to students of Harvard College, within the first month, eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, Andrew McCollum, and Chris Hughes joined Zuckerberg to help promote the website
Facebook
–
Facebook login/signup screen
Facebook
–
Mark Zuckerberg, co-creator of Facebook, in his
Harvard dorm room, 2005.
Facebook
–
Facebook headquarters entrance sign at 1 Hacker Way,
Menlo Park, California
Facebook
–
Billboard on the
Thomson Reuters building welcomes Facebook to NASDAQ, 2012
25.
Social networking sites
–
Most social network services are web-based and provide means for users to interact over the Internet, such as by e-mail and instant messaging and online forums. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, digital photos and videos, posts, depending on the social media platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In other cases, members can contact anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that contact has a connection to, LinkedIn, a career social networking service, generally requires that a member personally know another member in real life before they contact them online. Some services require members to have a connection to contact other members. The main types of social networking services are those that contain category places, means to connect with friends, there have been attempts to standardize these services to avoid the need to duplicate entries of friends and interests. A study reveals that India has recorded worlds largest growth in terms of media users in 2013. A2013 survey found that 73% of U. S. adults use social networking sites, the variety and evolving range of stand-alone and built-in social networking services in the online space introduces a challenge of definition. Furthermore, the idea that these services are defined by their ability to bring people together provides too broad a definition, such a broad definition would suggest that the telegraph and telephone were social networking services – not the Internet technologies scholars are intending to describe. The terminology is unclear, with some referring to social networking services as social media. The potential for computer networking to facilitate newly improved forms of computer-mediated social interaction was suggested early on, efforts to support social networks via computer-mediated communication were made in many early online services, including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV, and bulletin board services. Many prototypical features of social networking sites were present in online services such as America Online, Prodigy, CompuServe, ChatNet. Early social networking on the World Wide Web began in the form of generalized online communities such as Theglobe. com, Geocities, some communities – such as Classmates. com – took a different approach by simply having people link to each other via email addresses. In the late 1990s, user profiles became a feature of social networking sites, allowing users to compile lists of friends. New social networking methods were developed by the end of the 1990s and it also became one of the first companies to profit from the sale of virtual goods. Friendster was followed by MySpace and LinkedIn a year later, friendster became very popular in the Pacific Islands. Orkut became the first popular social networking service in Brazil and quickly grew in popularity in India, attesting to the rapid increase in social networking sites popularity, by 2005, it was reported that Myspace was getting more page views than Google. Facebook, launched in 2004, became the largest social networking site in the world in early 2009, Facebook was first introduced as a Harvard social networking site, expanding to other universities and eventually, anyone. The term social media was introduced and soon became widespread, web-based social networking services make it possible to connect people who share interests and activities across political, economic, and geographic borders
Social networking sites
–
The
European Southern Observatory uses social networks to engage people in astronomical observations.
Social networking sites
–
Most popular social networking sites by country
Social networking sites
–
Banner in
Bangkok, observed on the 30th of June 2014 during the
2014 Thai coup d'état, informing the
Thai public that 'like' or 'share' activity on social media could land them in prison.
26.
SixDegrees.com
–
SixDegrees. com was a social network service website that lasted from 1997 to 2001 and was based on the Web of Contacts model of social networking. Users could send messages and post bulletin board items to people in their first, second, and third degrees and it was one of the first manifestations of social networking websites in the format now seen today. Six Degrees was followed by more successful social networking sites based on the network model such as Friendster, MySpace, LinkedIn, XING. People who confirmed a relationship with an existing user but did not go on to register with the continued to receive occasional email updates. MacroView, the company developed the site, was founded by CEO Andrew Weinreich and was based in New York City. At its height, SixDegrees had around 100 employees, and the site had around 3,500,000 fully registered members, the site was bought by YouthStream Media Networks in 1999 for $125 million. Meeting your new best friends, Six Degrees widens your contacts in exchange for sampling Web sites, the Dallas Morning News, October 27,1998
SixDegrees.com
–
SixDegrees.com
27.
Portmanteau
–
In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, whereas a hypothetical portmanteau of star and fish might be stish. Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice, for instance, take the two words fuming and furious. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, in then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, to carry, in modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. It has also used especially in Europe as a formal description for hat racks from the French words porter. An occasional synonym for portmanteau word is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending Frankenstein, many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch was introduced as a portmanteau word, in 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia, a scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger. Jeoportmanteau. is a category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy. The categorys name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy, responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander, oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UKs two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries, for example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a made by inserting a chicken into a duck. Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys Word of the Year in 2010. The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like permalance, advertainment, advertorial, infotainment, a company name may also be portmanteau as well as a product name. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to. giv people an essence of who they are within the same name and this is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life supercouples
Portmanteau
–
A
spork
Portmanteau
–
The original "
Gerrymander " pictured in an 1812 cartoon. The word is a portmanteau of Massachusetts Governor
Elbridge Gerry 's name with
"salamander."
28.
Napster
–
Napster was the name given to two music-focused online services. It was founded as a pioneering peer-to-peer file sharing Internet service that emphasized sharing digital files, typically songs. The company ran into difficulties over copyright infringement, ceased operations and was eventually acquired by Roxio. In its second incarnation Napster became a music store until it was acquired by Rhapsody from Best Buy on December 1,2011. Later companies and projects successfully followed its P2P file sharing example such as Gnutella, Freenet, Kazaa, Bearshare, some services, like LimeWire, Scour, Grokster, Madster, and eDonkey2000, were brought down or changed due to copyright issues. Napster was founded by Shawn Fanning, John Fanning, and Sean Parker, initially, Napster was envisioned as an independent peer-to-peer file sharing service by Shawn Fanning. The service operated between June 1999 and July 2001 and its technology allowed people to easily share their MP3 files with other participants. Although the original service was shut down by order, the Napster brand survived after the companys assets were liquidated and purchased by other companies through bankruptcy proceedings. At its peak the Napster service had about 80 million registered users, high-speed networks in college dormitories became overloaded, with as much as 61% of external network traffic consisting of MP3 file transfers. Many colleges blocked its use for this reason, even before concerns about liability for facilitating copyright violations on campus, the service and software program began as Windows-only. However, in 2000, Black Hole Media wrote a Macintosh client called Macster, Macster was later bought by Napster and designated the official Mac Napster client, at which point the Macster name was discontinued. Even before the acquisition of Macster, the Macintosh community had a variety of independently-developed Napster clients, the most notable was the open source client called MacStar, released by Squirrel Software in early 2000 and Rapster, released by Overcaster Family in Brazil. The release of MacStars source code paved the way for third-party Napster clients across all computing platforms, heavy metal band Metallica discovered a demo of their song I Disappear had been circulating across the network before it was released. This led to it being played on radio stations across the United States. On March 13,2000, they filed a lawsuit against Napster, separately, Metallica and Dr. Dre later delivered to Napster thousands of usernames of people whom they believed were pirating their songs. In March 2001, Napster settled both suits, after being shut down by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in a lawsuit from several major record labels. In 2000, Madonnas single Music was leaked out onto the web and Napster prior to its commercial release, verified Napster use peaked with 26.4 million users worldwide in February 2001. Napster was faced with the allegations from the music industry
Napster
–
Napster running on Mac OS 9 (using Kaleidoscope theme utility) in March 2001.
29.
Mountain View, California
–
Mountain View is a city located in Santa Clara County, California, United States, named for its views of the Santa Cruz Mountains. From its origins as a stop, it grew to a large suburb with a pedestrian-friendly downtown, free wi-fi. The city borders Palo Alto and the San Francisco Bay to the north, Los Altos to the south, situated in the southern end of the San Francisco Peninsula in the San Francisco Bay Area, Mountain View is home to many high technology companies. In 1956, Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory, the first company to develop silicon semiconductor devices in what came to be known as Silicon Valley, was established in the city by William Shockley. Today, many of the largest technology companies in the world are headquartered in the city, including Google, Mozilla Foundation, Symantec, and Intuit. The original Byte Shop computer store was opened at 1063 El Camino Real, Mountain View by Paul Terrell, the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority integrates the city with the neighboring cities of Palo Alto, Los Altos, and Sunnyvale. The Mexican land grant of Rancho Pastoria de las Borregas was given in 1842 by Alta California Governor Juan Alvarado to Francisco Estrada. This grant was passed on to Mariano Castro, who sold half of the land to Martin Murphy, Jr. Eventually. First known as the center of Fremont Twp. before the first California 1852 census. Which meant that it was a predecessor to Mayfield and Palo Alto, Mountain View Station, officially named in 1864, had its beginnings earlier as a stagecoach stop on the route between San Francisco and San Jose, including the Butterfield Overland Mail. & El Camino Real of today, was closer to what was once the town center. The early pioneers were buried at the old cemetery between Mercy & Church, off Castro Street, now the present city Library and park. Reverend Henry Merrill Henderson, born in Maryland, age 35, arrived in Spring of 1852, with his family to meet with relatives Ricketts and he was the first Baptist minister in town and soon was going by horse to Half-Moon Bay, and McCartersville for services. His next-door neighbor arrived later that year, Seligman Weilheimer and brother Samuel from Dossenheim, Baden, Germany, who built at that property, the Fremont twp. population was about 560 by 1860, less Mayfield Post office section, which began north of present San Antonio Road. The towns early growth was due to agriculture, William Bubb later being a figure, buying 80 acres to farm in October 1851. His heirs expanded and intermarried in the area, agriculture remained the primary industry into the middle of the 20th century. The U. S. Navys adjacent 1000 acre Moffet Field Complex began after 1931, after World War II, the population grew significantly with the development of the aerospace and electronics industries. Between 1950 and 1960, the population grew from 6,563 to 30,889, today, high technology is the foundation of the local economy, and there exist few remnants of the citys agricultural past
Mountain View, California
–
City Hall and the Center for the Performing Arts in the Downtown area
Mountain View, California
–
The
Historic Adobe Building was constructed as a
Works Progress Administration project in 1934.
Mountain View, California
–
Mountain View City Hall
Mountain View, California
–
Mountain View Fire Station Number 1
30.
Social network
–
A social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors, sets of dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. The social network perspective provides a set of methods for analyzing the structure of whole social entities as well as a variety of theories explaining the patterns observed in these structures. The study of these structures uses social network analysis to local and global patterns, locate influential entities. Social networks and the analysis of them is an inherently interdisciplinary academic field which emerged from social psychology, sociology, statistics, georg Simmel authored early structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of triads and web of group affiliations. Jacob Moreno is credited with developing the first sociograms in the 1930s to study interpersonal relationships and these approaches were mathematically formalized in the 1950s and theories and methods of social networks became pervasive in the social and behavioral sciences by the 1980s. Social network analysis is now one of the major paradigms in contemporary sociology, together with other complex networks, it forms part of the nascent field of network science. The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies. The term is used to describe a structure determined by such interactions. The ties through which any given social unit connects represent the convergence of the social contacts of that unit. This theoretical approach is, necessarily, relational, thus, one common criticism of social network theory is that individual agency is often ignored although this may not be the case in practice. Precisely because many different types of relations, singular or in combination, form these network configurations, in the late 1890s, both Émile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tönnies foreshadowed the idea of social networks in their theories and research of social groups. Tönnies argued that groups can exist as personal and direct social ties that either link individuals who share values and belief or impersonal, formal. Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, in psychology, in the 1930s, Jacob L. Moreno began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups. In anthropology, the foundation for social theory is the theoretical and ethnographic work of Bronislaw Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown. In sociology, the work of Talcott Parsons set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure. Later, drawing upon Parsons theory, the work of sociologist Peter Blau provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on social exchange theory, by the 1970s, a growing number of scholars worked to combine the different tracks and traditions. In general, social networks are self-organizing, emergent, and complex and these patterns become more apparent as network size increases. However, a network analysis of, for example, all interpersonal relationships in the world is not feasible and is likely to contain so much information as to be uninformative
Social network
Social network
–
Social network diagram, meso-level
Social network
–
Diagram: section of a large-scale social network
31.
Small world phenomenon
–
The small-world experiment comprised several experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram and other researchers examining the average path length for social networks of people in the United States. The research was groundbreaking in that it suggested that society is a small-world-type network characterized by short path-lengths. The experiments are often associated with the six degrees of separation. This is perhaps the earliest reference to the concept of six degrees of separation, and their unpublished manuscript circulated among academics for over 20 years before publication in 1978. It formally articulated the mechanics of social networks, and explored the consequences of these. The manuscript left many significant questions about networks unresolved, and one of these was the number of degrees of separation in actual social networks. The Psychology Today article generated enormous publicity for the experiments, which are known today. Milgrams experiment was conceived in an era when a number of independent threads were converging on the idea that the world is becoming increasingly interconnected, michael Gurevich had conducted seminal work in his empirical study of the structure of social networks in his MIT doctoral dissertation under Pool. In a structured population it is likely but still seems probable. And perhaps for the worlds population, probably only one more bridging individual should be needed. They subsequently constructed Monte Carlo simulations based on Gurevichs data, which recognized that both weak and strong links are needed to model social structure. Milgram revisited Gurevichs experiments in acquaintanceship networks when he conducted a highly publicized set of experiments beginning in 1967 at Harvard University, one of Milgrams most famous works is a study of obedience and authority, which is widely known as the Milgram Experiment. Milgrams earlier association with Pool and Kochen was the source of his interest in the increasing interconnectedness among human beings. Gurevichs interviews served as a basis for his small world experiments, Milgram sought to devise an experiment that could answer the small world problem. This observation, in turn, was based on the seminal demographic work of the Statists who were so influential in the design of Eastern European cities during that period. This circle of researchers was fascinated by the interconnectedness and social capital of social networks, Milgrams experiment developed out of a desire to learn more about the probability that two randomly selected people would know each other. This is one way of looking at the small world problem, an alternative view of the problem is to imagine the population as a social network and attempt to find the average path length between any two nodes. Milgrams experiment was designed to measure these path lengths by developing a procedure to count the number of ties between any two people and these cities were selected because they were thought to represent a great distance in the United States, both socially and geographically
Small world phenomenon
–
The "six degrees of separation" model
32.
Dogster
–
Dogster is a dog-themed social networking and forums-based website. Its sister site is Catster, a website with a similar format. Users of the create a pet page which is a customizable web page for which they can give treats or purchase virtual items using what are called zealies. This virtual currency can be given to the users after engaging in some of the website activities, Dogster won the 2005 Webby category for best community site. It was acquired by SAY Media in 2011, on January 16,2014, SAY Media declared that all the social networking and forums would be removed from Dogster and Catster. On February 12,2014, the announced that it was working with a new partner. In July 2014, Dogster and Catster were sold to I-5 Publishing, in 2015, I-5 closed Cat Fancy and Dog Fancy and replaced them with print versions of Catster and Dogster. Dogster holds various events during the year, ranging from face to face events or the Worlds Coolest Dog. During the events, users take part in a photo contest which consists of uploading a photo and photo for different photos in different categories. Forums are public message boards that use for everything ranging from regular conversation to role play and in-depth discussions concerning dog health, nutrition, training. Most users talk in the voice of their dog, Dogster users can form groups, which are clubs specially devoted to certain topics. These include hangout groups, role playing groups and groups for a dog breed. Members of Dogster receive a gift in the form of a star when they sign up. Dogster has three types of gifts, stars, rosettes, and special gifts. Stars last forever, rosettes expire after a month, and cost 1 zealie. Special Gifts also last a month, and are either 5 or 20 zealies. All these are displayed on a dogs page
Dogster
–
Dogster Inc
33.
Elfster
–
Elfster is a proprietary software application providing social networking features related to secret Santa style gift exchanges. It is available, without charge, as software as a service, via a website and via apps for iOS. The website’s features include a universal wishlist, an anonymous Q&A section, personalized gift recommendations, activity updates, the company is headquartered in Delaware, United States. Elfster was founded by software engineer Peter Imburg in 2004 after hearing about the difficulty his wife, in November 2011, the website reached 2 million members. In Christmas of the year, the Elfster Facebook App was launched for mobile device users. The app also serves as an extension of Elfster. com’s service, Elfster can be used to create wishlists and organize online gift exchanges. Users can find friends in Elfster, and follow their wishlists, items can be added from any site online, and with the Elfster mobile app, bar code scanning allows items to be added on the go. When organizing an online gift exchange, Elfster draws names randomly, in November 2010, new features were added including trending gifts, activity updates and the ability to suggest and share gift ideas. Elfster website Elfster. com Brings Secret Santa to Facebook Holiday Gift Exchanges Go High Tech with Introduction of Elfster En Espanol Amigo Secreto Generation Limbo, Waiting It Out Secret Santa
Elfster
–
Elfster
34.
Windows Live Spaces
–
Windows Live Spaces was Microsofts blogging and social networking platform. Windows Live Spaces received an estimated 27 million unique visitors per month as of August 2007, despite being considered a useful messaging and communication tool, Windows Live Spaces has been criticized as not being as powerful as some of its alternatives. It was shut down in 2011 due to low viewership, features of Windows Live Spaces included a blogging system, photo gallery, lists, friends, a guestbook, and a social profile. A Spaces page can be personalized with gadgets, modules that can be placed to enable further customization, HTML code, contact cards were also used in other Windows Live applications and services to summarize the recent content added to a Space. RSS feeds are available for content on a space. With this goal, MSN Spaces finds itself competing with similar services like MySpace, users also had the option to set access rights for visitors to their MSN Space based on the relationship between them. Visitors were also granted when their contacts had updated their MSN Space, on August 1,2006, MSN Spaces became part of the Windows Live services platform, and was rebranded as Windows Live Spaces. There were various, obvious differences between MSN Spaces and Windows Live Spaces, the most instantly evident being a layout engine. The change also resolved some oft-criticised characteristics of MSN Spaces, such as the alignment of content on the computer screen, as part of the rebrand and upgrade, the URL for all MSN Spaces members were moved to keep in line with the Windows Live branding. For example, a URL of thespacecraft. spaces. msn. com was moved to thespacecraft. spaces. live. com, beginning January 4,2011, users were not able to make changes to Spaces, but contents were still viewable and downloadable. Windows Live Spaces was fully shut down on March 16,2011 and it was mentioned that Windows Live Spaces censored the words that a user can choose when naming their Space, prohibiting for example the word whore or the so-called seven dirty words. In addition, Microsoft has received criticism for censoring the words democracy and freedom under its Chinese portal
Windows Live Spaces
–
Windows Live Spaces homepage
35.
Yahoo! 360
–
360° was a social networking and personal communication portal operated by Yahoo. made available in 2005. It enabled users to create web sites, share photos from Yahoo. Photos, maintain blogs and lists, create and share a public profile, 360° also featured a friends updates section, under which each friends latest update was summarized. This service was never launched, Yahoo. Prematurely stopped developing this service in 2008, 360° Plus Vietnam was a similar service that was launched in 2008 and is now defunct. The service that had available in Vietnam until June 2012. Blog Vietnam was officially shut down on January 17,2013, the user could make a backup to PC, Wordpress, Blogger, or Vietnamese-blog Zing Blog by using http, //download. blog. yahoo. com. Yahoo 360° launched as a service on March 16,2005. After the full launch on June 24,2005, it available to any Yahoo. User over the age of 18 in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Canada, Australia, Japan, from September 2006 through September 2007, the US-based web traffic visiting 360° dropped by more than half. The service had a global appeal than some of its counterparts. On October 16,2007, Yahoo announced that they would no longer provide support for or perform bug fixes on Yahoo, 360° as they intend to abandon it in early 2008 in favor of a universal profile that will be similar to their Yahoo. They have, however, said, that it not be replaced with Mash itself. On May 6,2008, Yahoo announced that they have several Vietnam-centric initiatives as part of their Southeast Asia business strategies, one of these initiatives were Yahoo. 360° Plus Vietnam, a new Vietnamese blogging application, 360° Plus Vietnam was launched in Vietnam along with other new services for Yahoo. By the end of January 2010, the number of registered users has increased to 1,500,000, in May 2009, while the service was still in Beta stage of development, Yahoo. announced that Yahoo. 360° service will be closed on July 13,2009 as Yahoo. Developers aimed to focus their efforts on the new profile on Yahoo, users were given options to move their Yahoo
Yahoo! 360
–
Yahoo! Pulse
36.
Benchmark Capital
–
Benchmark is an American venture capital firm responsible for the early stage funding of numerous successful startups including Dropbox, Twitter, Uber, Snapchat, and Instagram. In 1997, the firm invested $6.7 million in eBay, other high-profile investments include CyanogenMod, Domo, New Relic, Nextdoor, Stitch Fix, WeWork, Yelp, Zendesk, Zillow and Zipcar. Benchmark is noted for creating the first equal ownership and compensation structure for its partners, Benchmark Capital was founded in 1995 by four partners. Bob Kagle was an expert with VC experience at Technology Venture Investors. Bruce Dunlevie also came from VC experience at Merrill Pickard Anderson & Eyre, andy Rachleff had a background in network equipment and telecommunications. Kevin Harvey had invested in a software company while at Merrill Pickard. The firms general partners are Matt Cohler, Peter Fenton, Bill Gurley, Mitch Lasky, Benchmark has invested in more than 250 startups since its inception in 1995, including Art. com/Allposters. WeWork, Zillow, and Zuora, The firm manages nearly $3 billion in committed capital and has been recognized for its commitment to open source. Other notable investments include AOL, 1-800-Flowers, Ebags. com, Friendster, JAMDAT, MetaCafe, Palm Computing, Seeking Alpha, ServiceSource, Xapo, and Zipcar. Since early 2011, Benchmark has had 25 exits, including 10 IPOs and 15 mergers and acquisitions, representing a total market value of more than $55 billion. Over the years, by 2015 Benchmark’s eight funds have paid out $22.6 billion to investors, by February 2013, Snapchat confirmed a $13.5 million Series A funding round led by Benchmark Capital, which valued the company at between $60 million and $70 million. They held a stake of about 20%
Benchmark Capital
–
Benchmark
Benchmark Capital
–
Basic investment types
37.
Silicon Valley
–
Silicon Valley is a nickname for the southern portion of the San Francisco Bay Area, in the northern part of the U. S. state of California. The valley in its name refers to the Santa Clara Valley in Santa Clara County, which includes the city of San Jose and surrounding cities and towns, where the region has been traditionally centered. The region has expanded to include the half of the San Francisco Peninsula in San Mateo County. It was in the Valley that the integrated circuit, the microprocessor. As of 2013, the region employed about a quarter of an information technology workers. The term is now used as a synecdoche for the American high-technology economic sector. The first published use of Silicon Valley is credited to Don Hoefler, hostler used the phrase as the title of a series of articles in the weekly trade newspaper Electronic News. The series, titled Silicon Valley in the USA, began in the papers January 11,1971, the term gained widespread use in the early 1980s, at the time of the introduction of the IBM PC and numerous related hardware and software products to the consumer market. The silicon part of the name refers to the concentration of companies involved in the making of semiconductors. These firms slowly replaced the orchards and the fruits which gave the area its initial nickname — the Valley of Hearts Delight, Stanford University leadership was especially important in the valleys early development. Together these elements formed the basis of its growth and success, the ship had been outfitted with a wireless telegraph transmitter by a local newspaper, so that they could prepare a celebration on the return of the American sailors. Local historian Clyde Arbuckle states in Clyde Arbuckles History of San Jose that California first heard the click of a key on September 11,1853. It marked completion of an enterprise begun by a couple of San Francisco Merchants Exchange members named George Sweeney and it was known as the Inner Station, the second, as the Outer Station. Both used their primitive mode of communication until Messrs, Sweeney and Baugh connected the Outer Station directly with the Merchantss Exchange by electric telegraph Wire. According to Arbuckle Sweeney and Baughs line was strictly an intra-city, San Francisco-based service, allen and C. Burnham led the way to build a line from San Francisco to Marysville via San Jose, Stockton, and Sacramento. Delays to construction occurred until September 1853, but, …San Jose became the first station on the line when the wire arrived here on October 15, the line was completed when Gambles northbound crew met a similar crew working southward from Marysville on October 24. The Bay Area had long been a site of United States Navy research. In 1909, Charles Herrold started the first radio station in the United States with regularly scheduled programming in San Jose
Silicon Valley
–
Silicon Valley, as seen from over north San Jose, facing southbound towards
Downtown San Jose
Silicon Valley
–
Looking west over northern
San Jose (downtown is at far left) and other parts of Silicon Valley
Silicon Valley
–
Downtown
San Jose as seen with lit palm trees
Silicon Valley
–
Invitation to first Homebrew Computer Club meeting (sent to Steve Dompier).
38.
Associated Press
–
The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974
Associated Press
–
The AP headquarters in October 2008, located at
450 West 33rd Street, in
New York City.
Associated Press
–
Associated Press
Associated Press
–
Logo on the former AP Building in New York City
Associated Press
–
The APTN Building in London
39.
Private investors
–
An angel investor is an affluent individual who provides capital for a business start-up, usually in exchange for convertible debt or ownership equity. A similar term is patron, commonly used in arts, Angel investors are often retired entrepreneurs or executives, who may be interested in angel investing for reasons that go beyond pure monetary return. Thus, in addition to funds, angel investors can provide valuable management advice. According to the Center for Venture Research, there were 258,000 active angel investors in the U. S. in 2007. According to literature reviewed by the US Small Business Administration, the number of individuals in the US who made an investment between 2001 and 2003 is between 300,000 and 600,000. Beginning in the late 1980s, angels started to coalesce into groups with the goal of sharing deal flow and due diligence work. Angel groups are generally local organizations made up of 10 to 150 accredited investors interested in early-stage investing, in 1996 there were about 10 angel groups in the United States. There were over 200 as of 2006, Angels typically invest their own funds, unlike venture capitalists who manage the pooled money of others in a professionally managed fund. Angel capital fills the gap in seed funding between friends and family and more robust start-up financing through formal venture capital, there is no set amount for angel investors, and the range can go anywhere from a few thousand, to a few million dollars. While more readily available than venture financing, angel investment is still difficult to raise. However some new models are developing that are trying to make this easier, Angel investments bear extremely high risks and are usually subject to dilution from future investment rounds. As such, they require a high return on investment. Total investments in 2011 were $22.5 billion, an increase of 12.1 percent over 2010 when investments totalled $20.1 billion. In the United States, angels are generally accredited investors in order to comply with current SEC regulations, in 2013, 41% of tech sector executives name angel investors as a means of funding. A study by NESTA in 2009 estimated that there were between 4,000 and 6,000 angel investors in the UK with an average investment size of £42,000 per investment. Furthermore, each angel investor on average acquired 8 percent of the venture in the deal with 10 percent of investments accounting for more than 20 percent of the venture. In terms of returns,35 percent of investments produced returns of between one and five times of the investment, whilst 9 percent produced returns of multiples of ten times or more. The mean return, however, was 2.2 times investment in 3.6 years, the UK Business Angel market grew in 2009/2010 and, despite recessionary concerns, continues to show signs of growth
Private investors
–
Basic investment types
40.
IDG Ventures
–
IDG Ventures is a global family of venture funds with approximately $3.6 billion under management. All of the funds were originally sole-source-funded by International Data Group, the first fund was created by IDG in 1996 and was located in San Francisco. The latest San Francisco fund, formed in 2007, accepted other institutional investors in addition to IDG, following the successful launch of the San Francisco fund, IDG organized its non-publishing investments in China into venture funds. In 2009, IDG Ventures China renamed itself IDG Capital Partners to reflect the breadth of its half dozen funds encompassing start-up venture through growth investments, in 2000, IDG started a fund in Europe, this fund is now closed. In 2001, IDG started a fund in Boston, also named IDG Ventures, the manager of the Boston fund renamed itself Flybridge Capital Partners in 2008 and is no longer associated with the IDG Ventures funds. In the 2000s, IDG started funds in Vietnam, India, as of 2013, there are five countries with IDG funds - China, Vietnam, India, Korea and the United States. Official website IDG Capital Partners List of Investments by IDG Ventures at CrunchBase
IDG Ventures
–
IDG Ventures
41.
Social Networking
–
Most social network services are web-based and provide means for users to interact over the Internet, such as by e-mail and instant messaging and online forums. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, digital photos and videos, posts, depending on the social media platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In other cases, members can contact anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that contact has a connection to, LinkedIn, a career social networking service, generally requires that a member personally know another member in real life before they contact them online. Some services require members to have a connection to contact other members. The main types of social networking services are those that contain category places, means to connect with friends, there have been attempts to standardize these services to avoid the need to duplicate entries of friends and interests. A study reveals that India has recorded worlds largest growth in terms of media users in 2013. A2013 survey found that 73% of U. S. adults use social networking sites, the variety and evolving range of stand-alone and built-in social networking services in the online space introduces a challenge of definition. Furthermore, the idea that these services are defined by their ability to bring people together provides too broad a definition, such a broad definition would suggest that the telegraph and telephone were social networking services – not the Internet technologies scholars are intending to describe. The terminology is unclear, with some referring to social networking services as social media. The potential for computer networking to facilitate newly improved forms of computer-mediated social interaction was suggested early on, efforts to support social networks via computer-mediated communication were made in many early online services, including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV, and bulletin board services. Many prototypical features of social networking sites were present in online services such as America Online, Prodigy, CompuServe, ChatNet. Early social networking on the World Wide Web began in the form of generalized online communities such as Theglobe. com, Geocities, some communities – such as Classmates. com – took a different approach by simply having people link to each other via email addresses. In the late 1990s, user profiles became a feature of social networking sites, allowing users to compile lists of friends. New social networking methods were developed by the end of the 1990s and it also became one of the first companies to profit from the sale of virtual goods. Friendster was followed by MySpace and LinkedIn a year later, friendster became very popular in the Pacific Islands. Orkut became the first popular social networking service in Brazil and quickly grew in popularity in India, attesting to the rapid increase in social networking sites popularity, by 2005, it was reported that Myspace was getting more page views than Google. Facebook, launched in 2004, became the largest social networking site in the world in early 2009, Facebook was first introduced as a Harvard social networking site, expanding to other universities and eventually, anyone. The term social media was introduced and soon became widespread, web-based social networking services make it possible to connect people who share interests and activities across political, economic, and geographic borders
Social Networking
–
The
European Southern Observatory uses social networks to engage people in astronomical observations.
Social Networking
–
Most popular social networking sites by country
Social Networking
–
Banner in
Bangkok, observed on the 30th of June 2014 during the
2014 Thai coup d'état, informing the
Thai public that 'like' or 'share' activity on social media could land them in prison.
42.
Webware
–
In computing, a web application or web app is a client–server software application in which the client runs in a web browser. Common web applications include webmail, online sales, online auctions, wikis, instant messaging services. The general distinction between a dynamic web page of any kind and a web application is unclear, Web sites most likely to be referred to as web applications are those which have similar functionality to a desktop software application, or to a mobile app. HTML5 introduced explicit language support for making applications that are loaded as web pages, single-page applications are more application-like because they reject the more typical web paradigm of moving between distinct pages with different URLs. Single-page frameworks like Sencha Touch and AngularJS might be used to speed development of such a web app for a mobile platform, recently, frameworks like React Native, Flutter and Xamarin allow the development of native apps for all platforms using languages other than each standard native language. Hybrid apps embed a mobile web site inside a native app, possibly using a hybrid framework like Apache Cordova and this allows development using web technologies while also retaining certain advantages of native apps. In earlier computing models like client–server, the load for the application was shared between code on the server and code installed on each client locally. In other words, an application had its own pre-compiled client program which served as its interface and had to be separately installed on each users personal computer. In contrast, web applications use web documents written in a format such as HTML and JavaScript. Client web software updates may happen each time the web page is visited, during the session, the web browser interprets and displays the pages, and acts as the universal client for any web application. However, every significant change to the web page required a trip back to the server to refresh the entire page. In 1995 Netscape introduced a client-side scripting language called JavaScript allowing programmers to add some elements to the user interface that ran on the client side. In 1996, Macromedia introduced Flash, a vector animation player that could be added to browsers as a plug-in to embed animations on the web pages and it allowed the use of a scripting language to program interactions on the client side with no need to communicate with the server. In 1999, the web application concept was introduced in the Java language in the Servlet Specification version 2.2, in 2005, the term Ajax was coined, and applications like Gmail started to make their client sides more and more interactive. A web page script is able to contact the server for storing/retrieving data without downloading a web page. In 2011, HTML5 was finalized, which provides graphic and multimedia capabilities without the need of client side plug-ins, HTML5 also enriched the semantic content of documents. The APIs and document object model are no longer afterthoughts, but are fundamental parts of the HTML5 specification, webGL API paved the way for advanced 3D graphics based on HTML5 canvas and JavaScript language. These have significant importance in creating truly platform and browser independent rich web applications, many services have worked to combine all of these into a more familiar interface that adopts the appearance of an operating system
Webware
–
Horde groupware is an
open-source web application.
43.
The Onion
–
The Onion is an American digital media company and news satire organization that publishes articles on international, national, and local news. Based in Chicago, the company originated as a print publication on August 29,1988 in Madison. In the spring of 1996 The Onion began publishing online, in 2007, the organization began publishing satirical news audio and video online, as the Onion News Network. In 2013, The Onion ceased publishing its print edition and launched Onion Labs, the publications humor often depends on presenting mundane, everyday events as newsworthy, surreal or alarming. In 1999, comedian Bob Odenkirk praised the publication stating, Its the best comedy writing in the country, the Onion also runs The A. V. Initially created in 1993 as a supplement to the parent publication, club is an entertainment and pop culture publication that contains interviews and reviews of newly released media and other weekly features. ClickHole is a website from The Onion founded in 2014 that parodies clickbait websites such as BuzzFeed. They had literally just cut up the onion and put it on bread, according to former editorial manager, Chet Clem, their food budget was so low when they started the paper that they were down to white bread and onions. This account was disputed by an editor of The Onion, Cole Bolton. Bolton called Millss account the dumbest explanation and asserted that it is likely wrong, according to Bolton, the most plausible explanation is that The Onion was mocking a campus newsletter called The Union. The Onion was founded in 1988 in Madison, Wisconsin by Tim Keck and Christopher Johnson, in 1988 Scott Dikkers—The Onions longest-serving editor-in-chief —joined the two-person staff to draw comic strips. By issue three, I was de facto editor, after the sale, founders Keck and Johnson became publishers of other, similar alternative weeklies, Keck of the Seattle weekly The Stranger and Johnson of the Albuquerque Weekly Alibi. In its earlier years The Onion was successful in a number of university locations, originally the bottom three inches of the newspaper could be cut off for coupons to local establishments, such as inexpensive student-centered eateries and video rental stores. For a time The Onion was primarily a hodgepodge of Dikkerss cartoons, Spy magazine-like satire, in the November/December 1994 issue of U. The National College Magazine, Dikkers discussed The Comedy Castaways, The Onions sketch comedy show, which the publication hoped to pitch to NBC, Fox, and HBO. I think what sets us apart is weve intentionally formed a tightly knit group of performers, said Dikkers of the show. In the spring of 1996, Ben Karlin and Dikkers collaborated with Robert Smigel and Dana Carvey to create four short news segments for The Dana Carvey Show. Bob Odenkirk had showed me The Onion about an earlier, and it jumped out at me as something completely original and great
The Onion
–
The Onion
44.
Cybercafe
–
An Internet café, also known as a cybercafé, is a place which provides Internet access to the public, usually for a fee. These businesses usually provide snacks and drinks, hence the café in the name, the fee for using a computer is usually charged as a time-based rate. The first online café in South Korea called Electronic Café opened in front of Hongik University in March 1988 by Ahn Sang-Su and it had two 16bit computers connected to Online service networks through telephone lines. Online service users’ offline meetings were held in the Electronic Café, the opening of the online café in Korea was 2–3 years ahead of other countries. The online café phenomenon in the United States was started in July 1991 by Wayne Gregori in San Francisco when he began SFnet Coffeehouse Network, Gregori designed, built and installed 25 coin-operated computer terminals in coffeehouses throughout the San Francisco Bay Area. The café terminals dialed into a 32 line Bulletin Board System that offered an array of services including FIDOnet mail and, in 1992. The concept of a café with full Internet access was invented in early 1994 by Ivan Pope, around June 1994, The Binary Cafe, Canadas first Internet café, opened in Toronto, Ontario. Inspired partly by the ICA event, an establishment of this type, called Cyberia, opened on September 1,1994 in London. In January 1995, CB1 Café in Cambridge, installed an Internet connection and is the longest running Internet Café in the UK, still operating today. The first public, commercial American Internet café was conceived and opened by Jeff Anderson and Alan Weinkrantz in August 1994, at Infomart in Dallas, Texas and was called The High Tech Cafe. Three Internet cafés subsequently opened in the East Village neighborhood of New York City, Internet Cafetm, opened by Arthur Perley, the @Cafe, in 1996, the Internet café Surf City opened in downtown Anchorage, Alaska. A variation of Internet café called PC bang became extremely popular in South Korea when StarCraft was released in 1997, although computer and broadband penetration per capita were very high, young people went to PC bangs to play multiplayer games. Internet cafés are located worldwide, and many use them when traveling to access webmail and instant messaging services to keep in touch with family. A variation on the Internet café business model is the LAN gaming center and these cafés have several computer stations connected to a LAN. The connected computers are custom-assembled for gameplay, supporting popular multiplayer games and this is reducing the need for video arcades and arcade games, many of which are being closed down or merged into Internet cafés. The use of Internet cafés for multiplayer gaming is popular in certain areas of Asia like India, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, South Korea. In some countries, since practically all LAN gaming centers also offer Internet access, again, this shared-access model is more affordable than personal ownership of equipment and/or software, especially since games often require high end and expensive PCs. There are also Internet kiosks, Internet access points in public places like public libraries, airport halls, for those traveling by road in North America, many truck stops have Internet kiosks, for which a typical charge is around 20 cents per minute
Cybercafe
–
Internet café and library on the
Golden Princess
Cybercafe
–
Combination Internet café and
sub post office in
Münster, Germany
Cybercafe
–
A
solar powered Internet café in
San Juan del Sur,
Nicaragua.
Cybercafe
–
An Internet café in
Kulim,
Kedah, Malaysia.
45.
Wifi
–
Wi-Fi or WiFi is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE802.11 standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers, video-game consoles, smartphones, digital cameras, tablet computers, digital audio players, Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN network and a wireless access point. Such an access point has a range of about 20 meters indoors, hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz UHF and 5 gigahertz SHF ISM radio bands, having no physical connections, it is more vulnerable to attack than wired connections, such as Ethernet. In 1971, ALOHAnet connected the Hawaiian Islands with a UHF wireless packet network, ALOHAnet and the ALOHA protocol were early forerunners to Ethernet, and later the IEEE802.11 protocols, respectively. A1985 ruling by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission released the ISM band for unlicensed use and these frequency bands are the same ones used by equipment such as microwave ovens and are subject to interference. In 1991, NCR Corporation with AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11, the first wireless products were under the name WaveLAN. They are the credited with inventing Wi-Fi. In 1992 and 1996, CSIRO obtained patents for a method used in Wi-Fi to unsmear the signal. The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997 and this was updated in 1999 with 802. 11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds, and this proved to be popular. In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as an association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold. Wi-Fi uses a number of patents held by many different organizations. In April 2009,14 technology companies agreed to pay CSIRO $1 billion for infringements on CSIRO patents and this led to Australia labeling Wi-Fi as an Australian invention, though this has been the subject of some controversy. In 2016, the local area network Test Bed was chosen as Australias contribution to the exhibition A History of the World in 100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia. The name Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as August 1999, was coined by the brand-consulting firm Interbrand, the Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name that was a little catchier than IEEE802. 11b Direct Sequence. Phil Belanger, a member of the Wi-Fi Alliance who presided over the selection of the name Wi-Fi, has stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as a pun upon the word hi-fi. Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo, the yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability
Wifi
–
Wi-Fi
Wifi
–
The
Linksys WRT54G contains a router with an 802.11b/g radio (common in the early 2000s) and two antennas
Wifi
–
A sticker indicating to the public that a location is within range of a Wi-Fi network. A dot with curved lines radiating from it is a common symbol for Wi-Fi, representing a point transmitting a signal.
46.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
47.
Filipino language
–
Filipino /ˌfɪlɪˈpiːnoʊ/, in this usage, refers to the national language of the Philippines. Filipino is also designated, along with English, as a language of the country. It is the register of the Tagalog language, an Austronesian. As of 2007, Tagalog is the first language of 28 million people, or about one-third of the Philippine population, Filipino is among the 185 languages of the Philippines identified in the Ethnologue. Filipino is ideally a pluricentric language, in reality, however, Filipino has been variously described as simply Tagalog in syntax and grammar, with no grammatical element or lexicon coming from. Other major Philippine languages, and as essentially a version of Tagalog. In most contexts, Filipino is understood to be a name for Tagalog. There was no language in the Philippine archipelago when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. The four major trade languages were Visayan, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, as the Philippine languages are all closely related and therefore easy for Filipinos to learn, most speakers of smaller languages spoke two or more of such regional languages. The first dictionary of Tagalog was written by the Franciscan Pedro de San Buenaventura, a latter book of the same name was written by Czech Jesuit missionary Paul Klein at the beginning of the 18th century. Klein spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. On November 13,1936, Commonwealth act No, on November 12,1937, the First National Assembly of the Philippine Commonwealth approved the law for the establishment of the Surián ng Wikang Pambansâ. This institute would be responsible for surveying and researching existing native languages in order to determine among them the basis for a national language of the Philippines. Then-president Manuel L. Quezon later appointed representatives for each major regional language to form NLI, sales Rodriguez, Hadji Butu, and Cecilio Lopez. On December 13,1937, Presisis of the new national language, Spanish was the language of the 1896 Revolution and the Katipunan, but the revolution was led by people who also spoke Tagalog. In 1959, the became known as Pilipino in an effort to dissociate it from the Tagalog ethnic group. However, neither the nor the amended version specified either Tagalog or Pilipino as the basis for Filipino. Instead they tasked the National Assembly to, take steps toward the development and this move has drawn much criticism from the nations other ethnic groups
Filipino language
–
Filipino languages spoken around the country. This only includes languages that have at least 1 million speakers. Note that on regions marked with black diamonds, the language with the most number of speakers denotes a minority of the population.
48.
Thai language
–
Thai, also known as Siamese or Central Thai, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people and the vast majority of Thai Chinese. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family, over half of the words in Thai are borrowed from Pali, Sanskrit and Old Khmer. It is a tonal and analytic language, Thai also has a complex orthography and relational markers. Spoken Thai is mutually intelligible with Laotian, Thai is the official language of Thailand, natively spoken by over 20 million people. Standard Thai is based on the register of the classes of Bangkok. In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages, Isan, the language of the Isan region of Thailand, a collective term for the various Lao dialects spoken in Thailand that show some Siamese Thai influences, which is written with the Thai script. It is spoken by about 20 million people, Thais from both inside and outside the Isan region often simply call this variant Lao when speaking informally. Northern Thai, spoken by about 6 million in the independent kingdom of Lanna. Shares strong similarities with Lao to the point that in the past the Siamese Thais referred to it as Lao. Southern Thai, spoken by about 4.5 million Phu Thai, spoken by half a million around Nakhon Phanom Province. Phuan, spoken by 200,000 in central Thailand and Isan, Shan, spoken by about 100,000 in north-west Thailand along the border with the Shan States of Burma, and by 3.2 million in Burma. Lü, spoken by about 1,000,000 in northern Thailand, and 600,000 more in Sipsong Panna, Burma, nyaw language, spoken by 50,000 in Nakhon Phanom Province, Sakhon Nakhon Province, Udon Thani Province of Northeast Thailand. Song, spoken by about 30,000 in central and northern Thailand, Elegant or Formal Thai, official and written version, includes respectful terms of address, used in simplified form in newspapers. Rhetorical Thai, used for public speaking, religious Thai, used when discussing Buddhism or addressing monks. Royal Thai, influenced by Khmer, this is used when addressing members of the family or describing their activities. Most Thais can speak and understand all of these contexts, street and Elegant Thai are the basis of all conversations. Rhetorical, religious, and royal Thai are taught in schools as the national curriculum, many scholars believe that the Thai script is derived from the Khmer script, which is modeled after the Brahmic script from the Indic family. However, in appearance, Thai is closer to Thai Dam script, the language and its script are closely related to the Lao language and script
Thai language
–
Thai
49.
Myspace
–
Myspace is a social networking website offering an interactive, user-submitted network of friends, personal profiles, blogs, groups, photos, music, and videos. It is headquartered in Beverly Hills, California, Myspace was acquired by News Corporation in July 2005 for $580 million. From 2005 to 2009, Myspace was the largest social networking site in the world, since then, the number of Myspace users has declined steadily in spite of several redesigns. As of March 2017, Myspace was ranked 3,178 by total Web traffic, Myspace had a significant influence on pop culture and music and created a gaming platform that launched the successes of Zynga and RockYou, among others. Despite an overall decline, in 2015 Myspace still had 50.6 million unique visitors and has a pool of nearly 1 billion active and inactive registered users. In June 2009, Myspace employed approximately 1,600 employees, in June 2011, Specific Media Group and Justin Timberlake jointly purchased the company for approximately $35 million. In August 2003, several employees with Friendster accounts saw potential in its social networking features. The group decided to mimic the popular features of the website. Within 10 days, the first version of Myspace was ready for launch, a complete infrastructure of finance, human resources, technical expertise, bandwidth, and server capacity was available for the site. The project was overseen by Brad Greenspan, who managed Chris DeWolfe, Josh Berman, Tom Anderson, the first Myspace users were eUniverse employees. The company held contests to see who could sign up the most users, eUniverse used its 20 million users and e-mail subscribers to breathe life into Myspace, and move it to the head of the pack of social networking websites. A key architect was tech expert Toan Nguyen who helped stabilize the Myspace platform when Brad Greenspan asked him to join the team. Despite over ten times the number of developers, Friendster, which was developed in JavaServer Pages, could not keep up with the speed of development of Myspace and cfm. The MySpace. com domain was owned by YourZ. com, Inc. intended until 2002 for use as an online data storage. By 2004, it was transitioned from a storage service to a social networking site. A friend, who worked in the data storage business. DeWolfe suggested they charge a fee for the basic Myspace service, Brad Greenspan nixed the idea, believing that keeping Myspace free was necessary to make it a successful community. Myspace quickly gained popularity among teenage and young adult social groups, in February 2005, DeWolfe held talks with Mark Zuckerberg over acquiring Facebook but DeWolfe rejected Zuckerbergs $75 million asking price
Myspace
–
Fox Interactive Media headquarters, 407 North Maple Drive,
Beverly Hills, California, where Myspace is also housed.
Myspace
–
Myspace LLC
Myspace
–
Oxfam America President Raymond C. Offenheiser,
Wendi Deng, and
Rupert Murdoch with Myspace co-founders Anderson and DeWolfe at the 2006
Oxfam /Myspace Rock for Darfur event
279,801 (August 2017[update])[1]
