1.
Skillet (band)
–
Skillet is an American Christian rock band formed in Memphis, Tennessee in 1996. The band currently consists of husband John and wife Korey Cooper along with Jen Ledger, the band has released nine albums, two receiving Grammy nominations, Collide and Comatose. Two of their albums, Awake and Comatose, are certified Platinum by RIAA while Rise, is certified Gold as of July 12,2016, Skillet went through several line-up changes early in their career, leaving founder John Cooper as the only original member remaining in the band. They are known for a touring schedule, which garnered them a top five ranking in the Hardest Working Bands of 2010 by Songkick. com. Skillet formed in 1996 with two members, John Cooper, former vocalist for Tennessee progressive rock band Seraph, and Ken Steorts, former guitarist for Urgent Cry. The two bands met through touring together, but those bands disbanded soon after, so John, coming from different styles of rock music, they decided to name the experiment Skillet. After, Trey McClurkin joined the band as a temporary drummer, Skillet was only together for a month when they received interest from major Christian record label ForeFront Records. In 1996 they released a self-titled debut Skillet and it was well-received, and the trio continued to write new material as they toured the United States. One topic that comes up often among fans and the band itself, is the name Skillet, John Cooper, the lead vocalist, explains that it was a joke at first. Each starting band member was already in a band. The band name is somewhat of a joke between the band members, especially Cooper, who claims to still not like the title. Skillet recorded their follow-up album throughout 1997, titled Hey You, I Love Your Soul and their second effort was a change in style from the bands first release. With this release, Skillet would abandon their post-grunge approach for an alternative rock. His wife Korey was enlisted soon after to play live in order to alleviate Johns live performance duties. Korey Cooper joined the band permanently and played keyboards for the recording of Invincible, because of this change, the musical style on Invincible changed to a more electronic sound. Soon after the release of Invincible in early 2000, Trey McClurkin parted ways with Skillet, the band released their first worship album, and fourth album overall, Ardent Worship in late 2000. The band kept much of their sound from Invincible on their next album Alien Youth, with little time between touring and recording, Skillet released Alien Youth on August 28,2001, which was the first album that John Cooper took on production duties. Before the release of Alien Youth, Haaland left the band, the first single, the title track, was a major hit in the Christian market and drove Skillet into their first headlining shows
Skillet (band)
–
Skillet performing live on April 12, 2008 at
Anderson University,
Anderson, Indiana.
Skillet (band)
–
Skillet at the Road to Rise VIP experience in
Nashville, Tennessee on June 14, 2013
Skillet (band)
–
Skillet performing live on July 1, 2010 at
Cornerstone Festival (Illinois).
Skillet (band)
–
Skillet performing in the Komplex457 in Zurich in October 20, 2014
2.
Stainless steel
–
In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French inoxydable, is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10. 5% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel is notable for its resistance, and it is widely used for food handling. Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, however, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity, or poor air-circulation environments. There are various grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure, Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and corrosion resistance are required. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present, unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film is active and accelerates corrosion by making it easier for more iron oxide to form, since iron oxide has lower density than steel, the film expands and tends to flake and fall away. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation and this layer prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and stops corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. Passivation occurs only if the proportion of chromium is high enough, Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are made of stainless steel. This also influences its use in kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned and sterilized. High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% chromium. The chromium forms a layer of chromium oxide when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous, the layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel bolts buried in timber. When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, when forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, a destructive effect known as galling. Galling can be avoided by the use of materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel. However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid, even mildly acidic environment may act as a voltaic pile, nitronic alloys, made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen, may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling, low-temperature carburizing is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication
Stainless steel
–
Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Stainless steel
–
An announcement, as it appeared in the 1915 New York Times, of the development of stainless steel
Stainless steel
–
The 630-foot-high (190 m), stainless-clad (type 304)
Gateway Arch defines
St. Louis's skyline
Stainless steel
–
The pinnacle of New York's Chrysler Building is clad with Nirosta stainless steel, a form of Type 302
3.
Cookware and bakeware
–
Cookware and bakeware are types of food preparation containers, commonly found in a kitchen. Cookware comprises cooking vessels, such as saucepans and frying pans, bakeware comprises cooking vessels intended for use inside an oven. Some utensils are considered both cookware and bakeware, some choices of material also require special pre-preparation of the surface—known as seasoning—before they are used for food preparation. Both the cooking pot and lid handles can be made of the material but will mean that. In order to avoid this, handles can be made of non-heat-conducting materials, for example bakelite and it is best to avoid hollow handles because they are difficult to clean or to dry. A good cooking pot design has an edge which is what the lid lies on. The lid has an edge that avoids condensation fluid from dripping off when handling the lid or putting it down. The history of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is due to the limited archaeological evidence. The earliest pottery vessels, dating from 19, 600±400 BP, were discovered in Xianrendong Cave, Jiangxi, the pottery may have been used as cookware, manufactured by hunter-gatherers. Harvard University archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef reported that When you look at the pots and it is also possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the believed to be used by stone age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines, of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to heated water sources, such as hot springs. In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels, according to Frank Hamilton Cushing, Native American cooking baskets used by the Zuni developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels. He reported witnessing cooking basket use by Havasupai in 1881, roasting baskets covered with clay would be filled with wood coals and the product to be roasted. When the thus fired clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay roasting pan in itself and this indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in other cultures, Native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking baskets are filled with hot stones and roasting pans with wood coals, Native Americans would form a basket from large leaves to boil water, according to historian and novelist Louis LAmour
Cookware and bakeware
–
Various commercial baking pans
Cookware and bakeware
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Ancient Greek casserole and brazier, 6th/4th century BC, exhibited in the Ancient Agora Museum in
Athens, housed in the
Stoa of Attalus.
Cookware and bakeware
–
Two cooking pots (Grapen) from medieval Hamburg circa 1200-1400 AD
Cookware and bakeware
–
Kitchen in the
Uphagen's House in
Long Market,
Gdańsk,
Poland
4.
Frying
–
Frying is the cooking of food in oil or another fat. Chemically, oils and fats are the same, differing only in melting point, foods can be fried in a variety of fats, including lard, vegetable oil, rapeseed oil and olive oil. In commerce, many fats are called oils by custom, e. g. palm oil and coconut oil, a variety of foods may be fried, including the potato chip, bread, eggs and foods made from eggs, such as omelettes or pancakes. Frying is believed to have first appeared in the Ancient Egyptian kitchen, during the Old Kingdom, fats can reach much higher temperatures than water at normal atmospheric pressure. Through frying, one can sear or even carbonize the surface of foods while caramelizing sugars, the food is cooked much more quickly and has a characteristic crispness and texture. Depending on the food, the fat will penetrate it to varying degrees, contributing richness, lubricity, Frying techniques vary in the amount of fat required, the cooking time, the type of cooking vessel required, and the manipulation of the food. Sautéing, stir frying, pan frying, shallow frying, pan frying, sautéing and stir-frying involve cooking foods in a thin layer of fat on a hot surface, such as a frying pan, griddle, wok, or sauteuse. Stir frying involves frying quickly at high temperatures, requiring that the food be stirred continuously to prevent it from adhering to the cooking surface. Shallow frying is a type of pan frying using only enough fat to immerse approximately one-third to one-half of each piece of food, fat used in this technique is typically only used once. Deep-frying, on the hand, involves totally immersing the food in hot oil. Deep-frying is typically a more involved process, and may require specialized oils for optimal results. Deep frying is now the basis of a large and expanding worldwide industry. The end products can then be easily packaged for storage and distribution, examples are potato chips, french fries, nuts, doughnuts, instant noodles, etc. Media related to Frying at Wikimedia Commons
Frying
–
A painting by the Russian artist A. I. Morozov showing frying in the open air
Frying
–
Fried
polenta,
French fries, and
fried chicken at a Brazilian eatery
Frying
–
Poultry and game
Frying
5.
Searing
–
Searing is a technique used in grilling, baking, braising, roasting, sautéing, etc. in which the surface of the food is cooked at high temperature until a caramelized crust forms. Similar techniques, browning and blackening, are used to sear all sides of a particular piece of meat, fish, poultry. To obtain the desired brown or black crust, the surface must exceed 150 °C, so searing requires the meat surface be free of water. Nonetheless, it remains an essential technique in cooking meat for several reasons, The browning creates desirable flavors through caramelization, the appearance of the food is usually improved with a well-browned crust. The contrast in taste and texture between the crust and the interior makes the food more interesting to the palate, typically in grilling, the food will be seared over very high heat and then moved to a lower-temperature area of the grill to finish cooking. In braising, the seared surface acts to flavor, color, the incorrect belief that searing meat seals in the juices is widespread and still often repeated. This theory was first put forth by Justus von Liebig, a German chemist and food scientist, the notion was embraced by contemporary cooks and authors, including Auguste Escoffier. It is more cited in regards to larger cuts, especially steaks and chops, of non-poultry meats such as beef, pork, lamb. Simple experimentation can test the theory, in two similar cuts of meat are cooked, one of which is seared and one of which is not. Each piece is then cooked normally in a preferred method until each reaches exactly the same predetermined internal temperature and they are then weighed to see which lost more moisture. As early as the 1930s, such experiments were carried out, moisture in liquid and vapor form continues to escape from a seared piece of meat
Searing
–
Eel
sushi is seared using a
blow torch.
6.
Maillard reaction
–
The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that gives browned food its distinctive flavor. Seared steaks, pan-fried dumplings, cookies and other kinds of biscuits, breads, toasted marshmallows and it is named after French chemist Louis-Camille Maillard, who first described it in 1912 while attempting to reproduce biological protein synthesis. The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around 140 to 165 °C, at higher temperatures, caramelization and subsequently pyrolysis become more pronounced. This process is accelerated in an environment, as the amino groups are deprotonated and. The type of the acid determines the resulting flavor. This reaction is the basis for many of the flavoring industrys recipes, at high temperatures, a potential carcinogen called acrylamide can be formed. In the process, hundreds of different flavor compounds are created and these compounds, in turn, break down to form yet more new flavor compounds, and so on. Each type of food has a distinctive set of flavor compounds that are formed during the Maillard reaction. It is these same compounds that flavor scientists have used over the years to make artificial flavors, in 1913 Maillard published a paper to explain what happens when amino acids react with sugars at elevated temperatures. However, it was chemist John E. Hodge, working at the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Peoria, Illinois, who published a paper in 1953 that established a mechanism for the Maillard reaction. The structurally related compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline has a smell, and occurs also naturally without heating and gives varieties of cooked rice. Both compounds have odor thresholds below 0.06 ng/l, caramelization is an entirely different process from Maillard browning, though the results of the two processes are sometimes similar to the naked eye. Caramelization may sometimes cause browning in the foods in which the Maillard reaction occurs. They both are promoted by heating, but the Maillard reaction involves amino acids, as discussed above, in making silage, excess heat causes the Maillard reaction to occur, which reduces the amount of energy and protein available to the animals who feed on it. Dicarbonyls react with amine to produce Strecker aldehyde through Strecker degradation, the Maillard reaction also occurs in the human body. It is a step in the formation of advanced glycation endproducts and it is tracked by measuring pentosidine. Although the Maillard reaction has been studied most extensively in foods, it has shown a correlation in numerous different diseases in the human body. In general, these diseases are due to the accumulation of AGEs on nucleic acids, proteins, though AGEs have numerous origins, they can form from the oxidation and dehydration of Amadori adducts, which themselves are products of nonenzymatic Maillard reactions
Maillard reaction
–
The crusts of most
breads, such as this
brioche, are golden-brown due to the Maillard reaction
Maillard reaction
–
Pork browned using maillard reaction
Maillard reaction
–
French fries
Maillard reaction
–
Types
7.
Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki
–
The Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki is a museum in Thessaloniki, Central Macedonia, Greece. It holds and interprets artifacts from the Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods, mostly from the city of Thessaloniki, the museum is housed in a building designed by architect Patroklos Karantinos and is an example of the modern architectural trends of Greece. Built in 1962, the museum had a new wing added to it in 1980, in which the findings from Vergina were displayed, in 2001 and 2004, in the run-up to the 2004 Athens Olympics, the museum was extensively renovated and its permanent exhibits reorganized. The central rooms hold exhibits from the excavations conducted in Thessaloniki. At present, the collection of Archaic to Late Roman sculptures from Thessaloniki and they illustrate the history of Thessaloniki from prehistoric times to Late Antiquity. Apart from its permanent displays, the Archaeological Museum also hosts major temporary, a showcase in the lobby of the museum displays some finds from the excavation of the Neolithic settlement at Makrygialos in Pieria, accompanied by information about the progress of the excavation. In the new wing, the The Gold of Macedon exhibition includes finds from excavations in Central Macedonia. There are also finds from cemeteries, and their role in burial customs is described. The Thessaloniki in Prehistory exhibition aims to recreate a picture of the Thermaic Gulf littoral before the city of Thessaloniki was built. On 26 February 2010, Greek authorities arrested two men found in possession of various antiquities, including a bronze statue of Alexander. If confirmed, this would make it the first original work of Lysippos ever discovered, the statue is currently being examined at the laboratory of the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, which is expected to confirm or deny its authenticity
Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki
–
Thessaloniki Archaeological Museum Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο Θεσσαλονίκης
Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki
–
The statue of Harpocrates.
Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki
–
Fragments of a marble sarcophagus depicting the Caledonian boar-hunt.
Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki
–
Restored parts from the Temple of Aphrodite located in Thessaloniki almost completely buried
8.
Mesopotamia
–
In the Iron Age, it was controlled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires. The Sumerians and Akkadians dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of history to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthian Empire. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD226, eastern part of it fell to the Sassanid Persians, division of Mesopotamia between Roman and Sassanid Empires lasted until the 7th century Muslim conquest of Persia of the Sasanian Empire and Muslim conquest of the Levant from Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including Adiabene, Osroene, and Hatra, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. The regional toponym Mesopotamia comes from the ancient Greek root words μέσος middle and ποταμός river and it is used throughout the Greek Septuagint to translate the Hebrew equivalent Naharaim. In the Anabasis, Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria, the Aramaic term biritum/birit narim corresponded to a similar geographical concept. The neighbouring steppes to the west of the Euphrates and the part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopotamia. A further distinction is made between Northern or Upper Mesopotamia and Southern or Lower Mesopotamia. Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the Jazira, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad, Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran. In modern academic usage, the term Mesopotamia often also has a chronological connotation and it is usually used to designate the area until the Muslim conquests, with names like Syria, Jazirah, and Iraq being used to describe the region after that date. It has been argued that these later euphemisms are Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments, Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the Armenian Highlands. Both rivers are fed by tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 15,000 square kilometres region of marshes, lagoons, mud flats, in the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times, periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and these trends have continued to the present day in Iraq
Mesopotamia
–
Known world of the Mesopotamian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures from documentary sources
Mesopotamia
–
Map showing the extent of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
–
One of 18
Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090 BC
Mesopotamia
–
One of the
Nimrud ivories shows a lion eating a man. Neo-Assyrian period, 9th to 7th centuries BC.
9.
Ancient Greece
–
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
Ancient Greece
–
The
Parthenon, a temple dedicated to
Athena, located on the
Acropolis in
Athens, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.
Ancient Greece
–
Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period, or the beginning of the Archaic period,
c. 750 BC.
Ancient Greece
–
Political geography of ancient Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods
10.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
–
Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
11.
Ancient Rome
–
In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Rome
–
Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Rome
–
Roman Republic
Ancient Rome
–
According to legend,
Rome was founded in 753 BC by
Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Rome
–
This bust from the
Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of
Lucius Junius Brutus.
12.
Old English
–
Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
Old English
–
A detail of the first page of the
Beowulf manuscript, showing the words "ofer hron rade", i.e. "over the whale's road (=sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the
kenning.
Old English
–
North Germanic
Old English
–
"Her swutelað seo gecwydrædnes ðe" Old English inscription over the arch of the south porticus in the 10th-century
St Mary's parish church, Breamore, Hampshire
Old English
–
The first page of the
Beowulf manuscript with its opening Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
13.
Kitchen stove
–
A kitchen stove, usually called a gas range, range, cooker, or oven is a kitchen appliance designed for the purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on the application of heat for the cooking process and may also contain an oven. When homes began to be heated with heating systems, there was less need for an appliance that served as both heat source and cooker and stand-alone cookers replaced them. Cooker and stove are often used interchangeably, the fuel-burning stove is the most basic design of kitchen stove. Nearly half of the people in the world, burn biomass, more fuel efficient and environmentally sound biomass cook stoves are being developed for use there. Modern kitchen stoves may use alternative methods for heating food, natural gas and electric stoves are the most common today in western countries. In particular, professional chefs often prefer gas cooktops, for they allow them to control the more finely. On the other hand, some chefs often prefer electric stoves because they tend to heat more evenly. Todays major brands offer both gas and electric stoves, and many also offer dual-fuel stoves combining gas and electric cooktops Modern kitchen stoves have both burners on the top as well as an oven. A cooktop can refer to the top of a stove or burners built into a countertop, many newer cooktops are made of glass-ceramic. A drop-in range a combination unit that installs in a kitchens lower cabinets flush with the countertop. Most modern stoves come in a unit with built-in extractor hoods, early clay stoves that enclosed the fire completely, were known from the Chinese Qin Dynasty, and a similar design known as kamado appeared in the Kofun period in Japan. These stoves were fired by wood or charcoal through a hole in the front, in both designs, pots were placed over or hung into holes at the top of the knee-high construction. Raised kamados were developed in Japan during the Edo period, prior to the 18th century in Europe, people cooked over open fires fueled by wood. In the Middle Ages, waist-high brick-and-mortar hearths and the first chimneys appeared, the fire was built on top of the construction, the cooking done mainly in cauldrons hung above the fire or placed on trivets. The heat was regulated by placing the cauldron higher or lower above the fire, attempts were made to enclose the fire to make better use of the heat that it generated and thus reduce the wood consumption. An early step was the chamber, the fire was enclosed on three sides by brick-and-mortar walls and covered by an iron plate. This technique also caused a change in the used for cooking
Kitchen stove
–
A wood burning iron stove
Kitchen stove
–
A stove at Holzwarth Ranch National Historic Site in
Rocky Mountain National Park,
Colorado
Kitchen stove
–
Indonesian traditional
brick stove which is still used in some rural areas
Kitchen stove
–
The 18th-century Japanese merchant's kitchen, Kamado (Hezzui) made of copper (Fukagawa Edo Museum)
14.
Barbecue grill
–
A barbecue grill is a device that cooks food by applying heat from below. There are several varieties of grills, with most falling into one of two categories, gas-fueled or charcoal, there is debate over which method yields superior results. Grilling has existed in the Americas since pre-Colonial times, the Arawak people of South America roasted meat on a wooden structure called a barbacoa in Spanish. For centuries, the term referred to the wooden structure and not the act of grilling. It was also applied to the cooking techniques now frequently used in the Southeastern United States. Barbecue was originally used to slow-cook hogs, however, different ways of preparing food led to regional variations, over time, other foods were cooked in a similar fashion, with hamburgers and hot dogs being recent additions. Kingsford invented the modern charcoal briquette, Kingsford was a relative of Henry Ford who assigned him the task of establishing a Ford auto parts plant and sawmill in northern Michigan, a challenge that Kingsford embraced. The local community grew and was named Kingsford in his honor, Kingsford noticed that Fords Model T production lines were generating a large amount of wood scraps that were being discarded. He suggested to Ford that a manufacturing facility be established next to the assembly line to process. Several years after Kingsfords death, the company was sold to local businessmen. George Stephen created the iconic hemispherical grill design, jokingly called Sputnik by Stephens neighbors, Stephen, a welder, worked for Weber Brothers Metal Works, a metal fabrication shop primarily concerned with welding steel spheres together to make buoys. Stephen was tired of the wind blowing ash onto his food when he grilled so he took the half of a buoy. He took the home and following some initial success, started the Weber-Stephen Products Co. The outdoor gas grill was invented in the early 1950s by Don McGlaughlin, owner of the Chicago Combustion Corporation, McGlaughlin invented the first built-in grill from the successful gas broiler called BROILBURGER. These first Lazy-Man grills were marketed as open-fire charcoal-type gas broilers which featured permanent coals, in the 1950s, most residential households did not have a barbecue, so the term broiler was used for marketing purposes to commercial establishments. The gas open-broiler design was adapted into the first portable gas grill in 1954 by Chicago Combustion Corporation as the Model AP, mcGlaughlins portable design was the first to feature the use of the 20-lb propane cylinders, which previously were exclusively used by plumbers as a fuel source. Gas grills are available in sizes ranging from small, single steak grills up to large, gas grills are designed for either LP or NG, although its possible to convert a grill from one gas source to another. The majority of gas grills follow the cart grill design concept, the wheeled frame may also support side tables and other features
Barbecue grill
–
Food cooking on a
charcoal grill
Barbecue grill
–
The LazyMan Model AP, the world's first portable gas grill. Taken during the summer of 1954.
Barbecue grill
–
A single-burner
propane gas grill that conforms to the cart grill design common among gas grills.
Barbecue grill
–
An ignited
Infrared grill burner, only seeing the visible light spectrum.
15.
Rappie pie
–
Rappie pie is a traditional Acadian dish from southwest Nova Scotia and areas of Prince Edward Island. It is sometimes referred to as pie or râpure. Its name is derived from the French patates râpées meaning grated potatoes and it is a casserole-like dish traditionally formed by grating potatoes, then squeezing them through cheesecloth. This removes some of the water from the potato solids, the liquid removed is replaced by adding hot broth made from chicken, pork or seafood along with meat and onions, and layering additional grated potatoes over the top. Common meat fillings include beef, chicken, or bar clams and it is thought that rappie pie has its origins in the Acadian Expulsion, among Acadians who chose to live out their exile in Boston. This opportunity to meet and interact with other immigrant groups would naturally encourage a sharing of cultural recipes, when they returned, they found that their fertile land had been given to New Englanders lured north by the promise of farmland. The harsh, rocky land that remained was excellent for growing potatoes, if little else, gratin, the French cuisine cooking technique Rösti, the national Swiss dish of shredded potatoes Hotdish, the Northern Midwestern American casserole List of casserole dishes
Rappie pie
–
A serving of Rappie pie, on a plate with tomato and dressing
16.
Aluminum
–
Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
Aluminum
–
Aluminium, 13 Al
Aluminum
–
Spectral lines of aluminium
Aluminum
–
"
Red mud " storage facility in
Stade,
Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.
Aluminum
–
Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of
iron minerals.
17.
Cast iron cookware
–
Cast iron cookware are valued for their heat retention properties, and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep fryers, tetsubin, woks, potjies, karahi, flattop grills, bare cast iron vessels have been used for cooking for over two thousand years. Cast iron cauldrons and cooking pots were valued as items for their durability and their ability to retain heat. In Europe, before the introduction of the stove in the middle of the 19th century, meals were cooked in the hearth or fireplace. This meant that all cooking vessels had to be designed to be suspended on, or in, Cast iron pots were made with handles to allow them to be hung over a fire, or with legs so that they could stand up in the fireplace. Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular, Cast iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers and housekeepers during the first half of the 20th century. Most American households had at least one cast iron cooking pan, the Lodge Manufacturing company is currently the only major manufacturer of cast iron cookware in the United States, as most other cookware suppliers use pots and pans made in Asia or Europe. The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel-coated cast iron cookware, Cast iron fell out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s, as teflon-coated aluminum non-stick cookware was introduced and quickly became the item of choice in many kitchens. Today, a selection of cookware can be purchased from kitchen suppliers. Because cast iron skillets can develop a non-stick surface, they are also a choice for egg dishes. Other uses of cast iron pans include baking, for instance for making cornbread, cobblers, most bare cast iron pots and pans are cast as a single piece of metal, including the handle. This allows them to be used on both the stovetop and in the oven, likewise, cast iron skillets can double as baking dishes. This differs from other cooking pots, which have varying components that may be damaged by the excessive temperatures of 400 °F or more. An American Dietetic Association study found that cast iron cookware can leach significant amounts of iron into food. The amounts of iron absorbed varied greatly depending on the food, its acidity, its content, how long it was cooked. The iron in spaghetti sauce increased 2,109 percent, while other foods increased less dramatically, for example, people with hemochromatosis should avoid using cast iron cookware because of the iron leaching effect into the food. A seasoned pan has a stick-resistant coating created by polymerized oils, seasoning is a process by which a layer of animal fat or vegetable oil is applied and cooked onto cast iron or carbon steel cookware
Cast iron cookware
–
A cast iron
skillet
Cast iron cookware
–
19th century legged "spider" pan, manufactured approximately 1850
Cast iron cookware
–
Enamel coated iron pans
18.
Outdoor cooking
–
Outdoor cooking differs substantially from kitchen-based cooking, the most obvious difference being lack of an easily defined kitchen area. As a result, campers and backpackers have developed a significant body of techniques, the type of food common in outdoors settings is somewhat different compared to household foods, and also differs depending on the type of cooking activity. Water can also be at a premium, so important parts of a campers pantry include chlorine or iodine-based water disinfectants as well as drink mixes to mask the flavor of the chemical treatment. Alternatively, some experts advocate bulk rationing, in which each hiker is given a selection of raw ingredients. Most outdoor cooking is dictated by the foods themselves which are to be cooked, the first five discussions below, of direct heat, boiling, frying, grilling, and roasting, will, perhaps, describe the cooking methods employed most often in outdoor cooking. These techniques will require only rudimentary, commonsensical tools, additional methods described farther below may be of interest only to those foodies who carry their interests into the outdoors for gourmet meals. These advanced methods may require additional equipment or techniques, the most traditional method for outdoor cooking is by means of a campfire. Campfires can be used for cooking food by a number of techniques, the techniques for cooking on a campfire are no different from those used for everyday cooking before the invention of stoves or where stoves are still not available. Like camp frying pans, camp pots are made of very lightweight material. Though less of a worry given the mass of water. Alternatively, a container is placed above the fire. Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on skewers that can be held above the flames. This is popular for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making smores, hungarians often roast slab bacon over a campfire. Besides skewers and fireplace popcorn popper, pie irons too may be used, when using meat, roasting can have the advantage over grilling in that the grease that drips from the food can be reused. This can be done by placing a container under the food. Grills are simple to use and food being grilled tends to pick up flavors from the smoke, Grills over a campfire are used in the same way as ordinary charcoal barbecues. If the food is placed on the grill, it may catch fire so it requires constant attention. Hand-held grills, aka broiler that clamp over the food may be used for tasks like warming food
Outdoor cooking
–
Cooking in the
outdoors using heated stone
Outdoor cooking
–
A gas cartridge
portable stove
Outdoor cooking
–
Australian "snags" (English style
sausages) cooking on a
campfire
Outdoor cooking
–
Heat
convection in a
hobo stove (schematic)
19.
Aluminium
–
Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
Aluminium
–
Aluminium, 13 Al
Aluminium
–
Spectral lines of aluminium
Aluminium
–
"
Red mud " storage facility in
Stade,
Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.
Aluminium
–
Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of
iron minerals.
20.
Anodized aluminium
–
Anodizing is an electrolytic passivation process used to increase the thickness of the natural oxide layer on the surface of metal parts. The process is called anodizing because the part to be treated forms the anode electrode of an electrical circuit, anodizing increases resistance to corrosion and wear, and provides better adhesion for paint primers and glues than bare metal does. Anodizing is also used to prevent galling of threaded components and to make films for electrolytic capacitors. Anodic films are most commonly applied to aluminium alloys, although processes also exist for titanium, zinc, magnesium, niobium, zirconium, hafnium. Carbon flakes or nodules in iron or steel with carbon content may cause an electrolytic potential. Ferrous metals are commonly anodized electrolytically in nitric acid or by treatment with red fuming nitric acid to form hard black ferric oxide and this oxide remains conformal even when plated on wire and the wire is bent. Anodizing changes the texture of the surface and the crystal structure of the metal near the surface. Thick coatings are normally porous, so a process is often needed to achieve corrosion resistance. Anodized aluminium surfaces, for example, are harder than aluminium but have low to moderate wear resistance that can be improved with increasing thickness or by applying suitable sealing substances. Anodic films are much stronger and more adherent than most types of paint and metal plating. This makes them likely to crack and peel from aging and wear. Anodizing was first used on a scale in 1923 to protect Duralumin seaplane parts from corrosion. This early chromic acid–based process was called the Bengough–Stuart process and was documented in British defence specification DEF STAN 03-24/3 and it is still used today despite its legacy requirements for a complicated voltage cycle now known to be unnecessary. Variations of this soon evolved, and the first sulfuric acid anodizing process was patented by Gower. Sulfuric acid soon became and remains the most common anodizing electrolyte, oxalic acid anodizing was first patented in Japan in 1923 and later widely used in Germany, particularly for architectural applications. Anodized aluminium extrusion was an architectural material in the 1960s and 1970s. The phosphoric acid processes are the most recent major development, so far only used as pretreatments for adhesives or organic paints, aluminium alloys are anodized to increase corrosion resistance and to allow dyeing, improved lubrication, or improved adhesion. However, anodizing does not increase the strength of the aluminium object, aluminium alloys typically form a thicker oxide layer, 5–15 nm thick, but tend to be more susceptible to corrosion
Anodized aluminium
–
These
carabiners have an anodized aluminium surface that has been dyed; they are made in many colors.
21.
Cast-iron cookware
–
Cast iron cookware are valued for their heat retention properties, and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep fryers, tetsubin, woks, potjies, karahi, flattop grills, bare cast iron vessels have been used for cooking for over two thousand years. Cast iron cauldrons and cooking pots were valued as items for their durability and their ability to retain heat. In Europe, before the introduction of the stove in the middle of the 19th century, meals were cooked in the hearth or fireplace. This meant that all cooking vessels had to be designed to be suspended on, or in, Cast iron pots were made with handles to allow them to be hung over a fire, or with legs so that they could stand up in the fireplace. Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular, Cast iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers and housekeepers during the first half of the 20th century. Most American households had at least one cast iron cooking pan, the Lodge Manufacturing company is currently the only major manufacturer of cast iron cookware in the United States, as most other cookware suppliers use pots and pans made in Asia or Europe. The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel-coated cast iron cookware, Cast iron fell out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s, as teflon-coated aluminum non-stick cookware was introduced and quickly became the item of choice in many kitchens. Today, a selection of cookware can be purchased from kitchen suppliers. Because cast iron skillets can develop a non-stick surface, they are also a choice for egg dishes. Other uses of cast iron pans include baking, for instance for making cornbread, cobblers, most bare cast iron pots and pans are cast as a single piece of metal, including the handle. This allows them to be used on both the stovetop and in the oven, likewise, cast iron skillets can double as baking dishes. This differs from other cooking pots, which have varying components that may be damaged by the excessive temperatures of 400 °F or more. An American Dietetic Association study found that cast iron cookware can leach significant amounts of iron into food. The amounts of iron absorbed varied greatly depending on the food, its acidity, its content, how long it was cooked. The iron in spaghetti sauce increased 2,109 percent, while other foods increased less dramatically, for example, people with hemochromatosis should avoid using cast iron cookware because of the iron leaching effect into the food. A seasoned pan has a stick-resistant coating created by polymerized oils, seasoning is a process by which a layer of animal fat or vegetable oil is applied and cooked onto cast iron or carbon steel cookware
Cast-iron cookware
–
A cast iron
skillet
Cast-iron cookware
–
19th century legged "spider" pan, manufactured approximately 1850
Cast-iron cookware
–
Enamel coated iron pans
22.
Copper
–
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
Copper
–
Native copper (~4 cm in size)
Copper
–
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by
continuous casting;
etched to reveal
crystallites.
Copper
–
Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange
incandescence color.
Copper
–
Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right).
23.
Non-stick surface
–
A non-stick surface is a surface engineered to reduce the ability of other materials to stick to it. Non-stick cookware is an application, where the non-stick coating allows food to brown without sticking to the pan. Non-stick is often used to refer to surfaces coated with polytetrafluoroethylene, in the twenty-first century other coatings have been marketed as non-stick, such as anodized aluminium, ceramics, silicone, enameled cast iron, and seasoned cookware. The Mycenaean Greeks might have used non-stick pans to make more than 3,000 years ago. Mycenaean ceramic griddles had one side and one side covered with tiny holes. The bread was probably placed on the side with the holes, the holes seemed to be an ancient non-sticking technology, ensuring that oil spread evenly over the griddle. The modern non-stick pans were made using a coating of Teflon, PTFE was invented serendipitously by Roy Plunkett in 1938, while working for a joint venture of the DuPont company. The substance was found to have unique properties, including very good corrosion-resistance. PTFE was first used to make seals resistant to the uranium hexafluoride gas used in development of the bomb during World War II. Dupont registered the Teflon trademark in 1944 and soon began planning for post-war commercial use of the new product, while working at DuPont, NYU Tandon School of Engineering alumnus John Gilbert was asked to evaluate a newly- developed material called Teflon. His experiments using the polymer as a surface coating for pots. A few years later, a French engineer had begun coating his fishing gear with Teflon to prevent tangles and his wife Colette suggested using the same method to coat her cooking pans. The idea was successful and a French patent was granted for the process in 1954, the Tefal company was formed in 1956 to manufacture non-stick pans. Not all non-stick pans use Teflon, other coatings have become available. For example, a mixture of titanium and ceramic can be sandblasted onto the pan surface, polytetrafluoroethylene is a synthetic fluoropolymer used in various applications including non-stick coatings. Teflon is a brand of PTFE, often used as a term for PTFE. The metallic substrate is roughened to promote adhesion, and layers of PTFE, from one to seven, are sprayed or rolled on, with a number of layers. The number and thickness of the layers and quality of the material determine the quality of the non-stick coating, better-quality coatings are more durable, and less likely to peel and flake, and keep their non-stick properties for longer
Non-stick surface
–
Food in a non-stick pan
24.
Non-stick pan
–
Cookware and bakeware are types of food preparation containers, commonly found in a kitchen. Cookware comprises cooking vessels, such as saucepans and frying pans, bakeware comprises cooking vessels intended for use inside an oven. Some utensils are considered both cookware and bakeware, some choices of material also require special pre-preparation of the surface—known as seasoning—before they are used for food preparation. Both the cooking pot and lid handles can be made of the material but will mean that. In order to avoid this, handles can be made of non-heat-conducting materials, for example bakelite and it is best to avoid hollow handles because they are difficult to clean or to dry. A good cooking pot design has an edge which is what the lid lies on. The lid has an edge that avoids condensation fluid from dripping off when handling the lid or putting it down. The history of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is due to the limited archaeological evidence. The earliest pottery vessels, dating from 19, 600±400 BP, were discovered in Xianrendong Cave, Jiangxi, the pottery may have been used as cookware, manufactured by hunter-gatherers. Harvard University archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef reported that When you look at the pots and it is also possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the believed to be used by stone age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines, of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to heated water sources, such as hot springs. In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels, according to Frank Hamilton Cushing, Native American cooking baskets used by the Zuni developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels. He reported witnessing cooking basket use by Havasupai in 1881, roasting baskets covered with clay would be filled with wood coals and the product to be roasted. When the thus fired clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay roasting pan in itself and this indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in other cultures, Native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking baskets are filled with hot stones and roasting pans with wood coals, Native Americans would form a basket from large leaves to boil water, according to historian and novelist Louis LAmour
Non-stick pan
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Various commercial baking pans
Non-stick pan
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Ancient Greek casserole and brazier, 6th/4th century BC, exhibited in the Ancient Agora Museum in
Athens, housed in the
Stoa of Attalus.
Non-stick pan
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Two cooking pots (Grapen) from medieval Hamburg circa 1200-1400 AD
Non-stick pan
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Kitchen in the
Uphagen's House in
Long Market,
Gdańsk,
Poland
25.
Teflon
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Polytetrafluoroethylene is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The best known name of PTFE-based formulas is Teflon by Chemours. Chemours is a spin-off of DuPont Co. which discovered the compound in 1938, PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high-molecular-weight compound consisting wholly of carbon and fluorine. PTFE is hydrophobic, neither water nor water-containing substances wet PTFE, PTFE has one of the lowest coefficients of friction of any solid. PTFE is used as a coating for pans and other cookware. It is very non-reactive, partly because of the strength of carbon–fluorine bonds, where used as a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction, wear and energy consumption of machinery. It is commonly used as a material in surgical interventions. Also, it is employed as coating on catheters, this interferes with the ability of bacteria and other infectious agents to adhere to catheters. PTFE was accidentally discovered in 1938 by Roy Plunkett while he was working in New Jersey for DuPont. Since Plunkett was measuring the amount of gas used by weighing the bottle, he became curious as to the source of the weight and he found the bottles interior coated with a waxy white material that was oddly slippery. Analysis showed that it was polymerized perfluoroethylene, with the iron from the inside of the container having acted as a catalyst at high pressure, Kinetic Chemicals patented the new fluorinated plastic in 1941, and registered the Teflon trademark in 1945. By 1948, DuPont, which founded Kinetic Chemicals in partnership with General Motors, was producing two million pounds of Teflon brand PTFE per year in Parkersburg, West Virginia. In 1954, the wife of French engineer Marc Grégoire urged him to try the material he had been using on fishing tackle on her cooking pans and he subsequently created the first Teflon-coated, non-stick pans under the brandname Tefal. In the United States, Marion A. Trozzolo, who had been using the substance on scientific utensils, marketed the first US-made Teflon-coated pan, The Happy Pan, however, Tefal was not the only company to utilize PTFE in nonstick cookware coatings. Other cookware companies, such as Meyer Corporations Anolon, use Teflon nonstick coatings purchased from DuPont, in the 1990s, it was found that PTFE could be radiation cross-linked above its melting point in an oxygen-free environment. Electron beam processing is one example of radiation processing, cross-linked PTFE has improved high-temperature mechanical properties and radiation stability. This was significant because, for years, irradiation at ambient conditions has been used to break down PTFE for recycling. This radiation-induced chain scission allows it to be more easily reground, PTFE is produced by free-radical polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene
Teflon
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Teflon thermal cover showing impact craters, from NASA's Ultra Heavy Cosmic Ray Experiment (UHCRE)
Teflon
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Polytetrafluoroethylene
Teflon
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PTFE is often used to coat
non-stick pans as it is
hydrophobic and possesses fairly high heat resistance.
Teflon
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"Amazing New Concept in Cooking"
26.
Spatulas
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A spatula is a small implement with a broad, flat, flexible blade used to mix, spread and lift material including foods, drugs, plaster and paints. It derives from the Latin word for a piece of wood or splint. The words spade and spathe are similarly derived, the word spatula is known to have been used in English since 1525. Spatulas are usually used to out a dry measuring cup. It is a tool with two flat edges on a flexible blade, a spatula is usually short and about 8 inches long. A spatula also refers to a turner which is used to flip over pancakes, in kitchen utensils, a spatula is any utensil fitting the above description. One variety is used to lift and flip food items during cooking, such as pancakes, the blade on these are usually made of metal or plastic, with a wooden or plastic handle to insulate them from heat. A cookie shovel is a specialty spatula with a blade, made for scooping cookies off their pan. A frosting spatula is known as palette knife and is usually made of metal or plastic. Bowl and plate scrapers are sometimes called spatulas, in British English a spatula is similar in shape to a palette knife without holes in a flexible and or detachable blade. A wide-bladed utensil with holes in a solid blade used for turning food is a fish slice. In laboratories, spatulas and microspatulas are small stainless steel utensils, used for scraping, transferring, or applying powders, many spatula brands are also resistant to acids, bases, heat, and solvents, which make them ideal for use with a wide range of compound. A common type would be stainless steel spatulas, which are used because they are sturdy. They are resistant to deterioration from contact with boiling water, acids, bases, some of them come with Polyvinyl chloride plastic handle or riveted hardwood for better handling. Polystyrene spatulas are made for researchers because they are disposable, preventing any potential contaminations which occurs often with reusable spatulas and they are also ideal for handling lyophilized products or performing lyophilization
Spatulas
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A stainless laboratory spatula
Spatulas
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Examples of scrapers. In
American English, the rubber scraper (left) is often called a spatula by some because it is a flat utensil used for scraping or spreading.
Spatulas
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This is one of many uses of stainless steel spatula, it can be used to aid the removal of filter paper from vacuum filtration.
27.
Deglazing (cooking)
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Deglazing is a cooking technique for removing and dissolving browned food residue from a pan to flavor sauces, soups, and gravies. The French culinary term for these deposits is sucs, pronounced, ), the meat is removed and the majority of the fat is poured off, leaving a small amount with the dried and browned meat juices. The pan is returned to the heat, and a such as vegetable or meat stock. Dairy, however, is not recommended for deglazing, as it may curdle when added to high heat. The solvent allows the cook to scrape the dark spots from the bottom of the pan and dissolve them, the culinary term fond, French for base or foundation, refers to this sauce, although it is also sometimes used to describe the browned food bits instead. Burned pieces should not be confused with fond, which is dark brown, the flavour is determined chiefly by the meat, the liquid used for deglazing, and any flavouring or finishing ingredients added, such as aromatics, herbs, or butter. This method is the cornerstone of many well-known sauces and gravies, the resulting liquid can be seasoned and served on its own, or with the addition of aromatic vegetables, such as onions or shallots, carrots, and celery, or used as the base for a soup. Deglazing can also be used while cooking vegetables, especially ones which have left sugars at the bottom of a pan and it is commonly used in caramelizing onions. Because vegetables do not produce as much fat, they do not need to be removed from the pan to pour off excess grease. Instead, the liquid can be added directly to the pan and stirred, allowing the fond to meld with the vegetables, deglazing, It works like magic, Leslie Brenner - Los Angeles Times
Deglazing (cooking)
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Pork sirloin chop with cider pan sauce
Deglazing (cooking)
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Sucs left in a white enamel pot after browning pork
Deglazing (cooking)
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A chicken-based
bouillon in the process of preparation
28.
Cooking stove
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A biomass cook stove is heated by burning wood, charcoal, animal dung or crop residue. Cook stoves are used for cooking and heating food in developing countries. Households in developing countries consume significantly less energy than those in developed countries, the average rural family spends 20% or more of its income purchasing wood or charcoal for cooking. The urban poor also frequently spend a significant portion of their income on the purchase of wood or charcoal, cooking over a traditional open fire or mud stove can cause increased health problems brought on from the smoke, particularly lung and eye ailments, but also birth defects. The health problems associated with cooking using biomass in traditional stoves affect women and children most strongly, replacing the traditional 3-rock cook stove or mud stove with an improved one and venting the smoke out of the house through a chimney can significantly improve a family’s health. Deforestation and erosion result from harvesting wood for cooking fuel. The traditional method of cooking is on a cooking fire or on a mud stove. The three-stone fire is the cheapest stove to produce, requiring only three stones of the same height on which a cooking pot can be balanced over a fire. However, this method also has problems, Smoke is vented into the home, instead of outdoors. According to the World Health Organization,4.3 million people a year die prematurely from illness attributable to the air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid fuels. Fuel is wasted, as heat is allowed to escape into the open air and this requires the user to gather more fuel and may result in increased deforestation if wood is used for fuel. Only one cooking pot can be used at a time, the use of an open fire creates a risk of burns and scalds. Particularly when the stove is used indoors, cramped conditions make adults and particularly children susceptible to falling or stepping into the fire and receiving burns. Additionally, accidental spills of boiling water may result in scalding, the World Health Organization has documented the significant number of deaths caused by smoke from home fires. The negative impacts can be reduced by using improved cook stoves, improved fuels, changes to the environment, however, a closed stove may result in production of more soot and ultra-fine particles than an open fire would. The traditional Lao stove needs an average of 385 kilograms of charcoal and 450 kilograms of wood per year as fuel, for making a kilogram of charcoal about seven kilograms of wood is needed. The report also indicates that in Cambodia 369,000 tons of non-renewable biomass wood fuel is consumed yearly for charcoal production for these stoves, some designs also make the stove safer, preventing burns that often occur when children stumble into open fires. Some of the new designs are as follows, A variety of new brick
Cooking stove
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Stove manufacture in
Senegal.
Cooking stove
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cooking
tortillas (
flatbread) on a wood-fired 3-stone stove
Cooking stove
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Dos por Tres Stove
Cooking stove
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The BioLite CampStove
29.
Microwave oven
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A microwave oven is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the Radarange, it was first sold in 1946, Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They are also useful for heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items, which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water. Some modern microwave ovens are part of units with built-in extractor hoods. The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago Worlds Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW,60 MHz shortwave transmitter. The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and this patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz. The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of waves of a small enough wavelength. The magnetron was originally a component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II. A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, sir Henry Tizard travelled to the U. S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help. An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for mass production of the magnetron. In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from a radar set he was working on started to melt a candy bar he had in his pocket
Microwave oven
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Demonstration by Westinghouse of cooking sandwiches with a 60 MHz shortwave radio transmitter at the
1933 Chicago World's Fair
Microwave oven
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A modern microwave oven
Microwave oven
Microwave oven
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Microwave ovens, several from the 1980s
30.
Pan-frying
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Pan frying is a form of frying characterized by the use of minimal cooking oil or fat, typically using just enough oil to lubricate the pan. In the case of a greasy food such as bacon, no oil or fats may be needed, as a form of frying, pan frying relies on oil as the heat transfer medium and on correct temperature and time to retain the moisture in the food. Because of the coverage, the food must be flipped at least once to cook both sides. A pan fry takes place at lower heat than does a sauté and this is because the food to be pan-fried, such as chicken breasts, steak, pork chops or fish fillets, is not cut into small pieces before cooking. Pan frying requires a lower heat so that the exterior of the food does not overcook until the interior reaches the proper temperature. The same amount of oil is used as for a sauté – just enough to glaze the pan –, the oil should always be hot enough to ensure that the moisture in the food can escape in the form of steam. The force of the keeps the oil from soaking into the food. Generally, a cooking vessel is used for pan frying than deep frying. A denser cooking vessel is better than a less dense pan because that mass will improve temperature regulation, an electric skillet can be used analogously to an electric deep fryer and many of these devices have a thermostat to keep the liquid at the desired temperature. Foods to be pan-fried are sometimes covered with a batter or breading, batters consist of dried ingredients such as flour or cornstarch in conjunction with liquids such as milk, water or other beverages. Breading can be as simple as dusting the food in flour or more commonly what is called the standard breading procedure. The standard breading procedure involves first dusting the food in flour, then dipping it in beaten eggs, season the food with salt and pepper prior to coating. Allowing the food to rest for 15–30 minutes before frying enables the breading to stick to the food with greater tenacity, shallow frying Sautéing Deep frying Frying pan
Pan-frying
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Pan frying sausages
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