1.
Automotive industry
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The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
2.
Arms industry
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The arms industry, also known as the defense industry or the arms trade, is a global industry responsible for the manufacturing and sales of weapons and military technology. It consists of a commercial industry involved in the research and development, engineering, production, and servicing of military material, equipment, and facilities. Arms-producing companies, also referred to as arms dealers, defense contractors, or as the industry, produce arms for the armed forces of states. Departments of government also operate in the industry, buying and selling weapons, munitions. An arsenal is a place where arms and ammunition are made, maintained and repaired, stored, or issued, in any combination, the arms industry also provides other logistical and operational support. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimated in 2012 that 2012 military expenditures were roughly 1.8 trillion United States dollars and this represents a relative decline from 1990 when military expenditures made up 4% of world GDP. Part of the money goes to the procurement of military hardware, the combined arms sales of the top 100 largest arms-producing companies amounted to an estimated $395 billion in 2012 according to SIPRI. In 2004 over $30 billion were spent in the arms trade. According to SIPRI, the volume of transfers of major weapons in 2010–14 was 16 per cent higher than in 2005–2009. The five biggest exporters in 2010–2014 were the United States, Russia, China, Germany and France, and the five biggest importers were India, Saudi Arabia, China, many industrialized countries have a domestic arms-industry to supply their own military forces. Some countries also have a legal or illegal domestic trade in weapons for use by its citizens, primarily for self-defense. Illegal trade in small arms occurs in countries and regions affected by political instability. The Small Arms Survey estimates that 875 million small arms circulate worldwide, contracts to supply a given countrys military are awarded by governments, making arms contracts of substantial political importance. Various corporations, some publicly held, others private, bid for these contracts, other times, no bidding or competition takes place. The modern arms industry emerged in the half of the nineteenth century as a product of the creation and expansion of the first large military-industrial companies. In 1854, the British government awarded a contract to the Elswick Ordnance Company of industrialist William Armstrong for the supply of his latest breech loading rifled artillery pieces and this galvanised the private sector into weapons production, with the surplus being increasingly exported to foreign countries. Armstrong became one of the first international arms dealers, selling his weapon systems to governments across the world from Brazil to Japan. In 1884, he opened a shipyard at Elswick to specialise in warship production—at the time, it was the factory in the world that could build a battleship
3.
Nizhny Novgorod
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Nizhny Novgorod, colloquially shortened to Nizhny, is a city in the administrative center of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and Volga Federal District in Russia. From 1932 to 1990, it was known as Gorky, after the writer Maxim Gorky, the city is an important economic, transportation, scientific, educational and cultural center in Russia and the vast Volga-Vyatka economic region, and is the main center of river tourism in Russia. In the historical part of the city there are a number of universities, theaters, museums. Nizhny Novgorod is located about 400 km east of Moscow, where the Oka empties into the Volga, the city was founded in 1221 by Prince Yuri II of Vladimir. In 1612 Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky organized an army for the liberation of Moscow from the Poles, in 1817 Nizhny Novgorod became a great trade center of the Russian Empire. In 1896 at a fair, an All-Russia Exhibition was organized, during the Soviet period, the city turned into an important industrial center. In particular, the Gorky Automobile Plant was constructed in this period, then the city was given the nickname Russian Detroit. During the World War II Gorky became the biggest provider of equipment to the front. Due to this, the Luftwaffe constantly bombed the city from the air, the majority of the German bombs fell in the area of the Gorky Automobile Plant. Although almost all the sites of plant were completely destroyed. After the war, Gorky became a city and remained one until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990. At that time the city was renamed Nizhny Novgorod once again, in 1985 the metro was opened. In 2016 Vladimir Putin opened the new 70th Anniversary of Victory Plant which is part of the Almaz-Antey Air, the Kremlin – the main center of the city – contains the main government agencies of the city and the Volga Federal District. Originally the name was just Novgorod, but to distinguish it from the other, older and well-known Novgorod to the west and this land was named lower because it is situated downstream, especially from the point of view of other Russian cities such as Moscow, Vladimir and Murom. Later it was transformed into the name of the city that literally means Lower Newtown. Later a major stronghold for border protection, Nizhny Novgorod fortress took advantage of a moat formed by the two rivers. With the agreement of the Mongol Khan, Nizhny Novgorod was incorporated into the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality in 1264, after 86 years its importance further increased when the seat of the powerful Suzdal Principality was moved here from Gorodets in 1350. Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich sought to make his capital a rival worthy of Moscow, he built a stone citadel, the earliest extant manuscript of the Russian Primary Chronicle, the Laurentian Codex, was written for him by the local monk Laurentius in 1377
4.
Nizhny Novgorod Oblast
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Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, also known in English as Nizhegorod Oblast, is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Nizhny Novgorod, from 1932 to 1990 it was known as Gorky Oblast. The oblast is crossed by the Volga River, apart from Nizhny Novgorods metropolitan area the biggest city is Arzamas. Near the town of Sarov there is the Serafimo-Diveyevsky Monastery, one of the largest convents in Russia, the Makaryev Monastery opposite of the town of Lyskovo used to be the location of the largest fair in Eastern Europe. Other historic towns include Gorodets and Balakhna, located on the Volga to the north from Nizhny Novgorod, the oblast covers an area of 76,900 square kilometers, which is approximately equal to the entire area of the Benelux countries or Czech Republic. Agricultural land occupies 41% of this area, forests, 48%, lakes and rivers, 2%, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast borders Kostroma Oblast, Kirov Oblast, the Mari El Republic, the Chuvash Republic, the Republic of Mordovia, Ryazan Oblast, Vladimir Oblast, and Ivanovo Oblast. Nizhny Novgorod Oblast is not rich in resources, which are limited to commercial deposits of sand, clay, gypsum, peat, mineral salt. After 1991, the CPSU lost all its power, the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor, was appointed/elected alongside the elected regional parliament. The Charter of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast is the law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast is the provinces standing legislative body, the Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. According to the 2010 Census, ethnic Russians at 3,109,661 made up 95. 1% of the oblasts population, other ethnic groups included Tatars, Mordva, Ukrainians, and various smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0. 5% of the total. Additionally,42,349 people were registered from administrative databases and it is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group. Births,36,315 Deaths,54,184 Deaths decreased by 8. 5% in 2011 compared to 2010, the actual number of foreigners residing in the oblast as of June 1,2006 was estimated to be over 22,000. The oblast ranks seventh in Russia in industrial output, processing industries predominate in the local economy. More than 650 industrial companies employ nearly 700,000 people, industry generates 83% of the regional GDP and accounts for 89% of all material expenditures. The leading sectors are engineering and metalworking, followed by chemical and petrochemical industries and forestry, woodworking, the first three sectors account for about 75% of all industrial production. The oblast has traditionally been attractive to investors, in 2002, Moodys rating agency confirmed a Caa1rating based on the regions long-term foreign currency liabilities. The region maintains trade relations with countries and has an export surplus
5.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
6.
Net income
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In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
7.
Oleg Deripaska
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He is now considered to be among the richest men in Russia, with an estimated net worth of US$5.4 billion as of April 2017. Through stakes in companies, Deripaska is also involved in a broad range of industries, including energy, machinery, financial services. Deripaska was born in Dzerzhinsk, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, and grew up in Ust-Labinsk, Krasnodar Krai, Deripaska was raised on the familys small farm, where from the age of 5 or 6 his grandparents instructed him to learn everything about the land to survive. Deripaska credits his grandparents for teaching him the discipline of hard work and they taught the details of farming, including when and how to plant, grow and harvest. Both his grandfathers fought in the Second World War, one was killed in battle and buried in a grave in Austria. Deripaskas first job was at the Ust-Labinsk plant where his mother worked, at age 11, he became an electricians apprentice doing maintenance on electrical motors. Deripaska acquired a passion for reading, his favorite authors were Mayne Reid, today, Basic Elements headquarters contain walls of books, reflecting Deripaskas lifelong love of reading. His talent for math allowed him to enroll at the faculty of Moscow State University in 1985. One year into his studies, he was conscripted into the forces and served in the Soviet armys Strategic Missile Forces in the Trans-Baikal area, Siberia. In 1993, Deripaska graduated with honors in physics from Moscow State University, after graduation from Moscow State University, the collapse of the Soviet Union eliminated academic funding and made it impossible for Deripaska continue to his studies as a theoretical physicist. There were no stipends or grants for students either and it was an urgent and practical question every day. How do I earn money to buy food and keep studying, at the age of 25, teaming up with fellow physicists, engineers and rocket scientists, Deripaska set up his first metal trading company, VTK. He adopted a systematic, scientific approach to commodity trading, I represented companies that were buying and selling raw materials, Deripaska said. Deripaska undertook export arbitrage, buying metal at low Russian prices, Deripaska traded primarily through the Baltic state of Estonia as the Russian system of export licenses was in disarray. I started my business at a moment in history. The country in which I was born raised had disappeared, although the new country was not fully formed, the first one gave me an excellent education, the second one gave me the chance of success, Deripaska recalled in an interview with Metal Bulletin. He used nearly all his arbitrage and trading profits to acquire his initial package of shares in the Sayanogorsk Aluminium Smelter, in 1994, Deripaska became director general of the plant at the age of 26. In 1997, the became the core asset of Sibirsky Aluminium Group
8.
GAZ Group
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GAZ Group, Headquartered in Nizhny Novgorod, is a Russian automotive conglomerate which comprises 18 manufacturing facilities in eight regions of Russia, as well as sales and service organizations. GAZ Group produces light and medium commercial vehicles, heavy trucks, buses, cars, road equipment, power units. The main entity GAZ Group - OJSC GAZ, refers to the Office Management Company GAZ Group, the GAZ Group is a holding company, consolidated around OAO GAZ, bringing together a number of industrial machinery sector, which are mainly subsidiaries of OJSC GAZ. Management Company GAZ Group was created on September 28,2006 and is 100% owned by OJSC GAZ, GAZ Group was founded in 2005 as a result of the restructuring of the production assets of Ruspromavto, which existed from 2001. In the summer of 2006 GAZ Group acquired UK based manufacturer of light trucks LDV Holdings for $40,670,000, in 2008, GAZ Group has agreed to buy 50% of Italian VM Motori and localization of its engines. Closing of the transaction was to place after the approval of the antitrust authorities. GAZ Group has also entered into an agreement with General Motors who controlled 50% of VM Motori on the basis of co-ownership of the Italian company, in mid-2009, the deal was canceled in the aftermath of the economic crisis. The joint stock company is managed by the Board of Directors whose Chairman, GAZ Group is divided into six divisions, the structure of each of which are production plants and sales organizations. Light commercial and passenger cars Gorky Automobile Plant - the main company of the Group, Russian Machines Automotive industry Automotive industry in Russia Automobile model numbering system in the Soviet Union and Russia Official site GAZ Official site GAZ Group
9.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
10.
Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
11.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
12.
Basic Element (company)
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Basic Element is one of the largest diversified industrial groups in Russia founded in 1997 and owned by Oleg Deripaska. It is based in Moscow, Russia, Basic Elements main assets are concentrated in six economic sectors - energy and mining, manufacturing, financial services, construction and real estate, agribusiness and airport management. About 250,000 people work at the Groups companies in Russia, in 2007 the companys revenues were $26.8 bln, growing 45% relative to the previous year. It had $45 bln worth of assets, in 2012 the companys revenues were $27 bln. En+ Group is Russia-based diversified mining, metals and energy group, dmitrov Pilot Plant for Aluminium Canning Tape strip with a polished surface for the manufacture of lamplight reflectors and lath ceilings. The Russian Machines corporation was established in 2005 to unite Basic Elements machine building assets, Russian Machines Corporation manages 26 facilities located across 14 regions of Russia. Basel Aero - the operating company for the Sochi, Krasnodar, Gelendzhik, Yeysk, Sochi Airport Krasnodar Airport Anapa Airport Gelendzhik Airport Yeysk Airport These airports handle more than 7% of the total passenger flow in the Russian Federation. According to the press Basel operates Harkiv Airport, insurance Banking Leasing Pension Funds Glavstroy Corporation is a vertically integrated construction holding. Management functions are carried out by Glavstroy-Management
13.
Ford Model AA
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Ford Model AA is a truck from Ford. As the Model T and TT became obsolete and needed to be replaced, Henry Ford began initial designs on the Model A, basic chassis layout was done rapidly and mechanical development was moved forward quickly. Body design and style was developed and then outsourced to various manufacturers, including Briggs. The designs of the Model A shared parts and materials with the Model AA Ford, notably the body, engine, the AA usually received plainer interiors than their car counterparts. The Model AA followed similar design changes to the Model A during the AAs four years in production, the mechanical changes and upgrades were done during production of the vehicles. Body changes that occurred between 1929 and 1930 were also integrated into AA production, but leftover parts were used longer in the commercial trucks. The Model AA Ford is powered by the same 201-cubic-inch engine I4 engine that the Model A Ford used, the engine produced a maximum of forty horsepower at 2,200 rpm. The engine featured a carburetor, six-volt generator, 2-blade fan, mechanical water pump, mechanical oil pump, electric starter. All of these features were identical to the Model A Ford except the radiator, the engine could also be crank started if necessary by a hand crank that is inserted through a hole in the radiator shell. The Model AA was based on a chassis that was similar in design to the Model A Ford, Model AA Ford has a four-speed manual gearbox. The transmission is geared lower than the Model A Ford to provide power to move a loaded truck. This lower gearing reduced the top speed of the truck when compared to the Model A Ford, the transmission also featured a lock-out on the shift knob for reverse that required a lever to be activated with the thumb so reverse could be engaged. This was done to prevent accidental engagement of reverse while the truck was in motion, early trucks had a worm gear rear-end that limited the top speed of the truck. That rear-end was replaced by a ring and pinion differential to improve the speed of the truck, later models were fitted with braces on the outer casing of the rear-end to provide additional support to the rear-end housing. The suspension of the AA Truck was similar to the Model A Ford in the front end, a leaf spring is centered in the front ‘A’ frame over the front axle. Shock absorbers were available for the front end, the rear suspension differed from the Model A Ford. The AA had leaf springs mounted to the chassis and shackled to the rear axle, the rear suspension did not have shocks. The controls in the Model AA are entirely mechanical, except the windshield wipers in later models, the brakes are mechanical and the truck has four oversized drum brakes to stop the vehicle
14.
Maxim Gorky
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Alexei Maximovich Peshkov, primarily known as Maxim Gorky, was a Russian and Soviet writer, a founder of the socialist realism literary method and a political activist. He was also a nominee for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Around fifteen years before success as a writer, he changed jobs and roamed across the Russian Empire. Gorkys most famous works were The Lower Depths, Twenty-six Men and he had an association with fellow Russian writers Leo Tolstoy and Anton Chekhov, Gorky would later mention them in his memoirs. Gorky was active with the emerging Marxist social-democratic movement and he publicly opposed the Tsarist regime, and for a time closely associated himself with Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanovs Bolshevik wing of the party. For a significant part of his life, he was exiled from Russia, in 1932, he returned to Russia on Joseph Stalins personal invitation and died there in June 1936. Born as Alexei Maximovich Peshkov on 28 March 1868, in Nizhny Novgorod and he was brought up by his grandmother and ran away from home at the age of twelve in 1880. After an attempt at suicide in December 1887, he travelled on foot across the Russian Empire for five years, changing jobs, as a journalist working for provincial newspapers, he wrote under the pseudonym Иегудиил Хламида. He began using the pseudonym Gorky in 1892, while working in Tiflis for the newspaper Кавказ, the name reflected his simmering anger about life in Russia and a determination to speak the bitter truth. Gorkys first book Очерки и рассказы in 1898 enjoyed a sensational success, Gorky wrote incessantly, viewing literature less as an aesthetic practice than as a moral and political act that could change the world. He described the lives of people in the lowest strata and on the margins of society, revealing their hardships, humiliations, and brutalisation, but also their inward spark of humanity. Gorkys reputation grew as a literary voice from the bottom strata of society and as a fervent advocate of Russias social, political. By 1899, he was associating with the emerging Marxist social-democratic movement. At the heart of all his work was a belief in the inherent worth, in his writing, he counterposed individuals, aware of their natural dignity, and inspired by energy and will, with people who succumb to the degrading conditions of life around them. But if thou art for thyself alone, wherefore art thou and he publicly opposed the Tsarist regime and was arrested many times. Gorky befriended many revolutionaries and became a friend of Vladimir Lenin after they met in 1902. He exposed governmental control of the press, in 1902, Gorky was elected an honorary Academician of Literature, but Tsar Nicholas II ordered this annulled. In protest, Anton Chekhov and Vladimir Korolenko left the Academy, from 1900 to 1905, Gorkys writings became more optimistic
15.
Vyacheslav Molotov
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Molotov served as Chairman of the Council of Peoples Commissars from 1930 to 1941, and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956. He served as First Deputy Premier from 1942 to 1957, when he was dismissed from the Presidium of the Central Committee by Nikita Khrushchev, Molotov retired in 1961 after several years of obscurity. He was aware of the Katyn massacre committed by the Soviet authorities during this period, after World War II, Molotov was involved in negotiations with the Western allies, in which he became noted for his diplomatic skills. He retained his place as a leading Soviet diplomat and politician until March 1949, Molotovs relationship with Stalin deteriorated further, with Stalin criticising Molotov in a speech to the 19th Party Congress. However, after Stalins death in 1953, Molotov was staunchly opposed to Khrushchevs de-Stalinisation policy, Molotov defended Stalins policies and legacy until his death in 1986, and harshly criticised Stalins successors, especially Khrushchev. Molotov was born Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Skryabin in the village of Kukarka, Yaransk Uyezd, Vyatka Governorate, contrary to a commonly repeated error, he was not related to the composer Alexander Scriabin. Throughout his teen years, he was described as shy and quiet and he was educated at a secondary school in Kazan, and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1906, soon gravitating toward that organisations radical Bolshevik faction, headed by V. I. Skryabin took the pseudonym Molotov, derived from the Russian word молот molot for his political work owing to the names vaguely industrial ring and he was arrested in 1909 and spent two years in exile in Vologda. In 1911 he enrolled at St Petersburg Polytechnic, Molotov joined the editorial staff of a new underground Bolshevik newspaper called Pravda, meeting Joseph Stalin for the first time in association with the project. This first association between the two future Soviet leaders proved to be brief, however, and did not lead to a close political association. Molotov worked as a professional revolutionary for the next several years, writing for the party press. He moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1914 at the time of the outbreak of World War I and it was in Moscow the following year that Molotov was again arrested for his party activity, this time being deported to Irkutsk in eastern Siberia. In 1916 he escaped from his Siberian exile and returned to the city, now called Petrograd by the Tsarist regime. Molotov became a member of the Bolshevik Partys committee in Petrograd in 1916, when the February Revolution occurred in 1917, he was one of the few Bolsheviks of any standing in the capital. Under his direction Pravda took to the left to oppose the Provisional Government formed after the revolution, when Joseph Stalin returned to the capital, he reversed Molotovs line, but when the party leader Lenin arrived, he overruled Stalin. Despite this, Molotov became a protégé of and close adherent to Stalin, Molotov became a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee which planned the October Revolution, which effectively brought the Bolsheviks to power. In 1918, Molotov was sent to Ukraine to take part in the war then breaking out. Since he was not a man, he took no part in the fighting
16.
GAZ-M1
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The GAZ M1 was a passenger car produced by the Soviet automaker GAZ between 1936 and 1943, at their plant in Gorky. Systematic production ended in 1941, but the factory was able to continue assembling cars from existing inventory of parts and components until 1943, in total,62,888 GAZ M1 automobiles were produced. Much of the production period coincided with the Great Patriotic War. It would be years before passenger cars became available for private buyers in the Soviet Union. In the US car body construction was changing radically during the later 1920s, using technology pioneered by Ambi Budd, for the production of all steel car bodies. GAZ’s western technology partner, Ford, took an approach to these developments. Work began in 1933/34 on a replacement for the GAZ-A, again using a Ford model as the basis, the model in question was the Ford Model B, which was becoming available with a wide range of different bodies in North America. Specifically, the first prototype for the GAZ M-1 was based on the 1934 Ford Model B 40A four-door sedan. The prototype was powered by an engine, although it appears already to have been intended that production cars, like the Ford on which they were based. Documentation was transferred by Ford in accordance with the terms of the sharing agreement. A major innovation for the manufacturer was the body, although at this stage the roof was still reinforced using timber side rails and was coated with synthetic “leatherette” fabric. In 1936 the M-1 replaced the GAZ-A on the production lines. By the end of 1936 the plant had produced 2,524 GAZ M-1s, the letter ”M” was included in the car’s name as the plants name included that of Vyacheslav Molotov. The development of the M-1 involved many changes to the Ford on which it was based, the rather primitive Ford suspension was completely redesigned to cope with local conditions, and matched to strong steel wheels. The V8 engine was based on the technical drawings as those used for the Ford engine. The GAZ development team had not had access to the actual Ford engine as fitted in Detroit, the GAZ engineers also redesigned the front wings which left the Russian car with a more elegant shape which provided better protection from the elements for the front suspension. The M-1 represented an advance over its predecessor in many respects. Most obviously, it came with a body that used the approach of the more modern western designs and, unlike its predecessor
17.
1932 Ford
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Ford produced three cars between 1932 and 1934, the Model B, Model 18 & Model 40. The Model B continued to offer Fords proven four cylinder and was available from 1932 to 1934, the V8 was succeeded by the Model 48. It was the first Ford fitted with the flathead V‑8, in Europe, it was built slightly longer. The same bodies were available on both 4 cylinder Model Bs and V8 Model 18/40s, the company also replaced the Model AA truck with the Model BB, available with either the four- or eight-cylinder engine. Rather than just a much updated version of the Model A, the V-8 was marketed as the Model 18 in its initial year, and commonly simply called the Ford V‑8. It had the new flathead V‑8 engine, the Model 18 was the first low-priced, mass-marketed car to have a V8 engine, an important milestone in Automotive industry in the United States. The 221 cu in V8 was rated at 65 hp when introduced and this engine choice was more popular than the four-cylinder, which was essentially a variant of the Model A engine with improvements to balancing and lubrication. Model B was derived with as few changes as possible to keep cost low. Other than the engine, and badging on headlamp support bar and hub caps and its intention was to be a price leader, and as it offered more than the popular Model A, this should have been a winning formula. In fact, the new and only slightly more expensive V-8 stole the show, the V8 engine was previously exclusive to Lincoln products, which in 1932 switched to V12 engines only. Although there is a certain relationship with the predecessor Model A. While the Model A has a frame with two straight longitudinal members, the new car got a longer wheelbase, and an outward curved. While the V-8 was developed from scratch, the B just had an improved four-cylinder Model A engine of 201 cu in displacement producing 50 horsepower. When Ford introduced the Model A in late 1927, there were several competitors also offering four cylinder cars, among them Chevrolet, Dodge, Durant, or Willys. That changed within a few years, soon leaving the new Plymouth the sole major make in the Fords price class with a four. Although sharing a platform, Model Bs and Model 18s came not only in Standard and Deluxe trim. Some of them, like the commercial cars described below, were available as Standards. The wooden panels were manufactured at the Ford Iron Mountain Plant in the Michigan Upper Peninsula from Ford owned lumber, one of the more well known and popular models was the two-door Victoria, which was largely designed by Edsel Ford
18.
Chevrolet G506
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The Chevrolet G506 trucks were a series of 1 1⁄2-ton 4x4 trucks produced by Chevrolet and used by the U. S. Army during and after World War II. This series had cargo and many specialist type bodies, the G506 was a U. S Army Ordnance Corps supply catalog designation for the 1 1⁄2-ton, 4X4, truck chassis built in large numbers by the Chevrolet Motor Division of GM. During World War II, the USA sent 151,053 1 1⁄2-ton trucks of the G506 type to the Soviet Union as part of the Lend-Lease program. The Soviet Red Armys logistics/transport capabilities improved dramatically in the spring, the G506 used a Chevrolet BV-1001-UP, a 235 cu in overhead valve inline 6 cylinder gasoline engine developing 83 hp at 3100 rpm and 184 lbf·ft of torque at 1,000 rpm. This is a version of the engine used in the GMC CCKW. All models had a 4 speed manual non-synchronized transmission and a two speed transfer case, the G506 had a ladder frame with two live beam axles on semi-elliptic leaf springs. GM banjo type axles were used, these axles were used in later GMC CCKW 2 1⁄2 ton trucks. There were three wheelbases,125 in extra short wheelbase used only on the G7128 Bomb servicer,145 in short wheelbase, all models had hydraulic brakes with vacuum boost,7. 50-20” tires and dual rear tires. Almost all G506s had a closed Chevrolet cab, except for three models, the Soviet economy and the Red Army, 1930–1945. The Illustrated Guide to Military Vehicles, TM 9-765 Bomb Service Truck M6. TM 9-805 1 1⁄2 ton 4x4 Truck, TM 9-2800 Standard Military Motor Vehicles. Chevrolet G506 at Olive-Drab. com US 1 1⁄2-ton at Engines of the Red Army
19.
Lend-Lease
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This included warships and warplanes, along with other weaponry. It was signed into law on March 11,1941 and ended in September 1945, in general the aid was free, although some hardware were returned after the war. In return, the U. S. was given leases on army, Canada operated a similar smaller program under a different name. A total of $50.1 billion worth of supplies was shipped, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U. S. In all, $31.4 billion went to Britain, $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion to France, $1.6 billion to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to the other Allies. Reverse Lend-Lease policies comprised services such as rent on air bases that went to the U. S. and totaled $7.8 billion, of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth. The terms of the agreement provided that the materiel was to be used until returned or destroyed, in practice very little equipment was returned. Supplies that arrived after the date were sold to Britain at a large discount for £1.075 billion. Canada operated a program called Mutual Aid that sent a loan of $1 billion and $3.4 billion in supplies and services to Britain. This program effectively ended the United States pretense of neutrality and was a step away from non-interventionist policy. Following the Fall of France in June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the forces engaged in war against Germany and Italy. During this same period, the U. S. government began to mobilize for war, instituting the first-ever peacetime draft. In the meantime, as the British began running short of money, arms, as one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it, If there was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, as the President himself put it, There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs. In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain the British government sent the Tizard Mission to the United States, in December 1940, President Roosevelt proclaimed the U. S. would be the Arsenal of Democracy and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada. Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would lead to American involvement in what was seen by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to see the advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying out of the hostilities themselves. After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that the change to Allied support must be gradual, originally, the American position was to help the British but not enter the war
20.
Four-wheel drive
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Four-wheel drive, 4×4, and 4WD, is a form of drivetrain capable of providing power to all wheel ends of a two-axled vehicle simultaneously. It may be full-time, or on-demand, and is linked via a transfer case which provides an additional output drive-shaft. When a four-wheeled vehicle has power supplied to axles, this is described as all-wheel drive. However, four-wheel drive typically refers to a set of components and functions, and/or intended offroad application. 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures, the terms used by various manufactures often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. Four-by-four refers to the class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels, and the second, syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine power to only two axle-ends, the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which power to two wheel ends each. Four wheel drive refers to vehicles with two axles providing power to four wheel ends, in the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term 4WD is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All wheel drive historically was synonymous with four-wheel drive on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use, some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, individual-wheel drive was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available power to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and this can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners. The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels, for example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD. Two wheels fixed to the same turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves
21.
GAZ-61
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GAZ-61 was a four wheel drive car from USSR manufacturer GAZ first introduced in 1938 by designer V. A. Gratchev, to replace his too-complex model GAZ-M2. It was made by putting the GAZ M2 body on a four-wheel-drive chassis and it could climb angles up to 38 degrees and cross water up to 72 cm deep. The first version, produced from 1940 to 1941, was a 5-seated 4-door phaeton and it was powered by a 3,485 cc 6-cyl 4-stroke engine with 85 hp and a top speed of 100 km/h. Many supreme commanders of the Red Army headquarters used this car in 1941, in 1941, the updated GAZ-61-73 was introduced. It was now a 5-seat, 4-door 6-light saloon with the same engine, the GAZ-61 was produced not only in civilian black but also in blue and Russian 4BO green, together with the typical cross-country tread tires
22.
GAZ Chaika
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A Chaika, which means gull, is a luxury automobile from the Soviet Union made by GAZ. The vehicle is one step down from the ZIL limousine, Chaika production consisted of two generations, the M13 of 1959 to 1981 and the M14 of 1977 to 1988. The Mark 1 Chaika, the GAZ M13, debuted in 1958 and it was produced from 1959 to 1981, with 3,179 built in all. The M13 was powered by a 195-hp SAE gross 5.5 L V8 and it was offered as a saloon, limousine, and four-door cabriolet with an electrohydraulic top. The cabriolet was made in 1961 and 1962 for official parades, RAF in Riga produced the GAZ 13A Universal, an estate, in the 1960s in Riga, this was also built as the GAZ 13C ambulance, as well as a hearse. Produced for a few years in the 1960s, it is the lowest-volume Chaika variant, small numbers were also built for Mosfilm. As a limousine-class car, Chaikas were available only to the Soviet government, however, citizens were allowed to rent Chaikas for weddings. For their larger size and more powerful V8, Chaikas were also ordered in quantity by the KGB. The M13B was built for two years 1961 and 1962. The GAZ13 was discontinued in 1981, the M14 debuted in 1977, and ran to the end of Chaika production in 1988. Enthusiasts often point to the 1955-56 U. S. Packards as the inspiration for the early Chaikas styling, nevertheless, Packards of 1955-56 are also have a lot in common with earlier Soviet concept ZIS-112 Odnoglazka. The vintage 1950s-style M13 was succeeded by the more modern Chaika M14 introduced in 1977, although visually modern and fitted with the latest electronic luxury features, the M14 was in fact built around the drivetrain and undercarriage of the older model. The M14 engine was a modernized 5,526 cc and achieved 220 hp SAE gross, a seven-seater, with special soundproofing, it measured 611 cm long overall and weighed in at 2,600 kg. A four-door convertible, the 14-95, appeared in 1982, the Chaika M14 remained in production from 14 October 1977 to 1988, when the Chaika limousine brand was ended. Around a hundred M14s were built each year, with production reaching 1,114. On orders from Mikhail Gorbachev, the blueprints and tooling were destroyed as part of his fighting privileges campaign under perestroika, the Hungarian Railway Museum features a Chaika that has been converted to travel on rails. Photograph Autosoviet listing International Chaika Club
23.
GAZ-M20 Pobeda
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The GAZ-M20 Pobeda was a passenger car produced in the Soviet Union by GAZ from 1946 until 1958. It was also licensed to Polish Fabryka Samochodów Osobowych, as FSO Warszawa, although usually known as the GAZ-M20, an original cars designation at that time was just M-20, for Molotovets. Aryamovs two-door coupe GAZ-11-80 greatly resembled the later Pobeda, the first Pobeda was developed in the Soviet Union under chief engineer Andrei A. Liphart. Originally intended to be called Rodina, the name Pobeda was a back-up, the name was chosen because the works started in 1943 at Gorky Avto Zavod, when victory in World War II began to seem likely, and the car was to be a model for post-war times. The plant was heavily bombarded, but work was unaffected. Styling was done by the imaginative and talented Veniamin Samoilov and it was one of the first cars to introduce ponton styling with slab sides, preceding many Western manufacturers. The M20 was the first Soviet car using entirely domestic body dies, it was designed against wooden bucks, the first prototype was ready on November 6,1944. The first production model rolled off the line on June 21,1946. It was also the first Soviet automobile to have turn signals, the car came to be a symbol of postwar Soviet life and is today a popular collectors item. During the design process, GAZ had to choose between a 62 hp 2,700 cc inline six and a 50 hp 2,112 cc inline four, Stalin preferred the four, in addition, the headlights were covered by an American patent. Truly mass production had to wait until 28 April 1947, and even then, on August 31,1948, the government issued a decree requiring the immediate improvement of quality and thorough testing of the new automobiles. The cars and their parts were subjected to detailed laboratory and on-road testing, opinions of the cars drivers were carefully studied. After a reorganisation, solving the initial quality issues, making 346 improvements. It had a new carburettor, different final drive ratio, strengthened rear springs, improved heater, the improvements enabled the new Pobeda to reach 50 km/h in 12 seconds, half the previous models time. The improved Pobeda was placed in production 1 November 1949, and the techniques needed to develop and manufacture it effectively created the Soviet automobile industry. In 1952, improved airflow in the increased power from 50 hp to 52 hp, it climbed to 55 hp, along with the new grille, upholstery, steering wheel, radio. Stock versions, 1946-1948 – early GAZ-M-20s, 1948-1954 – improved and massively produced cars with modernised leaf springs, thermostats and manual gears, heaters, water pumps and mechanical clock were added to the cars of this generation. 1955-1958 – GAZ-20V equipped with a new 52 h. p. engine, other versions, A prototype cab-over-engine vehicle, the GAZ-013, was based on the Pobeda, but not built
24.
FSO Warszawa
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Warszawa was a Polish automobile marque manufactured from 1951 to 1973 by the Fabryka Samochodów Osobowych of Warsaw. The Warszawa was the first new-design Polish car built after the Second World War, Warszawas were popular as taxis because of their sturdiness and ruggedness. However, due to their weight they were underpowered and had high fuel consumption, in total,254,471 cars were made. Named after the city of Warsaw, the Warszawa was until 1957 identical to the Soviet Pobeda, built under license, the first major modernisation took place in 1957. The new model was called FSO Warszawa M20 model 57, new model received a restyled front-end section. The powertrain was modified too, compression ratio was raised from 6.2,1 to 6.8,1, since 1962 car could be equipped with the OHV I4 engine. It was much more modern than the archaic sidevalve construction used before, in 1964 the body style was changed to a Ponton, three-box design by then becoming mainstream in Europe, though the car retained a rather heavy style to western eyes. In 1967 it was announced that Perkins four cylinder 1. 76-litre diesel engines would be fitted in export market Warszawas, the Warszawa was the basis for two rigid panel vans, the Żuk and the Nysa. Additionally there was a variant of the saloon car
25.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
26.
Windscreen wiper
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A windscreen wiper or windshield wiper is a device used to remove rain, snow, ice and debris from a windscreen or windshield. Almost all motor vehicles, including cars, trucks, train locomotives, watercraft with a cabin and some aircraft, are equipped with such wipers, a wiper generally consists of a metal arm, pivoting at one end and with a long rubber blade attached to the other. The arm is powered by a motor, often an electric motor, the blade is swung back and forth over the glass, pushing water or other precipitation from its surface. The speed is adjustable, with several continuous speeds and often one or more intermittent settings. Most automobiles use two synchronized radial type arms, while commercial vehicles use one or more pantograph arms. On some vehicles, a windshield washer system is also used and this system sprays water or an antifreeze window washer fluid at the windshield using several nozzles. The windshield washer system helps to remove dirt or dust from the windshield when it is used in concert with the wiper blades, when antifreeze windshield washer fluid is used, it can help the wipers to remove snow or ice. For winter conditions, some vehicles have additional heaters aimed at the windows or embedded heating wire in the glass and these defroster systems help to keep snow and ice from building up on the windshield. In rare cases, miniature wipers are installed on headlights, at least three inventors patented windscreen cleaning devices at around the same time in 1903, Mary Anderson, Robert Douglass, and John Apjohn. In April 1911, a patent for windscreen wipers was registered by Sloan & Lloyd Barnes, patent agents of Liverpool, England, American inventor Mary Anderson is popularly credited with devising the first operational windshield wiper in 1903. In Andersons patent, she called her invention a window cleaning device for electric cars, operated via a lever from inside a vehicle, her version of windshield wipers closely resembles the windshield wiper found on many early car models. Anderson had a model of her design manufactured, then filed a patent on June 18,1903 that was issued to her by the US Patent Office on November 10,1903. A similar device is recorded 3 months prior to Andersons patent, the brushes or wipers were intended to clean either both up and down or in just one direction on a vertical window. Apjohns invention had a priority date in the UK of 9 October 1903, John R. Oishei formed the Tri-Continental Corporation in 1917. This company introduced the first windshield wiper, Rain Rubber, for the slotted, today Trico Products is one of the worlds leading manufacturers of windshield wiping systems, windshield wiper blades and refills, with wiper plants on five continents. Bosch has the worlds biggest windscreen wiper factory in Tienen, Belgium, inventor William M. Folberth applied for a patent for an automatic windscreen wiper apparatus in 1919, which was granted in 1922. It was the first automatic mechanism, Trico later settled a patent dispute with Folberth and purchased Folberths Cleveland company, the Folberth Auto Specialty Co. The new vacuum-powered system quickly became standard equipment on automobiles, today, an electronic timer is used, but originally a small vacuum cylinder mechanically linked to a switch provided the delay as the vacuum leaked off
27.
GAZ-12 ZIM
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The ZIM-12 was a Soviet limousine produced by the Gorky Automotive Plant from 1950 till 1960. It was the first executive car produced by GAZ and the first one to have the famous leaping deer hood ornament, the car was built to serve mid-rank Soviet nomenklatura, but was also readily available as a taxi and ambulance. Unlike its successors, ZIM was the only Soviet executive class full-size car that was made available for private ownership. A total of 21,527 examples were built, due to the lack of time, head designer Andrei Lipgart was given a choice between copying an American product or developing an entirely new model. He chose the latter, despite high level support for simply badge engineering a Buick, the front suspension was by coil springs, with leaf springs at the rear, and hydraulic shock absorbers. It had drum brakes at all four corners, despite lacking power steering, the 18.2,1 ratio steering box made turning fairly easy. It offered a standard three-band AM radio, at a time when radios were not standard on most American cars, the car weighed 1,940 kg, was capable of getting 19 L/100 km, of reaching 78 mph, and of accelerating 0–60 mph in 37 seconds. It had one feature, the rear tread, at 1,560 mm, was wider than the front by 100 mm. The result was an Oldsmobile-like bulge and it was also the first GAZ to feature the leaping deer hood ornament. The first car was built in October 1950, and was available to average citizens. The ZIM abbreviation stands for Zavod imeni Molotova, prior to 1957, the GAZ factory was officially named as Gorkovsky avtomobilny zavod imeni V. M. Molotova, or the Vyacheslav Molotov Gorky automotive factory, in honour of the Soviet Foreign Minister, all of the models carried the prefix M instead of GAZ. However for a car of executive class, a new catchy abbreviation was introduced, however, the Soviet Ministers career was abruptly finished in May 1957, when he lost a political fallout with Nikita Khrushchev. Following his downfall, the country underwent a renaming spree, with cities, streets, ships, ZIM, which was in production, from the summer of 1957 was hurriedly re-christened as GAZ-12, and all of the badges and adornments replaced by the new abbreviation. Moreover, right up until the perestroika the car was officially named labelled only as the GAZ-12, a prototype four-door cabriolet was built in 1949, but not produced, due to problems with rigidity. It was also overweight for the engine, an ambulance GAZ-12B was also built in 1951-1960, with folding seats for medics and basically same body, stretchers were loaded through the trunk. There was also a taxi variant GAZ-12A, used mainly as a marshrutka in state-owned inter-city communication, the GAZ-12 was replaced by the GAZ13 Chaika. Clearance,200 mm Turn radius,7.4 m Gearbox,3 speeds + rear Weight,1,800 kg Maximum speed,120 km/h Fuel tank,80 L Fuel consumption,15.5 L/100 km at 50–60 km/h Thompson, Andy
28.
GAZ-21
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The GAZ M21 Volga is an automobile which was produced in the Soviet Union by GAZ from 1956 to 1970. The first car to carry the Volga name, it was developed in the early 1950s, Volgas were built with high ground clearance, rugged suspension, strong and forgiving engine, and rustproofing on a scale unheard of in the 1950s. 639,478 cars were produced in total, three series GAZ-21 were released, most easily distinguished by the grille. The First Series, known as the Star, featured a lattice of three horizontal bars in the centre of which was a medallion with a star. Vehicles of the Second Series, known as the Shark, featured a grille with 16 vertical slits, finally, the Third Series, known as the Baleen, featured a grille with 34 thin vertical rods. The design process leading to the GAZ21 began in November 1953, alexander Nevzorov, head of the design team, was given a free hand to develop whatever he wanted to reach the objective of competing with American automobiles. The prototype appeared in the first quarter of 1954, powered by a four with overhead camshaft. Since the OHV engine was not ready in time, production M21s had a 65 hp 2,432 cc sidevalve four, the Volga was offered with a three-speed transmission, either manual or automatic. Front suspension was independent, while the rear was an axle with semi-elliptical springs. Lubrication was by an oiling system, from a drum and foot-operated pump, the oil lines were prone to puncturing. The Volga offered front seats able to fold flat and came standard with cigarette lighter, there were three variants, the standard M21G, an M21B taxi, and a tropical model, the M21GYU, all with the GAZ leaping deer hood ornament. Drag coefficient was a surprisingly good 0.42, the Volga made its public debut in 1955, with a three cars on a demonstration drive from Moscow to the Crimea, two automatic models and a manual. It was, however, still far from production-ready, in the first year,1956, only five cars were assembled, full-scale production began in 1957, with a list price of 5,400 rubles. The new 1957 production cars, known as Series Ones, had a brand-new 2,445 cc OHV engine, the first model produced by Zavolzhye Motorni Zavod. Unusual for the era, it had aluminum block and head, with chain-driven camshaft and compression ratio of 6.6,1, it produced 70 hp at 4,000 rpm and 123 lb·ft at 2,200 rpm. From 1958, a manual, with synchromesh on the top two gears, was the only transmission available, this would be the M21V, while the taxi became the M21A. Standard equipment on all models included spare parts and two tool kits, with spanners, wrenches, screwdrivers, a pump, and a cans of paint to fix minor dings. There were also export models M21D with the transmission and M21E with the automatic
29.
GAZ-24
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The Volga GAZ-24 is an automobile manufactured by the Gorkovsky Avtomobilny Zavod from 1970 to 1985 as a generation of its Volga marque. A largely redesigned version – GAZ-24-10 – was produced from 1985 to 1992 and it was sold as the Scaldia-Volga M24 and M24D in the Western European market. Development of the GAZ-24 finished in 1966 when several prototypes were built, the Volga GAZ-24 was unveiled towards the end of 1967. However, only 32 units were built in 1968), primarily for road tests, with another 215 units built in 1969. 1968/69-built Volgas are often called pre-serial because full-scale manufacturing started only in 1970, distinctive feature of the very first several prototypes were two outside rearview mirrors fixed on front fenders. Most of the pre-serial and all cars got one mirror placed on front left door. The GAZ-24 was developed to replace the outdated Volga GAZ-21 developed in the 1950s, the new Volga had a longer wheelbase than the GAZ-21 and was substantially lower at 1,490 mm ) compared to 1,620 mm. Width remained untouched. Long wheelbase, boxier styling, bucket seats with lower bases and flat roof made the new Volga generously sized inside, the car was designed to last for years in severe road conditions, and its reinforced unibody construction gave the Volga extra weight if compared to foreign analogues. Yet power steering was not even an option, and it gained the nickname barzha, standard engine was aluminium-block overhead valve 2,445 cc ZMZ-24D inline-four producing 95 hp with one twin-choke carburetor. Only a four-speed manual transmission with floor-mounted shifter was offered, the GAZ-21 trim lines were dropped, all GAZ-24 Volgas had similar trim. Early cars had ribbon speedometers, with gauges that filled up with red, the interior was available in three colours – red, brown or light gray. Interior colour selection was often in contrast to the color of the exterior, official cars were almost always black outside and red inside. The dashboard was made of aluminium and painted in exterior colour, some features of the Volgas styling were thematically quite similar to those of the GAZ-21, such as the vertical tail lights, so-called baleen plates grille, tiny fins on rear fenders. One of the most recognizable features of the GAZ-24 Volga sedan styling are chromed rhombic vents on the C-pillar, the GAZ-24 was displayed at the London Motor Show in 1970. Full-scale manufacturing started 15 July 1970, during 1970-74 the Volga remained almost unchanged. In 1973 dashboard with simulated wood insert appeared, after 1973, the ignition switch was moved from the dashboard to under the steering wheel to prevent knee injuries in road accidents, although that was inconvenient for the driver. Also in 1974, the Volga got additional C-pillar parking lights on, the 24-01 was joined in 1977 by the 24-07, which was fitted to use liquified propane. The original strip speedometer was changed to dial 1975, the year the ignition switch was moved from the dash to the steering column
30.
GAZ Volga
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Volga is an automobile brand that originated in the Soviet Union to replace the venerated GAZ Pobeda in 1956. Modern in design, the car survived several generations, although Volga cars were readily used as taxi cabs, road police interceptors and ambulances, it was their role in serving the Soviet nomenklatura, that made them a contemporary cultural icon. Several generations of the car have been produced, the original GAZ-M-21 was produced between from 1956 and underwent two facelifts along with a technical modernisation in 1965 before retiring in 1970. The car marked the era of Nikita Khruschevs thaw, and despite its limited private sales, was very sought by the Soviet public, becoming a symbol of style. The GAZ-24 followed, and was produced from 1968, underwent a modest facelift in 1976, the GAZ-24 was originally to be replaced by the GAZ-3101, but the latter car never reached past prototype stage. Unlike the -21, the long production saw the country decay in the stagnation period of Leonid Brezhnevs rule. Its image portrayed the social inequality between the Soviet ruling class, whose privilege not only included a chauffeured Volga, but a more rare opportunity to privately own one. Also it became an object of speculation on the lucrative Soviet grey economy, officially not tolerated. By 1980 a replacement was developed in face of the GAZ-3102, which was based on the platform and body of the GAZ-24. However, political and economic stagnation of the late Brezhnev years continuously delayed the cars launch, as a result, from 1982 and all the way until 2008, the GAZ-3102 was produced in parallel with other Volgas, though in lesser smaller quantity. Originally having its own line and many distinct features, by 1997 the differences between production, trim and accessories of GAZ-3102 and latter Volgas remained only in its exterior. GAZ-3102 originally being a car for higher ranking authorities, retained its business image during the 1990s. As a result, the GAZ-24 continued to be produced until 1985, starting with 24-10 the Volga began a slow transformation as the Perestroika reforms took shape. Though still remaining a status car, it quickly lost that prestige as market economy allowed free import of automobiles. However its simple and robust design and still good quality assembly, simultaneously GAZ set out to design a new generation of front-, rear- and all-wheel drive cars, representing the family GAZ-3103, GAZ-3104 and GAZ-3105 respectively. Influenced by the Audi 100, the family was to replace the 1960s Volga cars, instead in 1992 when the original machine tooling for the GAZ-24 body panels disintegrated, GAZ took the panels of GAZ-3102 and stripping them of any decorations, launched the GAZ-31029 Volga. Although being obsolete, production was doubled in quantity and halved in quality, as a result, the car transformed from a symbol of status into a disposable workhorse, barely meeting the astronomic demand of the emerging market economy. Though deemed temporary until GAZs own LCV cars, the GAZelle and Sobol, entered production, the GAZ-31029 Volga occupied a market niche
31.
Hood ornament
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A hood/bonnet ornament, radiator cap, motor mascot or car mascot is a specially crafted model which symbolizes a car company like a badge, located on the front center portion of the hood. It has been used as an adornment nearly since the inception of automobiles, according to the author of A History of Cars written for youth, the first hood ornament was a sun-crested falcon mounted on Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamuns chariot. In the early years, automobiles had their radiator caps outside of the hood and this became a useful gauge for the driver because many early engines did not have water pumps, but a circulation system based on the thermo-syphon principle as in the Ford Model T. The exposed radiator cap became a point for automobile personalization. Hood ornaments were popular in the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s, moreover, a healthy business was created in the supply of accessory mascots available to anyone who wanted to add a hood ornament or car mascot to their automobile. Most companies like Desmo and Smiths are now out of business with only Louis Lejeune Ltd. in England surviving, sculptors such as Bazin, Paillet, Sykes, Renevey, and Lejeune all created finely detailed sculptures in miniature. Restrictions to the fitting of ornaments on the front of vehicles have been introduced in some jurisdictions, projecting decorative designs on the hood may increase the risk of injury to pedestrians in the case of an accident. Regulations introduced in the United States for the 1968 model year vehicles meant the disappearance of fixed stand-up hood ornaments, later versions featured flexibly mounted stand-up hood ornaments designed to fold without breaking on impact. In the European Union, since 1974 all new cars have had to conform to a European directive on vehicle exterior projections, rolls Royces mascot is now mounted on a spring-loaded mechanism designed to retract instantly into the radiator shell if struck with more than 10 kilograms of force. The Mercedes-Benz and many other ornaments were designed with a mount to fold on impact. For aftermarket ornaments, breakaway nylon fixings are available that comply with EC Directive 74/483, the hundreds of motor vehicle manufacturers before 1929 meant many customers for their customized emblems. Along with the grille, the ornament is often a distinctive styling element. The radiator cap was transformed into an art form and became a way of individualizing the car, representing a companys vision of the automobile, Hood ornaments are usually cast in brass, zinc, or bronze and finished in a chrome plated finish. During the years when chrome plate was unavailable, they were plated in silver or nickel. Some also incorporated other materials, such as plastic, bakelite, or colored glass, the best-known glass mascots were made by René Lalique in France. Other sellers or producers of glass mascots include Sabino in France, Red Ashay in England, the latter two had their products made in Czechoslovakia. The Lalique company, like Louis Lejeune, is one of the few survivors from this era of motoring, there is a collectors market for hood ornaments and car mascots. Flying Ladies, The Art of the Automobile Hood Ornaments and Car Mascots, jill Reger Photography—Photographic art of car mascots and hood ornaments Weiner, Geoffrey George
32.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
33.
Kilowatt
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower
34.
Automatic transmission
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The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well. The most popular form found in automobiles is the automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles. This system uses a coupling in place of a friction clutch. These systems have a set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as forklifts and lawn mowers. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow a number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions, semi-automatics, the obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs, allowing amputees and other disabled individuals to drive, the automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA235757 in 1923. Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid and they were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being battle-tested. However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, zFs origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915, the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early horseless carriage gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston and this unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged, as the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasnt up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the next significant phase in the automatic transmissions development occurred in 1908 with the introduction of Henry Fords remarkable Model T. The pedals actuated the transmissions friction elements to select the desired gear, in 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission, parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chryslers work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use
35.
Power steering
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In automobiles, power steering helps drivers steer by augmenting steering effort of the steering wheel. Power steering can also be engineered to provide some artificial feedback of forces acting on the steered wheels, hydraulic power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder that is part of a servo system. These systems have a mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone, electric power steering systems use electric motors to provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator is controlled by the rest of the power-steering system, other power steering systems have no direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage, they require electrical power. Systems of this kind, with no connection, are sometimes called drive by wire or steer by wire. In this context, wire refers to electrical cables that carry power and data, some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle, this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the relative to each other to steer. The first power steering system on an automobile was apparently installed in 1876 by a man with the surname of Fitts, but little else is known about him. The next power steering system was put on a Columbia 5-ton truck in 1903 where an electric motor was used to assist the driver in turning the front wheels. Robert E. Twyford, a resident of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, francis W. Davis, an engineer of the truck division of Pierce-Arrow, began exploring how steering could be made easier, and in 1926 invented and demonstrated the first practical power steering system. Davis moved to General Motors and refined the hydraulic-assisted power steering system, Davis then signed up with Bendix, a parts manufacturer for automakers. Military needs during World War II for easier steering on heavy vehicles boosted the need for assistance on armored cars and tank-recovery vehicles for the British. Chrysler Corporation introduced the first commercially available passenger car power steering system on the 1951 Chrysler Imperial under the name Hydraguide, the Chrysler system was based on some of Daviss expired patents. General Motors introduced the 1952 Cadillac with a steering system using the work Davis had done for the company almost twenty years earlier. Charles F. Hammond from Detroit filed several patents for improvements of power steering with the Canadian Intellectual Property Office in 1958. Most new vehicles now have power steering, owing to the trends toward front wheel drive, greater vehicle mass, and wider tires, which all increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles, as are common in countries, would be extremely difficult to maneuver at low speeds
36.
KGB
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The KGB, an initialism for Komitet gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti, was the main security agency for the Soviet Union from 1954 until its break-up in 1991. Formed in 1954, as a successor of such preceding agencies as the Cheka, NKGB, and MGB. It was the government agency of union-republican jurisdiction, acting as internal security, intelligence. Similar agencies were constituted in each of the republics of the Soviet Union aside from Russia and consisted of ministries, state committees. The KGB was a service and was governed by army laws and regulations. While most of the KGB archives remain classified, two documentary sources are available. After the dissolution of the USSR, the KGB was split into the Federal Security Service, after breaking away from the Republic of Georgia in the early 1990s with Russian help, the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia established its own KGB. A1983 Time magazine article reported that the KGB was the worlds most effective information-gathering organization, at best, the compromised spy was either returned to the Soviet Union or was declared persona non grata and expelled by the government of the target country. The illegal resident spied, unprotected by diplomatic immunity, and worked independently of Soviet diplomatic, in its early history, the KGB valued illegal spies more than legal spies, because illegal spies infiltrated their targets with greater ease. The KGB classified its spies as agents and controllers, the false-identity or legend assumed by a USSR-born illegal spy was elaborate, using the life of either a live double or a dead double. In the 1980s, the glasnost liberalisation of Soviet society provoked KGB Chairman Vladimir Kryuchkov to lead the August 1991 Soviet coup détat attempt to depose President Mikhail Gorbachev, the thwarted coup détat ended the KGB on 6 November 1991. The KGBs successors are the police agency FSB and the espionage agency SVR. The GRU recruited the ideological agent Julian Wadleigh, who became a State Department diplomat in 1936, the NKVDs first US operation was establishing the legal residency of Boris Bazarov and the illegal residency of Iskhak Akhmerov in 1934. Throughout, the Communist Party USA and its General Secretary Earl Browder, helped NKVD recruit Americans, working in government, business, moreover, when Whittaker Chambers, formerly Alger Hisss courier, approached the Roosevelt Government—to identify the Soviet spies Duggan, White, and others—he was ignored. To wit, British Manhattan Project team physicist Klaus Fuchs was the agent of the Rosenberg spy ring. In 1944, the New York City residency infiltrated the top secret Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, by recruiting Theodore Hall, the KGB failed to rebuild most of its US illegal resident networks. The aftermath of the Second Red Scare and the crisis in the CPUSA hampered recruitment, the last major illegal resident, Rudolf Abel, was betrayed by his assistant, Reino Häyhänen, in 1957. One notable KGB success occurred in 1967, with the recruitment of US Navy Chief Warrant Officer John Anthony Walker
37.
GAZ-53
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GAZ-53 is a 3.5 tonne 4x2 truck produced by GAZ between 1961 and 1993. Introduced first as GAZ-53F, it was joined by the virtually identical 2. 5-ton GAZ-52 in 1962, the GAZ grille is fluted vertically, and the direction indicators are located above the headlamps. The ZIL has flashers below the headlamps and its grille is horizontally slated, the main variant of GAZ-53 with no suffix letter was released in 1964, which was manufactured until 1993. It featured a brand-new 4254 cc light-alloy V8 ZMZ-53 engine, producing 120 hp SAE Gross @3200 rpm, giving a top speed of 90 km/h. Early versions of GAZ-53 were powered by an old 75-hp SAE Gross 6-cylinder engine from the GAZ-51 truck, payload was increased to 4 tons in a later model, called GAZ-53A. All variants use a four-speed gearbox, synchronised on third and fourth, the GAZ-53A was also license-built by KTA Madara in Shumen, Bulgaria beginning in 1967. They were called the Madara 400 series and were fitted with locally built four-cylinder 3.9 liter Perkins diesel or turbodiesel engines and these engines had either 80 or 100 PS. A destroyed wrecker version of the Gaz-53 has been several times in Valve Softwares Half-Life 2 and Counter-Strike
38.
GAZ-66
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The GAZ-66 is a Soviet and later Russian 4x4 all-road military truck produced by GAZ. It was one of the main vehicles for motorized infantry of the Soviet Army and is still employed in former Soviet Union countries. It is nicknamed shishiga shehsherik trueman, the GAZ-66 has gained legendary status in many countries around the world due to its reliability, simplicity and off-road capability. AS-66 - ambulance, designed to evacuate the wounded, dDA-2 - disinfecting shower installation, is used in the military sanitary-epidemiological units. GZSA-731, 983A,947,3713,3714 - Vans Mail, bread,3902,3903,39021,39031 - mobile workshops to provide technical assistance to agricultural machinery. 2001,2002,3718,3719,3716,3924,39521 - mobile clinics NZAS-3964, gAZ-KAZ-3511 - tipper for agricultural purposes on GAZ-66-31 Specifications for GAZ 66-11 Design Cab-forward design, 2-seat cab +21 passengers in the back. It is mentioned in the 1991 Tom Clancy novel The Sum Of All Fears. In the Russian version of the TV show Top Gear, a test was conducted on the vehicles strengths, after all these tests, it kept going. The Gaz-66 was featured in the movie The Expendables 2 with Jean-Claude Van Damme
39.
Sable
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The sable is a marten species, a small carnivorous mammal inhabiting forest environments, primarily in Russia from the Ural Mountains throughout Siberia, northern Mongolia. Its habitat also leans the borders of eastern Kazakhstan, China, North and South Korea and its range in the wild originally extended through European Russia to Poland and Scandinavia. It has historically been hunted for its highly valued dark brown or black fur, while hunting of wild animals is still common in Russia, most fur in the market is now commercially farmed. The name sable appears to be of Slavic origin and to have entered most Western European languages via the medieval fur trade. The English and Medieval Latin word sabellum comes from the Old French sable or saible, the term has become a generic description for some black-furred animal breeds, such as sable cats or rabbits, and for the colour black in heraldry. Males measure 38–56 centimetres in length, with a tail measuring 9–12 centimetres. Females have a length of 35–51 centimetres, with a tail length of 7. 2–11.5 centimetres. The winter pelage is longer and more luxurious than the summer coat, different subspecies display geographic variation in fur colour, fur color ranges from light to dark brown, with individual fur color being lighter ventrally and darker on the back and legs. Japanese sables in particular are marked with black on their legs, individuals also display a light patch of fur on their throat which may be gray, white, or a pale yellow. The fur is softer and silkier than that of American martens, sables greatly resemble pine martens in size and appearance, but have more elongated heads, longer ears and proportionately shorter tails. Their skulls are similar to those of martens, but are larger. Sables inhabit dense forests dominated by spruce, pine, larch, cedar and they defend home territories that may be anything from 4 to 30 square kilometres in size, depending on the local terrain and availability of food. However, when resources are scarce they may move considerable distances in search of food, sables live in burrows near riverbanks and in the thickest parts of woods. These burrows are made more secure by being dug among tree roots. They are good climbers of cliffs and trees and they are primarily crepuscular, hunting during the hours of twilight, but become more active in the day during the mating season. Their dens are well hidden, and lined by grass and shed fur, but may be temporary, especially during the winter, sables are omnivores, and their diet varies seasonally. In the summer, they eat large numbers of hares and other small mammals, in winter, when they are confined in their retreats by frost and snow, they feed on wild berries, rodents, hares, and even small musk deer. They also hunt ermine, small weasels and birds, sometimes, sables follow the tracks of wolves and bears and feed on the remains of their kills
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