1.
Mask
–
A mask is an object normally worn on the face, typically for protection, disguise, performance, or entertainment. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and practical purposes and they are usually worn on the face, although they may also be positioned for effect elsewhere on the wearers body. In parts of Australia, giant totem masks cover the body and this word is of uncertain origin, perhaps from Arabic maskharah مَسْخَرَۃٌ buffoon, from the verb sakhira to ridicule. However, it may come from Provençal mascarar to black. This in turn is of uncertain origin — perhaps from a Germanic source akin to English mesh, but perhaps from mask- black, other related forms are Hebrew masecha= mask, Arabic maskhara مَسْخَرَ = he ridiculed, he mocked, masakha مَسَخَ = he transfomed. Some ceremonial or decorative masks were not designed to be worn, although the religious use of masks has waned, masks are used sometimes in drama therapy or psychotherapy. One of the challenges in anthropology is finding the precise derivation of human culture and early activities, with the invention, the use of masks dates back several millennia. The oldest masks that have been discovered are 9,000 years old, being held by the Musée Bible et Terre Sainte, and the Israel Museum. At the neanderthal Roche-Cotard site in France, a likeness of a face was found which is about 35,000 years old. In the Book of Genesis, one can read how Adam and Eve used fig leaves to cover their nakedness after eating the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. The masquerade motif appears in the Bible on two different levels, an attempt to people and an attempt to fool God. What shaped Judaic ritual was a prohibition against fashioning a statue or a mask. In the cult of Shiva, found in Anatolia from circa 6,000 BC, rené Guénon claims that in the Roman saturnalia festivals, the ordinary roles were often inverted. Sometimes a slave or a criminal was temporarily granted the insignia and status of royalty, the Carnival of Venice, in which all are equal behind their masks, dates back to 1268 AD. The use of masks in the Jewish Purim festivities probably originated in the late 15th century. The North American Iroquois tribes used masks for healing purposes, in the Himalayas, masks functioned above all as mediators of supernatural forces. Yupik masks could be small three-inch finger masks, but also ten-kilo masks hung from the ceiling or carried by several people, Masks have been created with plastic surgery for mutilated soldiers. Not all cultures have known the use of masks, but most of them have, throughout the world, masks are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance - both ritually and in various theatre traditions
Mask
–
This stone mask from the pre-ceramic neolithic period dates to 7000 BC and is probably the oldest mask in the world (
Musée de la Bible et de la Terre Sainte)
Mask
–
Papierkrattler masks at the Narrensprung 2005 Carnival parade,
Ravensburg, Germany
Mask
–
The so-called '
Mask of Agamemnon ', a 16th Century BC mask discovered by
Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 at
Mycenae,
Greece.
National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
Mask
–
Replica of the funeral mask of
K'inich Janaab' Pakal at the
Museo Nacional de la Máscara in Mexico
2.
Pollutant
–
A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource. A pollutant may cause long- or short-term damage by changing the rate of plant or animal species, or by interfering with human amenities, comfort, health. Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term, however the degradation products of some pollutants are themselves polluting such as the products DDE and DDD produced from degradation of DDT. Pollutants, towards which the environment has little or no absorptive capacity are called stock pollutants, stock pollutants accumulate in the environment over time. The damage they cause increases as more pollutant is emitted, stock pollutants can create a burden for future generations, by passing on damage that persists well after the ‘benefits received from incurring that damage, have been forgotten. Fund pollutants are those for which the environment has some absorptive capacity, fund pollutants do not cause damage to the environment unless the emission rate exceeds the receiving environments absorptive capacity. Fund pollutants are not destroyed, but rather converted into less harmful substances and it also encompasses ecological light pollution which describes the effect of artificial light on individual organisms and on the structure of ecosystems as a whole. Pollutants can also be defined by their zones of influence, both horizontally and vertically, the horizontal zone refers to the area that is damaged by a pollutant. Local pollutants cause damage near the emission source, regional pollutants cause damage further from the emission source. The vertical zone is referred to whether the damage is ground-level or atmospheric, surface pollutants cause damage by concentrations of the pollutant accumulating near the Earths surface Global pollutants cause damage by concentrations in the atmosphere. Pollutants can cross borders and therefore international regulations are needed for their control. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which entered force in 2004, is an international legally binding agreement for the control of persistent organic pollutants. Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers are systems to collect and disseminate information on releases and transfers of toxic chemicals from industrial. The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants are additional emission standards that are set by EPA for toxic air pollutants, under the Clean Water Act, EPA promulgated national standards for municipal sewage treatment plants, also called publicly owned treatment works, in the Secondary Treatment Regulation. National standards for industrial dischargers are called Effluent guidelines and New Source Performance Standards, in addition, the Act requires states to publish water quality standards for individual water bodies to provide additional protection where the national standards are insufficient. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act regulates the management, transport and disposal of solid waste, hazardous waste. A tank or piping network that has at least 10 percent of its volume underground is known as a storage tank. They often store substances such as petroleum, that are harmful to the environment should it become contaminated
Pollutant
–
Surface runoff, also called
nonpoint source pollution, from a farm field in Iowa, United States during a rain storm. Topsoil as well as farm fertilizers and other potential pollutants run off unprotected farm fields when heavy rains occur.
3.
Respirator
–
A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling particulate matter, including airborne microrganisms, fumes, vapors, i. e. gases. Within each category, different techniques are employed to reduce or eliminate noxious airborne contaminants, a respirator is a piece of protective respiratory equipment designed to protect the wearer from inhaling harmful particulate matter, fumes, vapors, or gases. They range from relatively inexpensive single-use, disposable masks to more robust reusable models with replaceable cartridges, and are used by the military, private industry and the public. There are two categories, the air-purifying respirator, which forces contaminated air through a filtering element. Different techniques are employed to reduce or eliminate noxious airborne contaminants, in the 16th century, Leonardo da Vinci suggested that a finely woven cloth dipped in water could protect sailors from a toxic weapon made of powder that he had designed. Alexander von Humboldt introduced a primitive respirator in 1799 when he worked as an engineer in Prussia. Practically all early respirators consisted of a bag placed completely over the head, in some devices certain means were provided for the adsorption of carbon dioxide in exhaled air and the rebreathing of the same air many times, in other cases valves allowed exhalation of used air. Hutson Hurd patented a cup-shaped mask in 1879 which became widespread in industrial use, cover Company was still in business in the 1970s. Inventors in Europe included John Stenhouse, a Scottish chemist, who investigated the power of charcoal in its various forms, to capture and hold large volumes of gas. He built one of the first respirators able to remove gases from the air. Also in 1874, Samuel Barton patented a device that permitted respiration in places where the atmosphere is charged with noxious gases, or vapors, smoke, german Bernhard Loeb patented several inventions to purify foul or vitiated air, and counted the Brooklyn Fire Department among his customers. The first recorded response and defense against chemical attacks using respirators occurred during the Second Battle of Ypres on the Western Front in World War I. It was the first time Germany used chemical weapons on a large scale releasing 168 tons of gas over a four-mile front killing around 6,000 troops within ten minutes through asphyxiation. The gas being denser than air flowed downwards forcing troops to climb out of their trenches, reserve Canadian troops, who were away from the attack, used urine-soaked cloths as primitive respirators. A Canadian soldier realized that the ammonia in urine would react with the chlorine, neutralizing it, all respirators have some type of facepiece held to the wearers head with straps, a cloth harness, or some other method. The facepiece of the respirator covers either the face or the bottom half of the face including the nose. Half-face respirators can only be worn in environments where the contaminants are not toxic to the eyes or facial area. For example, someone who is painting an object with spray paint could wear a half-face respirator, facepieces come in many different styles and sizes, to accommodate all types of face shapes
Respirator
–
A half face particulate (air-purifying) mask is generally worn to protect the wearer from dust and paint fumes.
Respirator
–
Cross-section of a disposable NIOSH P95 filter pad used in
metalworking operations. Even "clean" industrial processes often generate large amounts of harmful particulate matter and require breathing protection.
Respirator
–
Protective filter mask worn by NYPD officer
Respirator
–
Filtering half mask with exhalation valve (class: FFP3)
4.
Sulfur mustard
–
Sulfur mustard, commonly known as mustard gas, is a cytotoxic and vesicant chemical warfare agent with the ability to form large blisters on exposed skin and in the lungs. Related chemical compounds with chemical structure and similar properties form a class of compounds known collectively as sulfur mustards or mustard agents. Pure sulfur mustards are colorless, viscous liquids at room temperature, when used in impure form, such as warfare agents, they are usually yellow-brown in color and have an odor resembling mustard plants, garlic, or horseradish, hence the name. Sulfur mustard was originally assigned the name LOST, after the scientists Wilhelm Lommel and Wilhelm Steinkopf, Mustard agents are regulated under the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention. Three classes of chemicals are monitored under this Convention, with sulfur and nitrogen mustard grouped in Schedule 1, Mustard agents could be deployed on the battlefield by means of artillery shells, aerial bombs, rockets, or by spraying from warplanes. Sulfur mustard is the compound with formula 2S. Sulfur mustard is a liquid at normal temperatures. The pure compound has a point of 14 °C and decomposes before boiling at 218 °C. The compound readily eliminates a chloride ion by intramolecular nucleophilic substitution to form a cyclic sulfonium ion, oxidative stress would be another pathology involved in sulfur mustard toxicity. Sulfur mustard is not very soluble in water but is soluble in fat. In the wider sense, compounds with the structural element BCH2CH2X, where X is any leaving group, such compounds can form cyclic onium ions that are good alkylating agents. Examples are bisether, the amines, and sulfur sesquimustard, which has two α-chloroethyl thioether groups connected by an ethylene group and these compounds have a similar ability to alkylate DNA, but their physical properties, e. g. melting points, may vary. Mustard agent has extremely powerful vesicant effects on its victims, in addition, it is strongly mutagenic and carcinogenic, due to its alkylating properties. Because people exposed to mustard agent rarely suffer immediate symptoms, and mustard-contaminated areas may appear completely normal and these are chemical burns and are very debilitating. Mustard agent vapor easily penetrates clothing fabrics such as wool or cotton, if the victims eyes were exposed then they become sore, starting with conjunctivitis, after which the eyelids swell, resulting in temporary blindness. In rare cases of extreme exposure to sulfur mustard vapors, corneal ulceration, anterior chamber scarring. In these severe and infrequent cases, corneal transplantation has been used as a treatment option, miosis may also occur, which is probably the result from the cholinomimetic activity of mustard. At very high concentrations, if inhaled, mustard agent causes bleeding and blistering within the system, damaging mucous membranes
Sulfur mustard
–
Soldier with moderate mustard agent burns sustained during
World War I showing characteristic
bullae on neck, armpit and hands
Sulfur mustard
Sulfur mustard
–
Typical appearance of
bullae on arm caused by
blister agent burns
Sulfur mustard
–
Pallets of 155 mm
artillery shells containing "HD" (distilled sulfur mustard agent) at
Pueblo chemical weapons storage facility. The distinctive
color-coding scheme on each shell is visible
5.
Chlorine
–
Chlorine is a chemical element with symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the table and its properties are mostly intermediate between them. Chlorine is a gas at room temperature. It is an extremely reactive element and a strong oxidising agent, among the elements, it has the highest electron affinity, the most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride, has been known since ancient times. Around 1630, chlorine gas was first synthesised in a chemical reaction, Carl Wilhelm Scheele wrote a description of chlorine gas in 1774, supposing it to be an oxide of a new element. In 1809, chemists suggested that the gas might be an element, and this was confirmed by Sir Humphry Davy in 1810. Because of its reactivity, all chlorine in the Earths crust is in the form of ionic chloride compounds. It is the second-most abundant halogen and twenty-first most abundant chemical element in Earths crust and these crustal deposits are nevertheless dwarfed by the huge reserves of chloride in seawater. Elemental chlorine is produced from brine by electrolysis. The high oxidising potential of chlorine led to the development of commercial bleaches and disinfectants. As a common disinfectant, elemental chlorine and chlorine-generating compounds are used directly in swimming pools to keep them clean. Elemental chlorine at high concentrations is extremely dangerous and poisonous for all living organisms, in the form of chloride ions, chlorine is necessary to all known species of life. Other types of compounds are rare in living organisms. In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing organic molecules such as chlorofluorocarbons have been implicated in ozone depletion, small quantities of elemental chlorine are generated by oxidation of chloride to hypochlorite in neutrophils as part of the immune response against bacteria. Its importance in food was very well known in antiquity and was sometimes used as payment for services for Roman generals. Around 1630, chlorine was recognized as a gas by the Flemish chemist, the element was first studied in detail in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and he is credited with the discovery. He called it dephlogisticated muriatic acid air since it is a gas and he failed to establish chlorine as an element, mistakenly thinking that it was the oxide obtained from the hydrochloric acid. He named the new element within this oxide as muriaticum, in 1809, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard tried to decompose dephlogisticated muriatic acid air by reacting it with charcoal to release the free element muriaticum
Chlorine
–
A glass container filled with chlorine gas
Chlorine
–
Chlorine, liquefied under a pressure of 7.4 bar at room temperature, displayed in a quartz ampule embedded in
acrylic glass.
Chlorine
–
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Chlorine
–
Liquid chlorine analysis
6.
Biological warfare
–
Biological weapons are living organisms or replicating entities that reproduce or replicate within their host victims. Entomological warfare is considered a type of biological weapon. None of these are conventional weapons, which are deployed primarily for their explosive, kinetic, Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or tactical advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual deployments. Like some of the weapons, biological weapons may also be useful as area denial weapons. These agents may be lethal or non-lethal, and may be targeted against a single individual and they may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, toxins and psychochemical weapons are often referred to as midspectrum agents. Unlike bioweapons, these agents do not reproduce in their host and are typically characterized by shorter incubation periods. Offensive biological warfare, including production, stockpiling and use of biological weapons, was outlawed by the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention. Many countries, including signatories of the BWC, currently pursue research into the defense or protection against BW, a nation or group that can pose a credible threat of mass casualty has the ability to alter the terms on which other nations or groups interact with it. Therefore, biological agents may be useful as strategic deterrents in addition to their utility as offensive weapons on the battlefield. As a tactical weapon for use, a significant problem with a BW attack is that it would take days to be effective. Some biological agents have the capability of person-to-person transmission via aerosolized respiratory droplets and this feature can be undesirable, as the agent may be transmitted by this mechanism to unintended populations, including neutral or even friendly forces. While containment of BW is less of a concern for criminal or terrorist organizations, it remains a significant concern for the military. Rudimentary forms of warfare have been practiced since antiquity. During the 6th century BC, the Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with a fungus that would render the enemy delirious, in 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa. Specialists disagree over whether this operation may have been responsible for the spread of the Black Death into Europe, the British Army used smallpox against Native Americans during the Siege of Fort Pitt in 1763. An outbreak that left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in Ohio Country was reported in 1764, the spread of the disease weakened the natives resistance to the British troops led by Henry Bouquet. It is not clear, however, whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was present among the Delaware people
Biological warfare
–
Shiro Ishii, commander of
Unit 731, which performed live human vivisections and other biological experimentation.
Biological warfare
–
Weapons of mass destruction
Biological warfare
–
Researchers working in
Class III cabinets at the
U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories,
Camp Detrick,
Maryland (1940s).
7.
Asbestos
–
They are commonly known by their colors, as blue asbestos, brown asbestos, white asbestos, and green asbestos. It was used in applications as electrical insulation for hotplate wiring. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat and these desirable properties made asbestos very widely used. Prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious and fatal illnesses including cancer, mesothelioma. Concern of asbestos-related illness in modern times began in the 20th century, by the 1980s and 1990s, asbestos trade and use were heavily restricted, phased out, or banned outright in an increasing number of countries. S. History and a much lesser legal issue in most other countries involved, asbestos-related liability also remains an ongoing concern for many manufacturers, insurers and reinsurers. Asbestos derives from the ancient Greek ἄσβεστος, meaning unquenchable or inextinguishable, the word is pronounced /æsˈbɛstəs/, /æzˈbɛstəs/ or /æzˈbɛstɒs/. Six mineral types are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as asbestos including those belonging to the serpentine class, all six asbestos mineral types are known to be human carcinogens. The visible fibers are themselves composed of millions of microscopic fibrils that can be released by abrasion. Chrysotile is the member of the serpentine class. 12001-29-5, is obtained from rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg34, chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber. Chrysotile has been used more than any type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America. Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos, and can be spun, the most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls, chrysotile has been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite are members of the amphibole class, one formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O222. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber and it is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles. 12001-28-4, is the form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa
Asbestos
–
Fibrous
tremolite asbestos on
muscovite
Asbestos
–
Asbestos
Asbestos
–
Blue asbestos (crocidolite) from
Wittenoom, Western Australia. The ruler is 1 cm.
Asbestos
–
Blue asbestos, teased to show the fibrous nature of the mineral (from mine at
Wittenoom, Western Australia)
8.
Hazardous materials
–
Dangerous goods or hazardous goods are solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property, or the environment. They are often subject to chemical regulations, in the United States, United Kingdom and sometimes in Canada, dangerous goods are more commonly known as hazardous materials. In the United States, dangerous goods are often indicated by diamond-shaped signage on the item, its container, mitigating the risks associated with hazardous materials may require the application of safety precautions during their transport, use, storage and disposal. Most countries regulate hazardous materials by law, and they are subject to international treaties as well. Even so, different countries may use different class diamonds for the same product, for example, in Australia, Anhydrous Ammonia UN1005 is classified as 2.3 with sub risk 8, whereas in the U. S. it is only classified as 2.2. People who handle dangerous goods will often wear protective equipment, and metropolitan fire departments often have a team specifically trained to deal with accidents. Laws and regulations on the use and handling of materials may differ depending on the activity. For example, one set of requirements may apply to their use in the workplace while a different set of requirements may apply to spill response, sale for consumer use, most countries regulate some aspect of hazardous materials. The most widely applied regulatory scheme is that for the transportation of dangerous goods, individual airline and governmental requirements are incorporated with this by the International Air Transport Association to produce the widely used IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations. Similarly, the International Maritime Organization has developed the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code for transportation of goods by sea. IMO member countries have developed the HNS Convention to provide compensation in case of dangerous goods spills in the sea. The Intergovernmental Organisation for International Carriage by Rail has developed the Regulations concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail, many individual nations have also structured their dangerous goods transportation regulations to harmonize with the UN Model in organization as well as in specific requirements. GHS will use consistent criteria for classification and labeling on a global level, Dangerous goods are divided into nine classes on the basis of the specific chemical characteristics producing the risk. Note, The graphics and text in this article representing the dangerous goods safety marks are derived from the United Nations-based system of identifying dangerous goods, not all countries use precisely the same graphics in their national regulations. Some use graphic symbols, but without English wording or with similar wording in their national language, refer to the Dangerous Goods Transportation Regulations of the country of interest. For example, see the TDG Bulletin, Dangerous Goods Safety Marks based on the Canadian Transportation of Dangerous Goods Regulations, the statement above applies equally to all the Dangerous Goods classes discussed in this article. Australia uses the standard international UN numbers with a few slightly different signs on the back, front, the country uses the same Hazchem code system as the UK to provide advisory information to emergency services personnel in the event of an emergency. New Zealands Land Transport Rule, Dangerous Goods 2005 and the Dangerous Goods Amendment 2010 describe the rules applied to the transportation of hazardous and dangerous goods in New Zealand
Hazardous materials
–
An emergency medical technician team training as rescue (grey suits) and decontamination (green suits) respondents to hazardous material and toxic contamination situations.
Hazardous materials
–
A reinforced, fireproof cabinet for dangerous chemicals.
Hazardous materials
–
A picture of the U.S. DOT classes in use.
Hazardous materials
–
Doublewall
corrugated fiberboard box with dividers for shipping four bottles of corrosive liquid, UN 4G, certified performance for Packing Group III
9.
Industrial music
–
Industrial music is a genre of experimental/electronic music that draws on transgressive or provocative sounds and themes. In general, the style is harsh and challenging, allMusic defines industrial as the most abrasive and aggressive fusion of rock and electronic music, initially a blend of avant-garde electronics experiments and punk provocation. The first industrial artists experimented with noise and aesthetically controversial topics, musically and visually, such as fascism, serial killers and their production was not limited to music, but included mail art, performance art, installation pieces and other art forms. Prominent industrial musicians include Throbbing Gristle, Monte Cazazza, SPK, Boyd Rice, Cabaret Voltaire, Musicians also cite writers such as William S. Burroughs, and philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche as influences. These artists expanded the genre by pushing it into noisier and more electronic directions, over time, its influence spread into and blended with styles including ambient and rock, all of which now fall under the post-industrial music label. Electro-industrial music is a subgenre that developed in the 1980s. These three distinct genres are often referred to as simply industrial, Industrial music drew from a broad range of predecessors. Industrial music was created originally by using mechanical and electric machinery, monroe also argues for Suicide as an influential contemporary of the industrial musicians. Groups cited as inspirational by the founders of industrial music include The Velvet Underground, Joy Division, genesis P-Orridge of Throbbing Gristle had a cassette library including recordings by the Master Musicians of Jajouka, Kraftwerk, Charles Manson, and William S. Burroughs. P-Orridge also credited 1960s rock such as The Doors, Pearls Before Swine, The Fugs, Captain Beefheart, chris Carter also enjoyed and found inspiration in Pink Floyd and Tangerine Dream. Boyd Rice was influenced by the music of 60s girl groups, Cabaret Voltaire cited Roxy Music as their initial forerunners, as well as Kraftwerks Trans-Europe Express. Cabaret Voltaire also recorded pieces reminiscent of musique concrète and composers such as Morton Subotnick, Nurse with Wound cited a long list of obscure free improvisation and Krautrock as recommended listening. 23 Skidoo borrowed from Fela Kuti and Miles Daviss On the Corner, many industrial groups, including Einstürzende Neubauten, took inspiration from world music. Many of the industrial musicians preferred to cite artists or thinkers, rather than musicians. Simon Reynolds declares that Being a Throbbing Gristle fan was like enrolling in a university course of cultural extremism, John Cage was an initial inspiration for Throbbing Gristle. SPK appreciated Jean Dubuffet, Marcel Duchamp, Jean Baudrillard, Michel Foucault, Walter Benjamin, Marshall McLuhan, Friedrich Nietzsche, Cabaret Voltaire took conceptual cues from Burroughs, J. G. Ballard, and Tristan Tzara. Whitehouse and Nurse with Wound dedicated some of their work to the Marquis de Sade, another influence on the industrial aesthetic was Lou Reeds Metal Machine Music. Pitchfork Music cites this album as inspiring, in part, much of the contemporary avant-garde music scene—noise, the album consists entirely of guitar feedback, anticipating industrials use of non-musical sounds
Industrial music
–
Frank Zappa and
Captain Beefheart in 1975, cited as inspirations by Herman Taylor
Industrial music
–
Re/Search reference guide to the philosophy and interests of a flexible alliance of "deviant" artists.
Industrial music
–
William S. Burroughs, a conceptual inspiration for the industrial musicians.
Industrial music
–
Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails in 2008.
10.
Subgenre
–
Genre is any form or type of communication in any mode with socially-agreed upon conventions developed over time. Genres form by conventions that change over time as new genres are invented, often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, some genres may be rigid with strictly adhered to guidelines while others may be very flexible. Genre began as a classification system for ancient Greek literature. Poetry, prose, and performance each had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, in later periods genres proliferated and developed in response to changes in audiences and creators. Genre became a tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art. Because art is often a response to a state, in that people write/paint/sing/dance about what they know about. Genre suffers from the ills of any classification system. Genre is to be reassessed and scrutinized, and to works on their unique merit. While the genre of storytelling has been relegated as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions, proponents argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation, recombination, and evolution of the codes. The term genre is used in the history and criticism of visual art. These are distinguished from staffage, incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting, Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings. The concept of the hierarchy of genres was a one in artistic theory. It was strongest in France, where it was associated with the Académie française which held a role in academic art. Genres may be determined by technique, tone, content. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as adult, young adult. They also must not be confused with format, such as novel or picture book
Subgenre
–
A genre painting (Peasant Dance, c. 1568, by
Pieter Brueghel the Elder)
11.
Drum and bass
–
Drum and bass is a genre and branch of electronic music which emerged from rave and oldschool jungle scenes in England during the early 1990s. The style is characterised by fast breakbeats with heavy bass and sub-bass lines, sampled sources. The popularity of drum and bass at its peak ran parallel to several other homegrown dance styles in the UK including big beat. Drum and bass incorporates a number of scenes and styles, a major influence on jungle and drum and bass was the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound. Another feature of the style is the syncopation of the drum tracks breakbeat. Drum and bass subgenres include breakcore, ragga jungle, hardstep, darkstep, techstep, neurofunk, ambient drum and bass, liquid funk, deep, drumfunk, funkstep, sambass, dnbnoise, from its roots in the UK, the style has established itself around the world. Drum and bass has influenced other genres like hip hop, big beat, dubstep, house, trip hop, ambient music, techno, rock. Drum and bass is dominated by a small group of record labels. The major international labels have shown very little interest in the drum. But rave music tended to feature stronger bass sounds and a faster tempo beats per minute than that of early house music and it is important to note when discussing the history of drum and bass that prior to jungle, rave music was getting faster and more experimental. Professional DJ and producer C. K. states, There was a progression as far as the speed of music is concerned, anyone buying vinyl every week from 1989 to 1992 noticed this. By 1994, jungle had begun to gain popularity and fans of the music became a more recognisable part of youth subculture. However, this developed in tandem with the positive reputation of the music as part of the wider rave scene. As the genre became more polished and sophisticated technically, it began to expand its reach from pirate radio to commercial stations. It also began to split into subgenres such as jump-up. The popularity of drum and bass at its peak ran parallel to several other homegrown dance styles in the UK including big beat. But towards the turn of the millennium its popularity was deemed to have dwindled as the UK garage style known as speed garage yielded several hit singles. London DJ/producer C. K. says, It is often forgotten by my students that a type of music called garage house existed in the late 1980s alongside hip house, acid house and other forms of house music
Drum and bass
–
The Roland TR-808 Rhythm Composer, produced 1980–1984, had a bass drum sound which became very important in Drum and bass.
Drum and bass
–
Pendulum playing the Valve Sound System with MC IC3 at the Tuesday Club, Sheffield 05/03/06
Drum and bass
–
Aphrodite in 2009 at
Pirate Station, the world's largest drum and bass festival, in Moscow.
Drum and bass
–
Congo Natty, a ragga jungle artist
12.
Graffiti
–
Graffiti are writing or drawings that have been scribbled, scratched, or painted illicitly on a wall or other surface, often within public view. Graffiti range from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and they have existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, in modern times, paint and marker pens have become the most commonly used graffiti materials. In most countries, marking or painting property without the property owners permission is considered defacement and vandalism, Graffiti may also express underlying social and political messages and a whole genre of artistic expression is based upon spray paint graffiti styles. Within hip hop culture, graffiti have evolved alongside hip hop music, b-boying, unrelated to hip-hop graffiti, gangs use their own form of graffiti to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Controversies that surround graffiti continue to create disagreement amongst city officials, law enforcement, both graffiti and its occasional singular form graffito are from the Italian word graffiato. Graffiti is applied in art history to works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface, a related term is sgraffito, which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was used by potters who would glaze their wares. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, the word originates from Greek γράφειν — graphein — meaning to write. The term graffiti referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, use of the word has evolved to include any graphics applied to surfaces in a manner that constitutes vandalism. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD, the first known example of modern style graffiti survives in the ancient Greek city of Ephesus. Local guides say it is an advertisement for prostitution, located near a mosaic and stone walkway, the graffiti shows a handprint that vaguely resembles a heart, along with a footprint and a number. This is believed to indicate that a brothel was nearby, with the handprint symbolizing payment, the ancient Romans carved graffiti on walls and monuments, examples of which also survive in Egypt. Graffiti in the world had different connotations than they carry in todays society concerning content. One inscription gives the address of a woman named Novellia Primigenia of Nuceria, another shows a phallus accompanied by the text, mansueta tene. Etched on the surface of the Mirror Wall, they contain pieces of prose, poetry, the majority of these visitors appear to have been from the elite of society, royalty, officials, professions, and clergy. There were also soldiers, archers, and even some metalworkers, the topics range from love to satire, curses, wit, and lament. Many demonstrate a high level of literacy and a deep appreciation of art. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there, one reads, Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems
Graffiti
–
Ancient graffito at
Kom Ombo Temple, Egypt
Graffiti
–
Ancient
Pompeii graffito
caricature of a politician
Graffiti
–
Ironic wall inscription commenting on boring graffiti
Graffiti
–
Satirical
Alexamenos graffito, possibly the earliest known
representation of Jesus
13.
Toxic
–
Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on an organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism. By extension, the word may be used to describe toxic effects on larger and more complex groups. Sometimes the word is more or less synonymous with poisoning in everyday usage, toxicity is species-specific, making cross-species analysis problematic. Newer paradigms and metrics are evolving to bypass animal testing, while maintaining the concept of toxicity endpoints, disease-causing microorganisms and parasites are toxic in a broad sense, but are generally called pathogens rather than toxicants. The biological toxicity of pathogens can be difficult to measure because the dose may be a single organism. Theoretically one virus, bacterium or worm can reproduce to cause a serious infection, in some cases, e. g. cholera, the disease is chiefly caused by a nonliving substance secreted by the organism, rather than the organism itself. Such nonliving biological toxicants are generally called toxins if produced by a microorganism, plant, or fungus, Physical toxicants are substances that, due to their physical nature, interfere with biological processes. Examples include coal dust, asbestos fibers or finely divided silicon dioxide, corrosive chemicals possess physical toxicity because they destroy tissues, but theyre not directly poisonous unless they interfere directly with biological activity. Water can act as a physical toxicant if taken in high doses because the concentration of vital ions decreases dramatically if theres too much water in the body. Asphyxiant gases can be considered physical toxicants because they act by displacing oxygen in the environment but they are inert, as already mentioned, radiation can have a toxic effect on organisms. Toxicity can be measured by its effects on the target, one such measure is the LD50. When such data does not exist, estimates are made by comparison to known similar toxic things, then, safety factors are added to account for uncertainties in data and evaluation processes. Similarly, an extra protection factor may be used for individuals believed to be susceptible to toxic effects such as in pregnancy or with certain diseases. Obviously, this approach is approximate, but such protection factors are deliberately very conservative. In addition, it is possible that a single cell transformed into a cell is all it takes to develop the full effect. Common mixtures include gasoline, cigarette smoke, and industrial waste, even more complex are situations with more than one type of toxic entity, such as the discharge from a malfunctioning sewage treatment plant, with both chemical and biological agents. The preclinical toxicity testing on various biological systems reveals the species-, organ-, the toxicity of substances can be observed by studying the accidental exposures to a substance in vitro studies using cells/ cell lines in vivo exposure on experimental animals
Toxic
–
Patch test
Toxic
–
The
skull and crossbones is a common symbol for toxicity.
14.
Urban exploration
–
Urban exploration is the exploration of man-made structures, usually abandoned ruins or not usually seen components of the man-made environment. Photography and historical interest/documentation are heavily featured in the hobby and, although it may sometimes involve trespassing onto private property, informally named urbexing, the popular activity is engaged with by people of all ages, even the elderly. Urbex (or urban exploration may also be referred to as draining, urban spelunking, urban rock climbing, urban caving, the nature of this activity presents various risks, including both physical danger and the possibility of arrest and punishment. Some activities associated with urban exploration may violate local or regional laws, ventures into abandoned structures are perhaps the most common example of urban exploration. At times, sites are entered first by locals and may suffer from large amounts of graffiti, in Japan, abandoned infrastructure is known as haikyo, but the term is synonymous with the practice of urban exploration. Haikyo are particularly common in Japan because of its rapid industrialization, damage during World War II, the 1980s real estate bubble, Abandoned sites are also popular among historians, preservationists, architects, archaeologists, industrial archaeologists, and ghost hunters. The term infiltration is often associated with the exploration of active structures, people entering restricted areas may be committing trespass and civil prosecution may result. Catacombs such as found in Paris, Rome, Odessa. Explorers of these are known as cataphiles, entry into storm drains, or draining, is another common form of urban exploration. Groups devoted to the task have arisen, such as the Cave Clan in Australia, draining has a specialized set of guidelines, the foremost of which is When it rains, no drains. The dangers of becoming entrapped, washed away, or killed increase dramatically during a heavy rainfall, a small subset of explorers enter sanitary sewers. Sometimes they are the connection to caves or other subterranean features. Sewers are among the most dangerous locations to explore owing to risk of poisoning by buildups of toxic gas, Exploring active and abandoned subway and underground railway tunnels, bores and stations is often considered to be trespassing and can result in civil prosecution. As a result, this type of exploration is rarely publicized, one important exception to this is the abandoned subway of Rochester, New York, the only American city to have an abandoned, formerly used, subway system. Universities, and other institutions such as hospitals, often distribute hazardous superheated steam for heating or cooling buildings from a central heating plant. These pipes are run through utility tunnels, which are often intended to be accessible solely for the purposes of maintenance. Nevertheless, many of steam tunnels, especially those on college campuses. This practice was once called vadding at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, though students there now refer to it as roof, some steam tunnels have dirt floors, poor lighting and temperatures upwards of 45 °C
Urban exploration
–
Light Painting inside an abandoned limestone quarry in
France.
Urban exploration
–
Urban explorers at the entrance of a technical gallery under construction in Paris, France
Urban exploration
–
Abandoned Salbert fortifications
Urban exploration
–
Catacombs (France)
15.
Glass
–
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
Glass
–
The joining of two tubes made of
lead glass during
glass welding.
Glass
–
Moldavite, a natural glass formed by
meteorite impact, from
Besednice, Bohemia
Glass
–
Tube fulgurites
Glass
–
Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production
16.
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
–
The same material can be utilised as a casting resin, in inks and coatings, and has many other uses. Chemically, it is the polymer of methyl methacrylate. PMMA is an alternative to polycarbonate when extreme strength is not necessary. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate and it is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost. The first acrylic acid was created in 1843, methacrylic acid, derived from acrylic acid, was formulated in 1865. The reaction between acid and methanol results in the ester methyl methacrylate. In 1877 the German chemist Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig discovered the process that turns methyl methacrylate into polymethyl methacrylate. In 1933, the brand name Plexiglas was patented and registered by another German chemist, in 1936 Imperial Chemical Industries began the first commercially viable production of acrylic safety glass. During World War II both Allied and Axis forces used acrylic glass for submarine periscopes and aircraft windshields, canopies, common orthographic stylings include polymethyl methacrylate and polymethylmethacrylate. The full chemical name is poly, although often called simply acrylic, acrylic can also refer to other polymers or copolymers containing polyacrylonitrile. The other notable names include, Acrylite, a trademark of Evonik Cyro since 1976 Lucite, a trademark of DuPont, first registered in 1937 R-Cast. Founded in 1987 after spinning off from Reynolds & Taylor and they specialize in large scale and thick monolithic acrylic. Plexiglas, a trademark of ELF Atochem, now a subsidiary of Arkema in the US, generally, radical initiation is used, but anionic polymerization of PMMA can also be performed. To produce 1 kg of PMMA, about 2 kg of petroleum is needed, PMMA produced by radical polymerization is atactic and completely amorphous. The glass transition temperature of atactic PMMA is 105 °C, PMMA is thus an organic glass at room temperature, i. e. it is below its Tg. The forming temperature starts at the transition temperature and goes up from there. All common molding processes may be used, including molding, compression molding. The highest quality PMMA sheets are produced by casting, but in this case
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
–
Lichtenberg figure: high voltage dielectric breakdown in an acrylic polymer block
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
–
Illustrative and secure
bromine chemical sample used for teaching. The sample vial of corrosive and poisonous liquid has been cast into an acrylic plastic cube
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
–
Close-up of pressure sphere of
Bathyscaphe Trieste, with single conical window of PMMA (Plexiglas) set into sphere hull. The very small black circle (smaller than the man's head) is the inner side of the plastic "window," and is only a few inches in diameter. The larger circular clear black area represents the larger outer-side of the thick one-piece plastic cone "window."
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
–
10 meter deep
Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has acrylic windows up to 33 cm thick to withstand the
water pressure
17.
Polycarbonate
–
Polycarbonates are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically transparent and they are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications, Polycarbonates do not have a unique resin identification code and are identified as Other,7 on the RIC list. Products made from polycarbonate can contain the precursor monomer bisphenol A. Polycarbonates received their name because they are polymers containing carbonate groups, a balance of useful features, including temperature resistance, impact resistance and optical properties, positions polycarbonates between commodity plastics and engineering plastics. The main polycarbonate material is produced by the reaction of bisphenol A, the net reaction from the diphenoxide is, Na22CMe2 + COCl2 → 1/n n +2 NaCl In this way, approximately one billion kilograms of polycarbonate is produced annually. Many other diols have been tested in place of bisphenol A, e. g.1, the cyclohexane is used as a comonomer to suppress crystallisation tendency of the BPA-derived product. Tetrabromobisphenol A is used to enhance fire resistance, tetramethylcyclobutanediol has been developed as a replacement for BPA. Although it has high impact-resistance, it has low scratch-resistance, therefore, a hard coating is applied to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive components. The characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of polymethyl methacrylate, but polycarbonate is stronger, Polycarbonate is highly transparent to visible light, with better light transmission than many kinds of glass. Polycarbonate has a transition temperature of about 147 °C, so it softens gradually above this point. Tools must be held at high temperatures, generally above 80 °C to make strain-free and stress-free products, low molecular mass grades are easier to mold than higher grades, but their strength is lower as a result. The toughest grades have the highest molecular mass, but are more difficult to process. Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo plastic deformations without cracking or breaking. As a result, it can be processed and formed at room temperature using sheet metal techniques, even for sharp angle bends with a tight radius, heating may not be necessary. This makes it valuable in prototyping applications where transparent or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, pMMA/Acrylic, which is similar in appearance to polycarbonate, is brittle and cannot be bent at room temperature. Due to its chemical properties it is not conducive to laser-cutting, Injection molding into ready articles Polycarbonate may become brittle when exposed to ionizing radiation above 25 kGy. Polycarbonate is mainly used for applications that capitalize on its collective safety features. Being a good insulator and having heat-resistant and flame-retardant properties, it is used in various products associated with electrical
Polycarbonate
–
A bottle made from polycarbonate
Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate
–
Polycarbonate sheeting in a greenhouse
Polycarbonate
–
CDs and DVDs
18.
Absorption (chemistry)
–
In chemistry, absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules or ions enter some bulk phase – gas, liquid or solid material. This is a different process from adsorption, since molecules undergoing absorption are taken up by the volume, a more general term is sorption, which covers absorption, adsorption, and ion exchange. Absorption is a condition in which something takes in another substance, for some examples of this effect, see liquid-liquid extraction. It is possible to extract from one phase to another a solute without a chemical reaction. Examples of such solutes are noble gases and osmium tetroxide, the process of absorption means that a substance captures and transforms energy. The absorbent distributes the material it captures throughout whole and adsorbent only distributes it through the surface and this equation is valid if concentrations are not too large and if the species x does not change its form in any of the two phases 1 or 2. In the case of gas absorption, one may calculate its concentration by using, e. g. the Ideal gas law, in alternative fashion, one may use partial pressures instead of concentrations. Absorption is a process that may be chemical or physical, chemical absorption or reactive absorption is a chemical reaction between the absorbed and the absorbing substances. Sometimes it combines with physical absorption and this type of absorption depends upon the stoichiometry of the reaction and the concentration of its reactants
Absorption (chemistry)
–
Laboratory absorber. 1a): CO 2 inlet; 1b): H 2 O inlet; 2): outlet; 3): absorption column; 4): packing.
19.
Adsorption
–
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent and this process differs from absorption, in which a fluid is dissolved by or permeates a liquid or solid, respectively. Adsorption is a process while absorption involves the whole volume of the material. The term sorption encompasses both processes, while desorption is the reverse of it, similar to surface tension, adsorption is a consequence of surface energy. In a bulk material, all the requirements of the constituent atoms of the material are filled by other atoms in the material. However, atoms on the surface of the adsorbent are not wholly surrounded by other adsorbent atoms, the exact nature of the bonding depends on the details of the species involved, but the adsorption process is generally classified as physisorption or chemisorption. It may also occur due to electrostatic attraction, pharmaceutical industry applications, which use adsorption as a means to prolong neurological exposure to specific drugs or parts thereof, are lesser known. The word adsorption was coined in 1881 by German physicist Heinrich Kayser, adsorption is usually described through isotherms, that is, the amount of adsorbate on the adsorbent as a function of its pressure or concentration at constant temperature. The quantity adsorbed is nearly always normalized by the mass of the adsorbent to allow comparison of different materials, to date,15 different isothem models were developed. The function is not adequate at very high pressure because in reality x / m has a maximum as pressure increases without bound. As the temperature increases, the k and n change to reflect the empirical observation that the quantity adsorbed rises more slowly. Irving Langmuir was the first to derive a scientifically based adsorption isotherm in 1918, the model applies to gases adsorbed on solid surfaces. It is a semi-empirical isotherm with a basis and was derived based on statistical thermodynamics. It is the most common isotherm equation to use due to its simplicity and it is based on four assumptions, All of the adsorption sites are equivalent and each site can only accommodate one molecule. The surface is energetically homogeneous and adsorbed molecules do not interact, at the maximum adsorption, only a monolayer is formed. Adsorption only occurs on localized sites on the surface, not with other adsorbates, the fourth condition is the most troublesome, as frequently more molecules will adsorb to the monolayer, this problem is addressed by the BET isotherm for relatively flat surfaces. The Langmuir isotherm is nonetheless the first choice for most models of adsorption, Langmuir suggested that adsorption takes place through this mechanism, A g + S ⇌ A S, where A is a gas molecule and S is an adsorption site. The direct and inverse rate constants are k and k−1, vmon is related to the number of adsorption sites through the ideal gas law
Adsorption
–
Langmuir isotherm (red) and BET isotherm (green)
Adsorption
–
Two adsorbate nitrogen molecules adsorbing onto a tungsten adsorbent from the precursor state around an island of previously adsorbed adsorbate (left) and via random adsorption (right)
Adsorption
–
Activated carbon is used as an adsorbent
Adsorption
–
Silica gel adsorber for NO 2, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, ca.1930s
20.
Chemical reaction
–
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the reactions of unstable. The substance initially involved in a reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the elementary reactions. Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations, which present the starting materials, end products. Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature, typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms. Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they go to completion or reach equilibrium, Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often described as spontaneous, requiring no input of free energy to go forward. Non-spontaneous reactions require input of energy to go forward. Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired product, in biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical reactions form metabolic pathways. These reactions are catalyzed by protein enzymes. Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity, in the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by Alchemists. They attempted, in particular, to lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of lead. The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as sulfate, alum. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid, further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in the 1880s, and the Haber process was developed in 1909–1910 for ammonia synthesis. From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, the phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher. It postulated the existence of an element called phlogiston, which was contained within combustible bodies. This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the explanation of the combustion as reaction with oxygen from the air
Chemical reaction
–
A
thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide. The sparks flying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake.
Chemical reaction
–
Antoine Lavoisier developed the theory of combustion as a chemical reaction with oxygen
Chemical reaction
–
As seen from the equation CH 4 + 2 O 2 → CO 2 + 2 H 2 O, a coefficient of 2 must be placed before the
oxygen gas on the reactants side and before the
water on the products side in order for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each element does not change during the reaction
Chemical reaction
–
Sodium chloride is formed through the redox reaction of sodium metal and chlorine gas
21.
Electric charge
–
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of charges, positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike attract, an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. An object is charged if it has an excess of electrons. The SI derived unit of charge is the coulomb. In electrical engineering, it is common to use the ampere-hour. The symbol Q often denotes charge, early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that dont require consideration of quantum effects. The electric charge is a conserved property of some subatomic particles. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields, the interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces. 602×10−19 coulombs. The proton has a charge of +e, and the electron has a charge of −e, the study of charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is called quantum electrodynamics. Charge is the property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the charge e. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge, robert Millikans oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. By convention, the charge of an electron is −1, while that of a proton is +1, charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, quarks have fractional charges of either −1/3 or +2/3, but free-standing quarks have never been observed. The electric charge of an object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up. An ion is an atom that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net charge, or that has gained one or more electrons
Electric charge
–
Electric field of a positive and a negative point charge.
22.
Activated carbon
–
Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of carbon processed to have small, low-volume pores that increase the surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions. Activated is sometimes substituted with active, due to its high degree of microporosity, just one gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of 3,000 m2, as determined by gas adsorption. An activation level sufficient for useful application may be attained solely from high surface area, activated carbon is usually derived from charcoal and is sometimes utilized as biochar. Those derived from coal and coke are referred as activated coal, one major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in the metal finishing field. It is very widely employed for purification of electroplating solutions, for example, it is a main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility. Due to passage of current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction. Their excessive build up can adversely affect the quality and physical properties of deposited metal. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level, activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion. Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat diarrhea, indigestion. However, it is ineffective for a number of poisonings including strong acids or alkali, cyanide, iron, lithium, arsenic, incorrect application results in pulmonary aspiration, which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated. During early implementation of the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act in the USA, activated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air. Activated carbon is a substance used by organic farmers in both livestock production and wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, benefits in case of animal feed additive are questionable. In organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as an agent to absorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates. Activated carbon filters can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can affect color, taste, research is being done testing various activated carbons ability to store natural gas and hydrogen gas. The porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases, the gas is attracted to the carbon material via Van der Waals forces. Some carbons have been able to achieve bonding energies of 5–10 kJ per mol, the gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a hydrogen fuel cell
Activated carbon
–
Activated carbon
Activated carbon
–
Activated charcoal for medical use
Activated carbon
–
A
micrograph of activated charcoal (R 1) under
bright field illumination on a
light microscope. Notice the
fractal -like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. Each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, has a surface area of several square meters. The entire image covers a region of approximately 1.1 by 0.7 mm, and the full resolution version is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/
μm.
Activated carbon
–
World's largest reactivation plant located in Feluy, Belgium.
23.
Zeolite
–
Zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts. Based on this, he called the material zeolite, from the Greek ζέω, meaning to boil and λίθος, the classic reference for the field has been Zeolite molecular sieves, structure, chemistry, and use by Donald W. Breck. Zeolites occur naturally but are produced industrially on a large scale. As of September 2016,232 unique zeolite frameworks have been identified, every new zeolite structure that is obtained has to be approved by the International Zeolite Association Structure Commission and receives a three letter designation. Zeolites have a structure that can accommodate a wide variety of cations, such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+. These positive ions are rather loosely held and can readily be exchanged for others in a contact solution, some of the more common mineral zeolites are analcime, chabazite, clinoptilolite, heulandite, natrolite, phillipsite, and stilbite. An example of the formula of a zeolite is, Na2Al2Si3O10·2H2O. Natural zeolites form where volcanic rocks and ash layers react with alkaline groundwater, Zeolites also crystallize in post-depositional environments over periods ranging from thousands to millions of years in shallow marine basins. Naturally occurring zeolites are rarely pure and are contaminated to varying degrees by other minerals, metals, quartz, for this reason, naturally occurring zeolites are excluded from many important commercial applications where uniformity and purity are essential. Zeolites are the members of the family of microporous solids known as molecular sieves mainly consisting of Si, Al, O, and metals including Ti, Sn, Zn. The term molecular sieve refers to a property of these materials. This is due to a very regular structure of molecular dimensions. The maximum size of the molecular or ionic species that can enter the pores of a zeolite is controlled by the dimensions of the channels, therefore, the pores in many zeolites are not cylindrical. Zeolites transform to other minerals under weathering, hydrothermal alteration or metamorphic conditions, the sequence of silica-poor volcanic rocks commonly progresses from, Cowlesite → levyne–offretite → analcime → thomsonite–mesolite-scolecite → chabazite → calcite. Industrially important zeolites are produced synthetically, typical procedures entail heating aqueous solutions of alumina and silica with sodium hydroxide. Equivalent reagents include sodium aluminate and sodium silicate, further variations include changes in the cations to include quaternary ammonium cations. Synthetic zeolites hold some key advantages over their natural analogues, the synthetic materials are manufactured in a uniform, phase-pure state. It is also possible to produce zeolite structures that do not appear in nature, Zeolite A is a well-known example
Zeolite
–
Zeolite
Zeolite
–
A form of
thomsonite (one of the rarest zeolites) from India
Zeolite
–
Natrolite from Poland
Zeolite
–
Synthetic zeolite
24.
M17 gas mask
–
The M17 Protective Mask is a series of gas masks that were designed and produced in 1959 to provide protection from all types of known chemical and biological agents present. The M-17 was issued to troops in the Vietnam war, and was standard issue for the U. S. Military until it was replaced by the M40 Field Protective Mask for the U. S. Army and USMC in the mid 1990s while the U. S. Navy, the mask has different components including a filter, a face piece and outserts. Filter elements in the face piece prevent harmful agents from entering the mask, the M17 series includes three types of masks, the M17, M17A1 and M17A2. An experimental transparent-silicone model called the XM27 was designed in late 1966, many countries have copied the M17 design. Notable copies include the Bulgarian PDE-1, Japanese Type-3, the Polish Mp-4, the mask is packed in a carrier that also contains other items like a nerve agent antidote kit, a convulsive antidote for nerve agents and an M-258A1 decontamination kit. The casualty would remain unmasked, and would continue absorbing the contaminated environment and it was for this reason that the resuscitation tube system was no longer issued for the A1 and was dropped on the M17A2. The US armed forces returned to traditional designs of mask where filter canisters are mounted externally. The mask offers protection from chemical and biological agents. It is recommended that users continue wearing it until the biological or chemical agent is identified and verified cleared from the area using standardized unmasking procedures, media related to M17 Gas Mask at Wikimedia Commons
M17 gas mask
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Two
Royal Thai Marines help each other out of their
MOPP gear during CBRN
decontamination training, at Camp Samaesan
25.
Blue asbestos
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Riebeckite is a sodium-rich member of the amphibole group of silicate minerals, chemical formula Na2Si8O222. It forms a solid solution series with magnesioriebeckite and it crystallizes in the monoclinic system, usually as long prismatic crystals showing a diamond-shaped cross section, but also in fibrous, bladed, acicular, columnar, and radiating forms. Its Mohs hardness is 5. 0–6.0, and its gravity is 3. 0–3.4. Cleavage is perfect, two directions in the shape of a diamond, fracture is uneven, splintery and it is often translucent to nearly opaque. It was first described in 1888 for an occurrence on Socotra Island, Aden Governorate, Yemen and it typically forms dark-blue elongated to fibrous crystals in highly alkali granites, syenites, rarely in felsic volcanics, granite pegmatites and schist. It occurs in banded iron formations as the asbestiform variety crocidolite, the riebeckite granite known as ailsite, found on the island of Ailsa Craig in western Scotland, is prized for its use in the manufacture of curling stones. Riebeckite granite was used for the stones of the Canton Viaduct from Moyles Quarry now part of Borderland State Park in Massachusetts. The commonwealths name is taken from an Algonquian word for the Great Blue Hill. The fibrous forms of riebeckite are known as crocidolite and are one of the six recognised types of asbestos, often referred to as blue asbestos, it is considered the most hazardous. In 1964 Dr Christopher Wagner discovered an association between blue asbestos and mesothelioma, Crocidolite asbestos was mined in South Africa, Bolivia and also at Wittenoom, Western Australia. Bolivian crocidolite was used in Kent Micronite cigarette filters in the 1950s, Blue asbestos was also used in early gas masks. In the mid-20th century, asbestos was confirmed to be harmful, List of minerals List of minerals named after people Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Crocidolite
Blue asbestos
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Black riebeckite in an alkaline pegmatite from Lindinosa near Évisa, Corsica, France
Blue asbestos
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Crocidolite, variety of riebeckite, from Pomfret Mine, Vryburg, South Africa
26.
GP-5 gas mask
–
The GP-5 gas mask is a Soviet-made single-filter gas mask. It was issued to the Soviet population starting in 1962, production ended in 1989 and it is a lightweight mask, weighing 1.09 kg. It can operate in all weather and withstand temperatures from −40 degrees to 114 °C, the GP-5 also comes with sealed glass eye pieces. They were originally made to protect the wearer from radioactive fallout during the Cold War and were distributed to most fallout shelters and they have been tested in Poland to see if they have NBC protective capabilities. It was concluded that the mask will last in an NBC situation for 24 hours and they are a favorite of gas mask collectors because they are common and have the old circular eyepieces like masks used in World War II and the helmet type masks. The GP-5 kit consists of SHM-62 face piece, GP-5 filter, bag, the GP-5 kit can be also completed SHM-62u SHMP SHM-62mu face pieces. There has been debate as to whether or not the filters are dangerous for containing asbestos. In October 2013, an asbestos lab found out that the layer of the filter contains 7.5 percent asbestos. Some claim that the filter is configured so that the asbestos cant be breathed in, of course it is not lethal, because it is used as medical treatment for e. g. poisoning, but still is administered in health care. It is still not advised to use the filters, as the case is made with a percentage of lead which slowerly degrades into the filter, along with many other chemicals used in the manufacturing process. Furthermore, the GP-5 mask is known to cling to the skin of the head. The GP-5 is widely available on the surplus market, usually very cheaply. The GP-5 and military version were issued respectively to the population and armed forces of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. The East German armed forces designated the military version the SchM41M, and the variant with small eyepieces and a voicemitter for those with a need to use optical equipment was known as the SchMS
GP-5 gas mask
–
The GP-5 gas mask with its filter.
GP-5 gas mask
–
This filter is known to contain
asbestos. It is recommended to swap this filter for a modern one.
27.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
Cold War
–
Photograph of the
Berlin Wall taken from the West side. The Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing and to stop an economically disastrous drain of workers. It was a symbol of the Cold War and its fall in 1989 marked the approaching end of the war.
Cold War
–
Allied troops in
Vladivostok, August 1918, during the
Allied intervention in the
Russian Civil War.
Cold War
–
The "
Big Three " at the Yalta Conference:
Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Joseph Stalin, 1945.
28.
Ozone cracking
–
Cracks can be formed in many different elastomers by ozone attack, and the characteristic form of attack of vulnerable rubbers is known as ozone cracking. The problem was very common, especially in tires, but is now rarely seen in those products owing to preventive measures. However, it does occur in many other items such as fuel lines and rubber seals, such as gaskets and O-rings. Only a trace amount of the gas is needed to initiate cracking, tiny traces of ozone in the air will attack double bonds in rubber chains, with natural rubber, polybutadiene, styrene-butadiene rubber and nitrile rubber being most sensitive to degradation. Every repeat unit in the first three materials has a bond, so every unit can be degraded by ozone. Nitrile rubber is a copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile units, but the proportion of acrylonitrile is usually lower than butadiene, butyl rubber is more resistant but still has a small number of double bonds in its chains, so attack is possible. Exposed surfaces are attacked first, the density of cracks varying with ozone gas concentration, the higher the concentration, the greater the number of cracks formed. Ozone-resistant elastomers include EPDM, fluoroelastomers like Viton and polychloroprene rubbers like Neoprene, silicone rubber, Hypalon and polyurethanes are also ozone-resistant. Ozone cracks form in products under tension, but the strain is very small. The cracks are always oriented at angles to the strain axis. Such cracks are dangerous when they occur in fuel pipes because the cracks will grow from the outside exposed surfaces into the bore of the pipe, so fuel leakage. Seals are also susceptible to attack, such as seals in air lines. Such seals are often critical for the operation of pneumatic controls, Nitrile rubber seals are commonly used in pneumatic systems because of its oil resistance. However, if gas is present, cracking will occur in the seals unless preventative measures are taken. Ozone attack will occur at the most sensitive zones in a seal, the corners represent stress concentrations, so the tension is at a maximum when the diaphragm of the seal is bent under air pressure. The seal shown at left failed from traces of ozone at circa 1 ppm and this particular failure led to loss of production on a semi-conductor fabrication line. The problem was solved by adding effective filters in the air line, an ozone-resistant elastomer such as Viton was also considered as a replacement for the Nitrile rubber. The pictures were taken using ESEM for maximum resolution and this is the critical step in chain breakage when polymers are attacked
Ozone cracking
–
Ozone cracking in
natural rubber tubing
Ozone cracking
–
Macrophotograph of ozone cracking in
NBR (Nitrile Butadiene Rubber)
diaphragm seal
Ozone cracking
–
EDX spectrum of crack surface
29.
Hexavalent chromium
–
Hexavalent chromium refers to chemical compounds that contain the element chromium in the +6 oxidation state. Virtually all chromium ore is processed via hexavalent chromium, specifically the salt sodium dichromate, approximately 136,000 tonnes of hexavalent chromium were produced in 1985. Additional hexavalent chromium compounds are chromium trioxide and various salts of chromate and dichromate, Hexavalent chromium is used in textile dyes, wood preservation, anti-corrosion products, chromate conversion coatings, and a variety of niche uses. Hexavalent chromium can be formed when performing hot work such as welding on steel or melting chromium metal. In these situations the chromium is not originally hexavalent, but the temperatures involved in the process result in oxidation that converts the chromium to a hexavalent state. Hexavalent chromium can also be found in drinking water and public water systems, inhaled hexavalent chromium is recognized as a human carcinogen. Workers in many occupations are exposed to hexavalent chromium, problematic exposure is known to occur among workers who handle chromate-containing products and those who grind and/ or weld stainless steel. Workers who are exposed to hexavalent chromium are at increased risk of developing cancer, asthma, or damage to the nasal epithelia. Within the European Union, the use of hexavalent chromium in electronic equipment is prohibited by the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive. Hexavalent chromium compounds are genotoxic carcinogens, taking advantage of its structural similarity to sulfate, chromate is transported into cells via sulfate channels. Inside the cell, chromium is reduced first to pentavalent chromium then to trivalent chromium without the aid of any enzymes, the reduction occurs via direct electron transfer primarily from ascorbate and some nonprotein thiols. Vitamin C and other reducing agents combine with chromate to give chromium products inside the cell, the resultant chromium forms stable complexes with nucleic acids and proteins. This causes strand breaks and Cr-DNA adducts which are responsible for mutagenic damage, both insoluble salts of lead and barium chromates as well as soluble chromates were negative in the implantation model of lung carcinogenesis. Yet, soluble chromates are a confirmed carcinogen so it would be prudent to consider all chromates carcinogenic, chronic inhalation from occupational exposures increases the risk of respiratory cancers. The most common form of lung malignancies in chromate workers is squamous cell carcinoma, ingestion of chromium through drinking water has been found to cause cancer in the oral cavity and small intestine. It can also cause irritation or ulcers in the stomach and intestines, liver toxicity shows the body’s apparent inability to detoxify chromium in the GI tract where it can then enter the circulatory system. Chromate-dyed textiles or chromate-tanned leather shoes can cause skin sensitivity, in the U. S. the OSHA PEL for airborne exposures to hexavalent chromium is 5 µg/m3. The U. S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health proposed a REL of 0.2 µg/m3 for airborne exposures to hexavalent chromium, for drinking water the United States Environmental Protection Agency does not have a Maximum Contaminant Level for hexavalent chromium
Hexavalent chromium
–
An example of a chromium(VI) compound:
chromium trioxide
. PMID 6291580. doi:10.1136/oem.39.4.344.
