1.
Legion of Honour
–
The Legion of Honour, full name National Order of the Legion of Honour, is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction, Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand Officier and Grand-Croix. The orders motto is Honneur et Patrie and its seat is the Palais de la Légion dHonneur next to the Musée dOrsay, in the French Revolution, all French orders of chivalry were abolished, and replaced with Weapons of Honour. The Légion however did use the organization of old French orders of chivalry, the badges of the legion also bear a resemblance to the Ordre de Saint-Louis, which also used a red ribbon. Napoleon originally created this to ensure political loyalty, the organization would be used as a facade to give political favours, gifts, and concessions. The Légion was loosely patterned after a Roman legion, with legionaries, officers, commanders, regional cohorts, the highest rank was not a grand cross but a Grand Aigle, a rank that wore all the insignia common to grand crosses. The members were paid, the highest of them extremely generously,5,000 francs to an officier,2,000 francs to a commandeur,1,000 francs to an officier,250 francs to a légionnaire. Napoleon famously declared, You call these baubles, well, it is with baubles that men are led, do you think that you would be able to make men fight by reasoning. That is good only for the scholar in his study, the soldier needs glory, distinctions, rewards. This has been quoted as It is with such baubles that men are led. The order was the first modern order of merit, under the monarchy, such orders were often limited to Roman Catholics, and all knights had to be noblemen. The military decorations were the perks of the officers, the Légion, however, was open to men of all ranks and professions—only merit or bravery counted. The new legionnaire had to be sworn in the Légion and it is noteworthy that all previous orders were crosses or shared a clear Christian background, whereas the Légion is a secular institution. The jewel of the Légion has five arms, in a decree issued on the 10 Pluviôse XIII, a grand decoration was instituted. This decoration, a cross on a sash and a silver star with an eagle, symbol of the Napoleonic Empire, became known as the Grand Aigle. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804 and established the Napoleonic nobility in 1808, the title was made hereditary after three generations of grantees. Napoleon had dispensed 15 golden collars of the legion among his family and this collar was abolished in 1815. The Légion dhonneur was prominent and visible in the French Empire, the Emperor always wore it and the fashion of the time allowed for decorations to be worn most of the time
Legion of Honour
–
Order's
streamer
Legion of Honour
Legion of Honour
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A depiction of Napoleon making some of the first awards of the Légion d'honneur, at a camp near
Boulogne on 16 August 1804
Legion of Honour
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First Légion d'Honneur investiture, 15 July 1804, at
Saint-Louis des Invalides by
Jean-Baptiste Debret (1812)
2.
President of France
–
The President of the French Republic, is the executive head of state of the French Fifth Republic. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, and their relation with the prime minister, the current President of France is François Hollande, who took office on 15 May 2012. Hollande has announced that he stand down in the upcoming 2017 French presidential election. President Chirac was first elected in 1995 and again in 2002, at that time, there was no limit on the number of terms, so Chirac could have run again, but chose not to. He was succeeded by Nicolas Sarkozy on 16 May 2007, following a further change, the Constitutional law on the Modernisation of the Institutions of the Fifth Republic,2008, a president cannot serve more than two consecutive terms. François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac are the only Presidents to date who have served a two terms. In order to be admitted as a candidate, potential candidates must receive signed nominations from more than 500 elected officials. These officials must be from at least 30 départements or overseas collectivities, furthermore, each official may nominate only one candidate. There are exactly 45,543 elected officials, including 33,872 mayors, spending and financing of campaigns and political parties are highly regulated. There is a cap on spending, at approximately 20 million euros, if the candidate receives less than 5% of the vote, the government funds €8,000,000 to the party. Advertising on TV is forbidden but official time is given to candidates on public TV, an independent agency regulates election and party financing. After the president is elected, he or she goes through an investiture ceremony called a passation des pouvoirs. The French Fifth Republic is a semi-presidential system, unlike many other European presidents, the French President is quite powerful. The president holds the nations most senior office, and outranks all other politicians, the presidents greatest power is his/her ability to choose the prime minister. When the majority of the Assembly has opposite political views to that of the president, when the majority of the Assembly sides with them, the President can take a more active role and may, in effect, direct government policy. The prime minister is then the choice of the President. This device has been used in recent years by François Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, since 2002, the mandate of the president and the Assembly are both 5 years and the two elections are close to each other. Therefore, the likelihood of a cohabitation is lower, among the powers of the government, The president promulgates laws
President of France
–
Presidential emblem
President of France
President of France
–
Incumbent
François Hollande since 15 May 2012
3.
Aristide Briand
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Aristide Briand was a French statesman who served eleven terms as Prime Minister of France during the French Third Republic and was a co-laureate of the 1926 Nobel Peace Prize. He was born in Nantes, Loire-Atlantique of a bourgeois family. He attended the Nantes Lycée, where, in 1877, he developed a friendship with Jules Verne. He studied law, and soon went into politics, associating himself with the most advanced movements, writing articles for the Syndicalist journal Le Peuple, from this he passed to the Petite République, leaving it to found LHumanité, in collaboration with Jean Jaurès. From that time, Briand was one of the leaders of the French Socialist Party, in 1902, after several unsuccessful attempts, he was elected deputy. He declared himself a partisan of the union of the Left in what was known as the Bloc. From the beginning of his career in the Chamber of Deputies, Briand was occupied with the question of the separation of church and state. He was appointed reporter of the charged with the preparation of the 1905 law on separation. He succeeded in carrying his project through with but slight modifications and he was the principal author of the law of separation, but, not content with preparing it, he wished to apply it as well. The ministry of Maurice Rouvier was allowing disturbances during the taking of inventories of church property, consequently, he accepted the portfolio of Public Instruction and Worship in the Sarrien ministry. So far as the Chamber was concerned, his success was complete, but the acceptance of a position in a bourgeois ministry led to his exclusion from the Unified Socialist Party. As opposed to Jaurès, he contended that the Socialists should co-operate actively with the Radicals in all matters of reform and he became a freemason in the lodge Le Trait dUnion in July 1887 while the lodge didnt record his name in spite of his repeated requests. The lodge declared unworthy to him on 6 September 1889, in 1895 he joined the lodge Les Chevaliers du Travail that was established in 1893. Briand served as Minister of Justice under Clemenceau in 1908-9, before succeeding Clemenceau as Prime Minister on 24 July 1909, in social policy, Briand’s first ministry was notable for the passage of a bill in April 1910 for workers and farmers pensions. That same year, compulsory sickness and old-age insurance was introduced for 8 million rural, however, a law court decision in 1912 that questioned the legality of compulsion “enabled a large proportion of employers and workers to evade the law. At the end of August 1914, following the outbreak of the First World War and he got on well with Lloyd George, who was also, contrary to military advice, keen for operations in the Balkans, and had a long talk with him on 4 February 1915. Briand was the main mover in persuading Maurice Sarrail to accept the Salonika command in August 1915, in October 1915 following an unsuccessful French offensive and the entry of Bulgaria, Briand again became Prime Minister, succeeding René Viviani. He also became Foreign Minister for the first time, a post held by Théophile Delcassé until the final weeks of the previous government
Aristide Briand
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Aristide Briand
Aristide Briand
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Portrait of Aristide Briand
Aristide Briand
–
Aristide Briand and Gustav Stresemann
4.
Camille Chautemps
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Camille Chautemps was a French Radical politician of the Third Republic, three times President of the Council. Described as intellectually bereft, Chautemps nevertheless entered politics and became Mayor of Tours in 1912, between 1924 and 1926, he served in the centre-left coalition governments of Édouard Herriot, Paul Painlevé and Aristide Briand. He quitted Freemasonry in 1938 for political reasons and he became President of the Council briefly in 1930. Again in centre-left governments in 1932 to 1934, he served as Interior Minister and became Prime Minister again in November 1933. His government fell, and he resigned his posts on 27 January 1934 as a result of the corruption exposed by the Stavisky Affair, when the press accused him of having Stavisky murdered to silence him. In Léon Blums Popular Front government of 1936, Chautemps was a Minister of State, the franc was devalued, but government finances remained in a mess. Pursuing the program of the Popular Front, he proceeded in the nationalisation of the railroads to create the SNCF, however, in January 1938, he drove the Socialists out of his government. In February, he granted married women financial and legal independence and alloweed them to go to university and his government fell on 10 March. France having declared war on Germany in September 1939, in May 1940, on the 11th, during a Cabinet meeting, Chautemps suggested that Churchill be invited back to France to discuss the hopeless situation. The Cabinet met again on the 14th, almost evenly split on the question of an Armistice with Germany, Chautemps now suggested to break the deadlock, that they should get a neutral authority to enquire what the German terms would be. If honourable, they could agree to study them, if not, they could all agree to fight on. The Chautemps peoposa passed by 13 to 6, soon afterward, Charles de Gaulle, now in London, telephoned Reynaud to give him the British Governments offer of joint nationality for French and British in a Franco-British union. A delighted Reynaud put it to a cabinet meeting and was supported by five of his ministers. Georges Mandel was flinging accusations of cowardice around the room, and Chautemps and it was now clear that Reynaud would not accept the Chautemps proposal, and Reynaud resigned. Chautemps broke with Pétains government after arriving in the United States on an official mission, after World War II, a French court convicted him in absentia for collaborating with the enemy). Eugène Frot succeeds Lamoureux as Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions, william Bertrand succeeds Frot as Minister of Merchant Marine. e
Camille Chautemps
–
Camille Chautemps
5.
Pierre Laval
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Pierre Laval was a French politician. During the time of the Third Republic, he served as Prime Minister of France from 27 January 1931 to 20 February 1932, Laval began his career as a socialist, but over time drifted far to the right. Following Frances surrender and armistice with Germany in 1940, he served in the Vichy Regime, after the liberation of France in 1944, Laval was arrested by the French government under General Charles de Gaulle. In what some consider a flawed trial, Laval was found guilty of high treason. His manifold political activities have left a complicated and controversial legacy, Laval was born 28 June 1883 at Châteldon, Puy-de-Dôme, in the northern part of Auvergne. His father worked in the village as a proprietor, butcher and postman, he also owned a vineyard. Laval was educated at the school in Châteldon. At age 15, he was sent to a Paris lycée to study for his baccalauréat, returning south to Lyon, he spent the next year reading for a degree in zoology. Laval joined the Socialists in 1903, when he was living in Saint-Étienne,62 km southwest of Lyon, I was never a very orthodox socialist, he said in 1945, by which I mean that I was never much of a Marxist. My socialism was much more a socialism of the heart than a doctrinal socialism, I was much more interested in men, their jobs, their misfortunes and their conflicts than in the digressions of the great German pontiff. Laval returned to Paris in 1907 at the age of 24 and he was called up for military service and, after serving in the ranks, was discharged for varicose veins. In April 1913 he said, Barrack-based armies are incapable of the slightest effort, because they are badly-trained and, above all and he favoured abolition of the army and replacement by a citizens militia. During this period, Laval became familiar with the doctrines of Georges Sorel. In 1909, he turned to the law, shortly after becoming a member of the Paris bar, he married the daughter of a Dr Joseph Claussat and set up a home in Paris with his new wife. Their only child, a daughter called Josée Laval, was born in 1911, Josée married René de Chambrun, whose uncle, Nicholas Longworth III, married Alice Roosevelt, daughter of United States President Theodore Roosevelt. Although Lavals wife came from a family, she never participated in politics. Laval was generally considered to be devoted to his family, the years before the First World War were characterised by labour unrest, and Laval defended strikers, trade unionists, and left-wing agitators against government attempts to prosecute them. At a trade conference, Laval said, I am a comrade among comrades
Pierre Laval
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(1931)
Pierre Laval
–
Premier Laval is second from left, at a 1931 diplomatic function in Germany
6.
Alexandre Millerand
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Alexandre Millerand was a French politician. He was Prime Minister of France from 20 January to 23 September 1920, born in Paris, he was educated for the Bar and was elected Secrétaire of the Conférence du Barreau de Paris. He made his reputation through his defence, in company with Georges Laguerre, of Ernest Roche and Duc-Quercy and he then took Laguerres place on Georges Clemenceaus newspaper, La Justice. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Seine département in 1885 as a Radical Socialist and he was associated with Clemenceau and Camille Pelletan as an arbitrator in the Carmaux strike. He had long had the ear of the Chamber in matters of social legislation and he was chief of the Independent Socialist faction, a group which then mustered sixty members, and edited until 1896 their organ in the press, La Petite République. His programme included the ownership of the means of production. Labour questions were entrusted to a department, the Direction du Travail. He further secured the rigorous application of laws devised for the protection of the working class. His name was associated with a project for the establishment of old age pensions. In 1898, he became editor of La Lanterne and his influence with the far left had already declined, for it was said that his departure from the true Marxist tradition had disintegrated the movement. He continued to move to the right, being appointed Prime Minister by the conservative President, during his time as Prime Minister, a decree of February 1920 introduced the eight-hour day for seamen. When Deschanel had to later that year due to his mental disorder. Millerand appointed Georges Leygues, a politician with a career of ministerial office, as Prime Minister. This move was resisted in the Chamber of Deputies and the French Senate, briands appointment was welcomed by both left and right, although the Socialists and the left wing of the Radical Party did not join his government. However, Millerand dismissed Briand after just a year, and appointed the conservative republican, Millerand was accused of favouring conservatives in spite of the traditional neutrality of French Presidents and the composition of the legislature. On 14 July 1922, Millerand escaped an attempt by Gustave Bouvet. Two years later, Millerand resigned in the face of growing conflict between the legislature and the office of the President, following the victory of the Cartel des Gauches. Gaston Doumergue, who was the president of the Senate at the time, was chosen to replace Millerand, Alexandre Millerand died in 1943 at Versailles, and was interred in the Passy Cemetery
Alexandre Millerand
–
Jeanne Millerand, née Jeanne Levayer.
Alexandre Millerand
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Portrait of Alexandre Millerand, 1920s.
Alexandre Millerand
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Alexandre Millerand at the
Expo 1900 in
Paris.
Alexandre Millerand
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Alexandre Millerand as
Minister of War, 1914.
7.
Paul Doumer
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Joseph Athanase Gaston Paul Doumer, commonly known as Paul Doumer was the President of France from 13 June 1931 until his assassination. He was born in Aurillac, in the Cantal département, in France on 22 March 1857, alumnus of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers. He became a professor of mathematics at Mende in 1877, in 1878 he married Blanche Richel, whom he had met at college. They had eight children, five of whom were killed in the First World War, from 1879 until 1883 he was professor at Remiremont, before leaving on health grounds. He then became editor of Courrier de lAisne, a French regional newspaper. Initiated into Freemasonry in 1879, at LUnion Fraternelle lodge, he became Grand Secretary of Grand Orient de France in 1892 and he made his debut in politics as chef de cabinet to Charles Floquet, when Floquet was president of the chamber in 1885. In 1888, Doumer was elected Radical deputy for the department of Aisne, defeated in the general elections of September 1889, he was elected again in 1890 by the arrondissement of Auxerre. He was briefly Minister of Finance of France when he tried without success to introduce an income tax and he was Governor-General of French Indochina from 1897 to 1902. Upon his arrival the colonies were losing millions of francs each year, determined to put them on a paying basis he levied taxes on opium, wine and the salt trade. The Vietnamese, Cambodians and Laotians who could or would not pay taxes, lost their houses and land. He established Indochina as a market for French products and a source of investment by French businessmen. The Long Bien Bridge was built during his term as Governor-General and was named for him and it became a well-known landmark and target for US pilots during the Vietnam War. After returning from French Indochina, Doumer was elected by Laon to the chamber as a Radical and he refused, however, to support the ministry of Émile Combes, and formed a Radical dissident group, which grew in strength and eventually caused the fall of the ministry. He then served as President of the Chamber of Deputies from 1902 to 1905 and he became Minister of Finance of France again in 1925 when Louis Loucheur resigned. He then served as President of the French Senate from 1927 until the 1931 presidential election and he was elected President of the French Republic on 13 May 1931, defeating the better known Aristide Briand, and replacing Gaston Doumergue. On 6 May 1932, Paul Doumer was in Paris at the opening of a fair at the Hôtel Salomon de Rothschild. Suddenly several shots were fired by Paul Gorguloff, a mentally unstable Russian émigré, two of the shots hit Doumer, at the base of the skull and in the right armpit, and he fell to the ground. Claude Farrère wrestled with the assassin before the police arrived, Doumer was rushed to hospital in Paris, where he died at 04,37 AM on 7 May
Paul Doumer
–
Paul Doumer
Paul Doumer
–
First Republic (1792–1804)
8.
Prime Minister of France
–
The French Prime Minister in the Fifth Republic is the head of government and of the Council of Ministers of France. During the Third and Fourth Republics, the head of government position was called President of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister proposes a list of ministers to the President of the Republic. Decrees and decisions of the Prime Minister, like almost all decisions, are subject to the oversight of the administrative court system. Few decrees are taken after advice from the Council of State, all prime ministers defend the programs of their ministry, and make budgetary choices. The extent to which those decisions lie with the Prime Minister or President depends upon whether they are of the same party, manuel Valls was appointed to lead the government in a cabinet reshuffle in March 2014, after the ruling Socialists suffered a bruising defeat in local elections. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic, the President can choose whomever they want. On the other hand, because the National Assembly does have the power to force the resignation of the government, for example, right after the legislative election of 1986, President François Mitterrand appointed Jacques Chirac prime minister. Chirac was a member of the RPR and an opponent of Mitterrand. Despite the fact that Mitterrands own Socialist Party was the largest party in the Assembly, the RPR had an alliance with the UDF, which gave them a majority. Such a situation, where the President is forced to work with a minister who is an opponent, is called a cohabitation. So far, Édith Cresson is the woman to have ever held the position of prime minister. Aristide Briand holds the record for most nomination as Prime Minister with 11 between 1909 and 1929 with some terms as short as 26 days, other members of Government are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister can engage the responsibility of his or her Government before the National Assembly and this process consists of placing a bill before the Assembly, and either the Assembly overthrows the Government, or the bill is passed automatically. In addition to ensuring that the Government still has support in the House, the Prime Minister may also submit a bill that has not been yet signed into law to the Constitutional Council. Before he is allowed to dissolve the Assembly, the President has to consult the Prime Minister, the office of the prime minister, in its current form, dates from the formation of the French Third Republic. Under the French Constitutional Laws of 1875, he was imbued with the powers as his British counterpart. In practice, however, the minister was a fairly weak figure. Most notably, the legislature had the power to force the cabinet out of office by a vote of censure
Prime Minister of France
–
Incumbent
Manuel Valls since 31 March 2014
Prime Minister of France
–
Official reception at
Hôtel Matignon.
9.
Louis Barthou
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Jean Louis Barthou was a French politician of the Third Republic who served as Prime Minister of France for eight months in 1913. In social policy, Barthous time as Prime Minister saw the introduction of allowances to families with children, Louis Barthou was born on August 25,1862 in Oloron-Sainte-Marie, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France. He served as Deputy from his home constituency and he was an authority on trade union history and law. He was Prime Minister from March 22,1913 to December 9,1913 and he also held ministerial office thirteen other times. He served as Foreign Minister in 1934 and he was the primary figure behind the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance of 1935, though it was signed by his successor, Pierre Laval. As a national World War I hero and a recognized author and he succeeded in obtaining entry of the Soviet Union into the League of Nations in September 1934. As Foreign Minister, Barthou met King Alexander I of Yugoslavia during his visit to Marseille in October 1934. On 9 October, the King and Barthou were assassinated by Velicko Kerin, one of the bullets struck Barthou in the arm, passing though and fatally severing an artery. He died of blood loss less than an hour later. The assassination was planned in Rome by Ante Pavelić, head of the Croatian Ustaše, Pavelić was assisted by Georg Percevic, a former Austro-Hungarian military officer. France unsuccessfully requested extradition of Percevic and Pavelić and this assassination ended the careers of the Bouches-du-Rhone prefect, Pierre Jouhannaud, and the director of the Surete Nationale, Jean Berthoin. The assassination of Barthou and the King led to the Convention for the Prevention, the Convention was signed by 25 nations, ratified only by India. Barthou was granted a state funeral four days after his demise, Louis Barthou at Find a Grave The King is Dead, Long Live the Balkans. Watching the Marseilles Murders of 1934 The Watson Institute
Louis Barthou
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Louis Barthou
Louis Barthou
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Barthou (right) with Polish marshal
Józef Piłsudski in 1934
10.
Alexandre Ribot
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Alexandre-Félix-Joseph Ribot was a French politician, four times Prime Minister. Ribot was born in Saint-Omer, Pas-de-Calais, after a brilliant academic career at the University of Paris, where he was lauréat of the faculty of law, he rapidly made his mark at the bar. He was secretary of the conference of advocates and one of the founders of the Sociéte de legislation comparée, during 1875 and 1876 he was successively director of criminal affairs and secretary-general at the ministry of justice. His impassioned yet reasoned eloquence gave him an influence which was increased by his articles in the Parlement in which he opposed violent measures against the unauthorized congregations and he devoted himself especially to financial questions, and in 1882 was reporter of the budget. He became one of the most prominent republican opponents of the Radical party and he refused to vote the credits demanded by the Ferry cabinet for the Tongking expedition, and helped Georges Clemenceau overthrow the ministry in 1885. At the general election of that year he was a victim of the Republican rout in the Pas-de-Calais, after 1889 he sat for Saint-Omer. His fear of the Boulangist movement converted him to the policy of Republican Concentration and he retained his post in Émile Loubets ministry, and on its defeat he became president of the council, retaining the direction of foreign affairs. The government resigned in March 1893 over the refusal of the chamber to accept the Senates amendments to the budget, on the election of Félix Faure as president of the Republic in January 1895, Ribot again became premier and minister of finance. On 10 June he was able to make the first official announcement of an alliance with Russia. On 30 October the government was defeated on the question of the Chemin de fer du Sud, after the fall of Jules Mélines ministry in 1898 M. Ribot tried in vain to form a cabinet of conciliation. He was elected, at the end of 1898, president of the important commission on education and he was re-elected deputy for Saint-Omer in 1906. In the same year he became a member of the Académie française in succession to the duc dAudiffret-Pasquier, in justification of his policy in opposition he published in 1905 two volumes of his Discours politiques. On 3 January 1909, Ribot was elected a member of the French Senate, and in February of the year was offered, but refused. In 1913 he was a candidate for the presidency of the Republic, and on the fall of Barthous Government was invited by Poincaré, who was now President, to form a Cabinet. In 1914 he became, with Jean Dupuy, leader of the Left Republican group which refused to accept the decisions of the Radical Socialist congress at Pau in October 1913. On June 9,1914, Ribot became Prime Minister and Minister of Justice, but his Government was bitterly assailed by the Radical Socialists as well as other groups, and only lasted one day. With the outbreak of World War I Ribots great reputation as an expert in finance, on 27 August 1914 he became Minister of Finance in Vivianis Ministry of National Defence, an office which he retained when, on 28 October 1915, Aristide Briand succeeded Viviani as Prime Minister. On February 7,1916 he visited London and held a conference with the Chancellor of the Exchequer at the Treasury, when Briand reconstituted his Cabinet, in December 1916, Ribot retained the portfolio of Finance
Alexandre Ribot
–
Alexandre Ribot
11.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
12.
Radical Party (France)
–
The Radical Party is a liberal and social-liberal political party in France. Following the legislative elections of 2012, the Radicals have six seats in the National Assembly, founded in 1901 as Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party, it is the oldest active political party in France. Coming from the Radical Republican tradition, the Radical Party upholds the principles of private property, the Radicals were originally a left-wing group, but with the emergence of the French Section of the Workers International in 1905, the Radicals shifted towards the political centre. In 1972 the left wing of the party split off to form the centre-left Radical Party of the Left, since then, the Radical Party has affiliated with the centre-right, becoming one of the founder parties of the Union for French Democracy in 1978. In 2002 the party split from the UDF and affiliated with the UMP, during the 7th term of the European Parliament, along with the UMP, three Radical MEPs sat with the European Peoples Party Group. During the 8th European Parliament, the single Radical MEP Dominique Riquet sits with the Alliance of Liberals, after the collapse of Napoleon Is empire in 1815, a reactionary Bourbon Restoration took place. The Republicans constituted the left-wing opposition, but they were also named Radicals and it was systematically used during the July Monarchy because the law forbade parties to define themselves as Republican. The conservative turn of the July Monarchy reinforced the audience of the radical opposition, some politicians such as Alexandre Ledru-Rollin and Louis Blanc formulated a Radical doctrine. They advocated democratic reforms as a vehicle of social progress and they defended the small private property against the socialist projects and the great landowners. The Radicals took a part in the 1848 Revolution and the foundation of the Second Republic. For a few months, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin was Interior Minister in the provisional government, however, the conservatives won the 1848 legislative election, the first election by universal suffrage. The repression of the June 1848 workers demonstrations disappointed the left-wing supporters of the new regime, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin obtained only 5% of votes at the December 1848 presidential election, which was won by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who established the Second Empire after the 1851 coup. From opposition, Radicals criticized personal power and the attacks on freedoms, after the collapse of the Second Empire following the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, the Third Republic was proclaimed in September 1870. The Orléanist and Legitimist monarchists together won the first elections in February 1871, eventually the Republicans won the 1876 elections, leading to the firm establishment of the Republic. The Radicals defined the uncompromising part of the Republican Left, in this, Radicals formed the far-left opposition to the moderate Republican governments. In the 1890s, Léon Bourgeois renewed the Radical doctrine, including social reforms such as the income tax. After the Dreyfus Affair, Radicals joined forces with other Republicans, the first congress of the Radical Party was held in June 1901. Delegates represented 476 election committees,215 editorial boards of Radical newspapers,155 Masonic lodges, the existence of a national party immediately changed the political scene
Radical Party (France)
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Radical Party Parti radical
13.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
Alma mater
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The Alma Mater statue by
Mario Korbel, at the entrance of the
University of Havana in
Cuba.
Alma mater
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John Legate's Alma Mater for Cambridge in 1600
Alma mater
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Alma Mater (1929, Lorado Taft),
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
14.
University of Paris
–
The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
University of Paris
University of Paris
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University of Paris
University of Paris
University of Paris
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The Sorbonne covered by snow.
15.
French Third Republic
–
It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again
French Third Republic
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A French propaganda poster from 1917 is captioned with an 18th century quote: "Even in 1788, Mirabeau was saying that War is the National Industry of Prussia."
French Third Republic
–
Flag
French Third Republic
–
The
Sacré-Cœur Basilica was built as a symbol of the Ordre Moral.
French Third Republic
–
In France, children were taught in school not to forget the lost provinces of
Alsace-Lorraine, which were coloured in black on maps.
16.
Freemason
–
The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
Freemason
–
Lodge in Palazzo Roffia,
Florence set out for French (Moderns) ritual
Freemason
–
The Masonic
Square and Compasses. (Found with or without the letter
G)
Freemason
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Freemasons Hall, London, home of the
United Grand Lodge of England
Freemason
–
Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809
17.
List of Prime Ministers of France
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The Prime Minister of France is the Head of Government and of the Cabinet of France. During earlier periods of French history, the French head of government was known by different titles, most recently, during the Second, Third and Fourth Republics, the Head of Government was called President of the Council of Ministers, generally shortened to President of the Council. Under the Kingdom of France, there was no title for the leader of the government. The chief ministers of certain Kings of France nonetheless led the government de facto, as Emperor, Napoleon was both head of state and head of government. As Emperor, Napoleon was both head of state and head of government, upon Napoleons abdication, his son Napoleon II was named Emperor. This rule was nominal, and Napoleon II remained in Austria throughout his nominal reign, from 1942, Pétain remained Chief of State, but Pierre Laval was named Chief of the Government
List of Prime Ministers of France
–
–
List of Prime Ministers of France
–
France
List of Prime Ministers of France
List of Prime Ministers of France
18.
Minister of Overseas France
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The Ministry of Overseas France is a ministry in the Government of France, responsible for overseeing the Overseas departments and territories of France. It was separated from the Ministry of the Navy in January 1893, the minister position is currently held by Ericka Bareigts. Greater France, A History of French Overseas Expansion, macmillan ISBN 0-312-16000-3 pp109-114 Rulers, France. Ministries, political parties, etc. from 1870, Overseas Ministers, Rulers. org Les Ministres de lOutre-Mer sous la Vème République, ladministration centrale du Ministère de lOutre-Mer, Ministère de lOutre-Mer outre-mer. gouv. fr. Lhistoire du Ministère de lOutre-Mer Ministère de lOutre-Mer outre-mer. gouv. fr
Minister of Overseas France
–
Flag of the Minister of Overseas France
19.
Russia
–
Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
Russia
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Kievan Rus' in the 11th century
Russia
–
Flag
Russia
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The
Baptism of Kievans, by
Klavdy Lebedev
Russia
–
Sergius of Radonezh blessing
Dmitry Donskoy in
Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the
Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by
Ernst Lissner
20.
Alexander Kerensky
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Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky was a Russian lawyer and key political figure in the Russian Revolution of 1917. A leader of the moderate-socialist Trudoviks faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, on 7 November, his government was overthrown by the Lenin-led Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. He spent the remainder of his life in exile, in Paris and New York City, Alexander Kerensky was born in Simbirsk on the Volga River on 4 May 1881. His father, Fyodor Kerensky, was a teacher and director of the gymnasium and was later promoted to Inspector of public schools. He subsequently embarked upon a career, in which he prospered, allowing him to move his business to Moscow. Kerenskys father was the teacher of Vladimir Ulyanov, and members of the Kerensky, in 1889, when Kerensky was eight, the family moved to Tashkent, where his father had been appointed the main inspector of public schools. Alexander graduated with honours in 1899, the same year he entered St. Petersburg University, where he studied history and philology. The next year he switched to law and he earned his law degree in 1904 and married Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya, the daughter of a Russian general, the same year. Kerensky joined the Narodnik movement and worked as a counsel to victims of the Revolution of 1905. At the end of 1904, he was jailed on suspicion of belonging to a militant group, afterwards he gained a reputation for his work as a defence lawyer in a number of political trials of revolutionaries. In 1912, Kerensky became widely known when he visited the goldfields at the Lena River and he was a brilliant orator and skilled parliamentary leader of the socialist opposition to the government of Tsar Nicholas II. According to Kerensky, Rasputin had terrorised the empress by threatening to return to his native village, Rasputin was murdered in December 1916 by monarchists and buried near the imperial residence in Tsarskoye Selo. It is likely the corpse was incinerated in the cauldrons of in the boiler shop of the Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, including the coffin. Anything that had to do with Rasputin disappeared permanently, simultaneously, he became the first Minister of Justice in the newly formed Russian Provisional Government. When the Soviet passed a resolution prohibiting its leaders from joining the government, although the decision was never formalised, he was granted a de facto exemption and continued acting in both capacities. On 10 May, Kerensky started for the front and visited one division after another and his speeches were impressive and convincing for the moment, but had little lasting effect. Under Allied pressure to continue the war, he launched what became known as the Kerensky Offensive against the Austro-Hungarian/German South Army on 17 June, at first successful, the offensive was soon stopped and then thrown back by a strong counter-attack. The Russian army suffered heavy losses, and it was clear from the incidents of desertion, sabotage
Alexander Kerensky
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Alexander Kerensky
Alexander Kerensky
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Kerensky as Minister of War
Alexander Kerensky
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Kerensky in office
Alexander Kerensky
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The graves of Alexander Kerensky and of his son and wife at
Putney Vale Cemetery, London in 2014
21.
Austria
–
Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
Austria
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First appearance of the word "ostarrichi", circled in red. Modern Austria honours this document, dated 996, as the founding of the nation.
Austria
–
Flag
Austria
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Venus of Willendorf, 28,000 to 25,000 BC.
Museum of Natural History Vienna
Austria
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"Heidentor" – Remains of the
Roman military city of
Carnuntum
22.
President of the French Republic
–
The President of the French Republic, is the executive head of state of the French Fifth Republic. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, and their relation with the prime minister, the current President of France is François Hollande, who took office on 15 May 2012. Hollande has announced that he stand down in the upcoming 2017 French presidential election. President Chirac was first elected in 1995 and again in 2002, at that time, there was no limit on the number of terms, so Chirac could have run again, but chose not to. He was succeeded by Nicolas Sarkozy on 16 May 2007, following a further change, the Constitutional law on the Modernisation of the Institutions of the Fifth Republic,2008, a president cannot serve more than two consecutive terms. François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac are the only Presidents to date who have served a two terms. In order to be admitted as a candidate, potential candidates must receive signed nominations from more than 500 elected officials. These officials must be from at least 30 départements or overseas collectivities, furthermore, each official may nominate only one candidate. There are exactly 45,543 elected officials, including 33,872 mayors, spending and financing of campaigns and political parties are highly regulated. There is a cap on spending, at approximately 20 million euros, if the candidate receives less than 5% of the vote, the government funds €8,000,000 to the party. Advertising on TV is forbidden but official time is given to candidates on public TV, an independent agency regulates election and party financing. After the president is elected, he or she goes through an investiture ceremony called a passation des pouvoirs. The French Fifth Republic is a semi-presidential system, unlike many other European presidents, the French President is quite powerful. The president holds the nations most senior office, and outranks all other politicians, the presidents greatest power is his/her ability to choose the prime minister. When the majority of the Assembly has opposite political views to that of the president, when the majority of the Assembly sides with them, the President can take a more active role and may, in effect, direct government policy. The prime minister is then the choice of the President. This device has been used in recent years by François Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, since 2002, the mandate of the president and the Assembly are both 5 years and the two elections are close to each other. Therefore, the likelihood of a cohabitation is lower, among the powers of the government, The president promulgates laws
President of the French Republic
–
Presidential emblem
President of the French Republic
–
Incumbent
François Hollande since 15 May 2012
23.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
Protestantism
–
(
The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestantism
–
The Memorial Church in
Speyer, Germany
Protestantism
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Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church
pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestantism
–
The Bible translated into
vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of
scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.
24.
Minister of Foreign Affairs (France)
–
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, is the ministry in the government of France that handles Frances foreign relations. Its headquarters are located on the Quai dOrsay in Paris, close to the National Assembly of France and its cabinet minister, the Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Development is responsible for the foreign relations of France. The current minister, Jean-Marc Ayrault, was appointed in February 2016, in 1547, secretaries to the King became specialized, writing correspondence to foreign governments, and negotiating peace treaties. The four French secretaries of state where foreign relations were divided by region, in 1589, the Ancien Régime position of Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs became Foreign Minister around 1723, and was renamed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1791 after the French Revolution. All ministerial positions were abolished in 1794 by the National Convention, for a brief period in the 1980s, the office was retitled Minister for External Relations
Minister of Foreign Affairs (France)
–
The official entrance to the ministry building on the
Quai d'Orsay.
Minister of Foreign Affairs (France)
–
France
25.
Joseph Noulens
–
Joseph Noulens was a French politician and diplomat. Noulens became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1903 and served as Minister of War from 1913 to 1914, in 1920 he became a Senator. In June 1917 he was appointed French ambassador to Russia, following the October Revolution, he worked with White Guards to undermine the Bolshevik regime. In 1918 he proposed an operation to stabilise the economy of regime set up by General Yevgeny Miller in North Russia. The scheme involved a loan of 15 million rubles, set against a lien of 20 million rbles worth of sawn wood, the second phase involved issuing 200 million rubles in back notes backed by the allies at a rate of 10 -1 to the dollar. This had been devised by John Maynard Keynes and he was depicted with two other French members of a delegation in a poster issued by the Russian Telegraph Agency. They were shown laughing and planning to bring the return of the monarchy, after the failure of Bruce Lockharts conspiracy to assassinate Vladimir Lenin, Noulens left Russia. At a meeting in Paris in February 1922 they demanded a veto on negotiations with the Soviet Union unless the latter acknowledged the old debts and this view was promoted at the Genoa Conference held from 10 April to 19 May 1922
Joseph Noulens
–
Joseph Noulens in 1919
26.
Minister of War (France)
–
The Ministry of Defence is the French cabinet member charged with running the military of France. The minister in charge of the French military has evolved within the epoque, the minister is always attached to a ministry or state secretary bureau, today attached to the Ministry of Defense. The Secretary of State of War was one of the four specialised secretaries of state established in France in 1589 and this State Secretary was responsible for the French Army. In 1791, the secretary of state of war becomes Minister of War, with this function being abolished in 1794. In 1930, the position was referred to as Minister of War. The current Minister of Defence and Veterans Affairs is Jean-Yves Le Drian. org
Minister of War (France)
–
Naval jack for the Minister of Defence
Minister of War (France)
–
Incumbent
Jean-Yves Le Drian since 16 May 2012
Minister of War (France)
–
Hôtel de Brienne, current seat until 2014.
27.
Minister of the Interior (France)
–
The Ministry of the Interior in France is one of the most important French government cabinet positions. The Minister of Interior also take on the role of former Ministre des cultes and is consulted in the process of appointment of Catholic diocesan bishops. The Minister of Cults used to be a minister. While the ministry of the Interior supervises police forces, it does not supervise criminal enquiries, the Ministrys headquarters are located on the place Beauvau, facing the Élysée Palace. Place Beauvau is often used as a metonym for the ministry, the current Minister of the Interior is Matthias Fekl. List of Interior Ministers of France Official website
Minister of the Interior (France)
–
The entrance to the Ministry in
Place Beauvau is guarded by one gendarme (left) and one policewoman (right). Joint gendarmerie/police guard duty was seen as a way to bridge the differences between the services.
28.
Joseph Caillaux
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Joseph-Marie–Auguste Caillaux was a French politician of the Third Republic. He was a leader of the French Radical party and minister of finance and he was accused of corruption, but was cleared by a parliamentary commission. This political weakness strengthened the right wing elements in the radical party, after studying law and following lectures at the École des Sciences Politiques, he entered the civil service in 1888 as an inspector of finance, and spent most of his official career in Algiers. He became Minister of Finance in the Waldeck-Rousseau Cabinet, and after its fall it was not until the Clemenceau Ministry of 1906 that he returned to office, once more with the portfolio of Finance, in 1911 he became prime minister. He and his ministers were forced to resign on 11 January 1912, nevertheless, thanks to his undoubted qualities as a financier, he remained a great power in French politics. He fought the Three Years Service bill with the utmost tenacity, although that measure became law, it was he who finally, on the financial aspect of that bill, brought about the downfall of the Barthou Ministry in the autumn of 1913. While the Entente Cordiale was in effect, it was impossible for Caillaux to return to the position of prime minister, but he joined the succeeding Doumergue Cabinet as Minister of Finance. As a financial expert, he had identified himself with a great. Throughout the winter of 1913, he campaigned for this principle and those attacks reached their highest point of bitterness in a series of disclosures in Le Figaro of a more or less personal nature. In 1914, Le Figaro started the publication of letters addressed by Caillaux to Henriette Caillaux, in March 1914, Madame Caillaux in turn shot to death Gaston Calmette, the editor of Le Figaro newspaper, and Caillaux resigned as Minister of Finance. In July 1914, Madame Caillaux was acquitted on the grounds that she committed a crime passionel, Caillaux became the leader of a peace party in the Assembly during World War I. After a mission to South America, he returned in 1915 and he financed newspapers, and did everything he possibly could behind the scenes to consolidate his position. He became acquainted with the Bolos and the Malvys of political, by the spring of 1917, he had become in the eyes of the public lhomme de la défaite, the man who was willing to effect a compromise peace with Germany at the expense of Great Britain. However, the advent of Clemenceau to power killed all his hopes and this led to his arrest and trial for treason in 1918. After long delay, he was tried on a charge of treason by the High Court of the Senate. He was also forbidden to reside in French territory for five years, again rehabilitated after the war, Caillaux served at various times in the left wing governments of the 1920s. Joseph Caillaux is interred in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris and his political collaborators included the Nord region journalist and politician Émile Roche. Economics and Politics in Europe, Foreign Affairs, Vol.1, frances Needs and Europes Danger, The Living Age,10 February 1923
Joseph Caillaux
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Joseph Caillaux
Joseph Caillaux
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Cover of "Le Petit Journal" illustrating the assassination of Gaston Calmette, the editor of "Le Figaro"
29.
Minister of Finance (France)
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The exact name of the ministry has changed over time, and has included the terms economy, industry, finances, or employment through history. By delegation of the Prime Minister, he also the Public Services. He is responsible with their colleagues for Health, Youth and Sport and for Labour, Labour Relations, see, http, //www. minefi. gouv. fr/directions_services/sircom/ministere/organigramme_mbcpfp. htm The Ministry of Finance is situated in Bercy, in the 12th arrondissement of Paris. The building extends to the Seine River, where there is an embarcadero with fast river boats for faster liaisons to other government agencies and that is why the French media often refer to it as simply Bercy. The sentence the Bercy Fortress refers to the Ministry as a department with obtuse civil servants. That is emphasized by the look of the building. For evident practical reasons, the two share the building and some common services that were under the former ministry of Economy, Finances
Minister of Finance (France)
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the seat of the Minister of Finance at Bercy in Paris
30.
Bienvenu Martin
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Jean-Baptiste Bienvenu Martin was a French Radical leader and cabinet officer. He was born at Saint-Bris-le-Vineux, and was educated in the law and he held an underprefecture, entered the Council of State, and in 1894 became director under the Minister of the Colonies. He was a senatorial candidate for Yonne in 1897, was elected deputy for Auxerre in that year, was reelected in 1898 and 1902. In the Chamber he supported the Waldeck-Rousseau and the Combes ministries, in 1904 he organized the new Radical group of the Left. He died on December 10,1943 at Saint-Bris, institut National de Recherche Pédagogique biography This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
Bienvenu Martin
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Jean-Baptiste Bienvenu-Martin,
Philippe Berthelot and
Wilhelm von Schoen. Baron von Schoen reads to M. Bienvenu-Martin, who is assuring interim for Foreign Affairs, a communication from his government backing Austria and declaring that is the conflict does not remain localised, "the most serious consequences" are to be feared.
31.
Minister of Justice (France)
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The Ministry of Justice is controlled by the French Minister of Justice - Keeper of the Seals, a top-level cabinet position in the French Government. The current Minister of Justice is Jean-Jacques Urvoas, the ministry is headquartered in Paris. The Minister of Justice also holds the office of Keeper of the Seals and. This symbolic role is shown in the order of words of the ministers official designation, Keeper of Seals
Minister of Justice (France)
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French Ministry of Justice in Place Vendome, Paris, France
Minister of Justice (France)
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La Santé Prison, a unit of the French Prison Service
32.
Minister of National Education (France)
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The Ministrys headquarters is located in the 18th century Hôtel de Rochechouart on the rue de Grenelle in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. Given that National Education is Frances largest employer, and employs more than half of the French state civil servants, the current minister is Najat Vallaud-Belkacem. A governmental position overseeing public education was first created in France in 1802, the position has also occasionally been combined with Minister of Sports and Minister of Youth Affairs. In 1975, it created the Comité détudes sur les formations dingénieurs which studies the training, list of Education Ministers of France Education in France France Ministry of National Education – Official website
Minister of National Education (France)
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The head office of the ministry
33.
Minister of Agriculture (France)
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The Ministry of Agriculture, Agrifood, and Forestry of France is the governmental body charged with regulation and policy, for agriculture, food, and forestry. The Ministrys headquarters are in the Hôtel de Villeroy, at 78 Rue de Varenne in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, adjacent to Hotel Matignon. Prior to 21 June 2012, the Ministrys remit was somewhat different, its title was Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fisheries, Rural Affairs. The regional directorates for food, agriculture and forests oversee the implementation of policies for agriculture, food, aquaculture and their missions cover the content and organisation of agricultural education. They contribute to employment policy in the fields of farming, agri-food, forestry, the Minister of Agriculture, Food, Fishing and Rural Affairs is a cabinet member in the Government of France. Ministry of Agriculture Booklet in English
Minister of Agriculture (France)
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Ministry of Agriculture and Fishing, Hôtel de Villeroy, 78 rue de Varenne, Paris
34.
Albert Lebrun
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Albert François Lebrun was a French politician, President of France from 1932 to 1940. He was the last president of the Third Republic and he was a member of the center-right Democratic Republican Alliance. Born to a family in Mercy-le-Haut, Meurthe-et-Moselle, he attended the École polytechnique. He then became an engineer in Vesoul and Nancy. Joining the Democratic Alliance, he was elected to the French senate from Meurthe-et-Moselle in 1920 and he was president of that body from 1931–1932. Lebrun was elected president of France following the assassination of president Paul Doumer by Pavel Gurgulov on 6 May 1932, re-elected in 1939, largely because of his record of accommodating all political sides, he exercised little power as president. On 10 July 1940, Lebrun enacted/promulgated the Constitutional Law of 10 July 1940 allowing Prime Minister Philippe Pétain to promulgate a new constitution, on 11 July, Lebrun was replaced by Pétain as head of state. He then fled to Vizille on 15 July, but was captured on 27 August 1943 when the Germans moved into the region and was sent into captivity at the Itter Castle in Tyrol. On 10 October 1943 he was allowed to return to Vizille due to poor health, after the war, Lebrun lived in retirement. He died of pneumonia in Paris on 6 March 1950 after a protracted illness, works by or about Albert François Lebrun at Internet Archive
Albert Lebrun
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Albert Lebrun
Albert Lebrun
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First Republic (1792–1804)
35.
Albert Sarraut
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Albert-Pierre Sarraut was a French Radical politician, twice Prime Minister during the Third Republic. Sarraut was born on 28 July 1872 in Bordeaux, Gironde and he was Governor-General of French Indochina, from 1912 to 1914 and from 1917 to 1919. On 18 January 1920 he replaced Henry Simon as Minister of the Colonies and he took control of the family newspaper, La Dépêche de Toulouse, after the editor, his brother Maurice Sarraut, was killed by the Milice in 1943. Sarraut died in Paris on 26 November 1962. 1086/499830
Albert Sarraut
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Albert Sarraut
36.
Adrien Marquet
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Adrien Marquet was a socialist mayor of Bordeaux who turned to the far right. Marquet was born in Bordeaux, and became mayor of city in 1925 as a socialist. In 1933 he was expelled from the French Section of the Workers International and this expulsion involved an address to the SFIO where he emphasized order and authority as necessary to win the masses, a position which Léon Blum found frightening. He and Marcel Déat then formed the Neosocialists, later he declared this faction to be decidedly anti-Marxist. He eventually abandoned any form of socialism and briefly served as Minister of the Interior for Philippe Pétain, further like Marcel Déat he became a supporter of Pierre Laval
Adrien Marquet
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Adrien Marquet in 1932
37.
Victor Denain
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Victor-Léon-Ernest Denain was a French general, aviator and politician. He was behind the creation of the Salon-de-Provence Air School and the development of military aviation. Denain graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1901 and joined the French Armys cavalry, in 1915, he transferred to the French Air Force where he commanded the aircraft of the Allied armies on the Eastern Front. With the French Air Force, he served in the Levant from 1918 to 1923, as such, he became a protege of General Weygand who arranged a foreign career for him. Denain was Head of the French Military Mission to Poland 1924 through 1931, from 10 March 1933 to 6 February 1934, General Denain served as the Chief of the Air Force General Staff under Air Minister Pierre Cot, replacing General Joseph Barès. Denain and Cot dealt with the Armee de lAirs technological issues, Denain developed a strategic role for the Air Force with plans in 1933 for equipping it with 1,000 new planes. From 9 February 1934 to 24 January 1936, he was Aviation Minister in the Gaston Doumergue government, during this time, an on behalf of France, Denain announced this his country would organize a Paris to Hanoi air race in 1935, modeled after the London-Melbourne race. By August 1936, under the Blum government, General Denain, had become High Commissioner of French Morocco, the next year, as Inspector General of the Air Force overseas, he transferred into the reserves. A very skilled pilot, he performed reconnaissance trips on numerous occasions
Victor Denain
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Denain (right) in 1934
38.
Paul Marchandeau
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Paul Henri Marie Joseph Marchandeau, born in Gaillac, Tarn on 10 August 1882, died in Paris 15th on 31 May 1968, was a lawyer, journalist and French Radical Socialist politician. He was awarded the Croix de guerre and the Légion dhonneur for his actions during World War I, from 1925 until 1942, he was the mayor of Reims. During the 1930s, he was, successively, French minister of finance, minister of the interior, minister of justice and he was the first captain of the rugby club of the UA Gaillac of 1900–1901. More precisely, he was the captain of the Glaïeuls and Stade Gaillacois, in 1911, he started with the Éclaireur de lEst and quickly became editor and CEO. He was elected to the city council and became mayor of Reims in 1925 until he resigned in 1942 and he was president of the Association des maires de France in 1934. He was elected General Councilor of the 3rd canton in 1935 and he is a member of the Masonic lodge of Reims La Sincérité, and was one of many elected Freemasons of the Marne. In 1926, Paul Marchandeau began a career on the national level. Elected Deputy of Marne, he has first a number of terms as Undersecretary of State and this law was repealed by the law of the Vichy government of 16 August 1940. On 10 July 1940, the vote in favor of the law granting full powers to Marshal Philippe Pétain. He continued his career under the Vichy regime during World War II. He resigned and retired from life in 1943. He was cremated at Père Lachaise Cemetery and his ashes were brought back to be buried in the South Cemetery of Reims where you can see his bronze medallion by Leon Margotin, knight Legion of Honor, he holds the Croix de guerre 1914–1918
Paul Marchandeau
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Paul Marchandeau, member of the Marne (1933)
39.
Yale University Press
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Yale University Press is a university press associated with Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day, and became a department of Yale University in 1961. As of 2009, Yale University Press published approximately 300 new hardcover and 150 new paperback books annually and has more than 6,000 books in print and its books have won five National Book Awards, two National Book Critics Circle Awards and eight Pulitzer Prizes. Since its inception in 1919, the Yale Series of Younger Poets Competition has published the first collection of poetry by new poets, the first winner was Howard Buck, the 2011 winner was Katherine Larson. Yale University Press and Yale Repertory Theatre jointly sponsor the Yale Drama Series, the winner of the annual competition is awarded the David C. Horn Prize of $10,000, publication of his/her manuscript by Yale University Press, the Yale Drama Series and David C. Horn Prize are funded by the David Charles Horn Foundation, in 2007, Yale University Press acquired the Anchor Bible Series, a collection of more than 115 volumes of biblical scholarship, from the Doubleday Publishing Group. New and backlist titles are now published under the Anchor Yale Bible Series name, the Dwight H. Terry Lectureship was established in 1905 to encourage the consideration of religion in the context of modern science, psychology, and philosophy. Many of the lectures, which are hosted by Yale University, have been edited into book form by the Yale University Press, the Yale Publishing Course was founded in 2010 by former Publishing Director of the Yale University Press, Tina C. It filled the gap created by the closing of the legendary Stanford Publishing Course and it operates under the aegis of the Office of International Affairs of Yale University. The Course trains mid to senior-level publishing professionals to tackle the most compelling issues facing the publishing industry, the curriculum focuses on in-depth analyses of global trends, innovative business models, management strategies, and new advances in technology. Its immersive week-long programs, one devoted to publishing and the other to magazine and digital publishing, combine lectures, discussion groups. The faculty is made up of leading experts and members of the Yale School of Management, the Yale Library. Participants come from all over the world and represent all areas of publishing within organizations of all sizes and types of publications, in 1963, the Press published a revised edition of Ludwig von Misess Human Action. Official website, including a mission statement Yale University Press, London Yale Publishing Course, New Haven, Connecticut
Yale University Press
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George Parmly Day, founder of the Yale University Press
Yale University Press
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People
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
41.
Minister of Colonies (France)
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The Ministry of Overseas France is a ministry in the Government of France, responsible for overseeing the Overseas departments and territories of France. It was separated from the Ministry of the Navy in January 1893, the minister position is currently held by Ericka Bareigts. Greater France, A History of French Overseas Expansion, macmillan ISBN 0-312-16000-3 pp109-114 Rulers, France. Ministries, political parties, etc. from 1870, Overseas Ministers, Rulers. org Les Ministres de lOutre-Mer sous la Vème République, ladministration centrale du Ministère de lOutre-Mer, Ministère de lOutre-Mer outre-mer. gouv. fr. Lhistoire du Ministère de lOutre-Mer Ministère de lOutre-Mer outre-mer. gouv. fr
Minister of Colonies (France)
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Flag of the Minister of Overseas France
42.
Minister of Labour (France)
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The Minister of Social Affairs and Employment (French, Ministre des Affaires sociales et de lemploi is a cabinet member in the Government of France. The position was known as Minister of Labour, created in 1906. After its 1906 creation, the Inspection du travail service was integrated to it, after the Second World War, the position was renamed Minister of Social Affairs. The seat of the ministry is the hôtel du Châtelet, an 18th-century neoclassical palace located in the 7th arrondissement of Paris
Minister of Labour (France)
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Hôtel du Châtelet in
Paris, the ministry's seat.
43.
Minister of Public Instruction (France)
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The Ministrys headquarters is located in the 18th century Hôtel de Rochechouart on the rue de Grenelle in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. Given that National Education is Frances largest employer, and employs more than half of the French state civil servants, the current minister is Najat Vallaud-Belkacem. A governmental position overseeing public education was first created in France in 1802, the position has also occasionally been combined with Minister of Sports and Minister of Youth Affairs. In 1975, it created the Comité détudes sur les formations dingénieurs which studies the training, list of Education Ministers of France Education in France France Ministry of National Education – Official website
Minister of Public Instruction (France)
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The head office of the ministry
Media related to Gaston Doumergue at Wikimedia Commons
