1.
Dessert
–
Dessert is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal. The course usually consists of foods and beverages, such as dessert wine or liqueurs. In some parts of the world, such as much of central and western Africa, the term dessert can apply to many confections, such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatins, pastries, ice creams, pies, puddings, custards, and sweet soups. Fruit is also found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts, the word dessert originated from the French word desservir, meaning to clear the table. Its first known use was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled Naturall and artificial Directions for Health, in his A History of Dessert, Michael Krondl explains it refers to the fact dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes. Alternatives such as sweets or afters are also used in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong, sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and India and other ancient civilizations. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BCE and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by 500 CE. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making available to Macedonia by 300 BCE. In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking, sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later, when the Crusades and then colonialization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available, even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381, the earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats in 1828 in Eliza Leslies Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in America and Europe caused desserts to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region, sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. The proportions of ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods, flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of layers in pastries
Dessert
–
A
flourless chocolate cake (
torte)
Dessert
–
Apple Pie
Dessert
–
Baked
custard
Dessert
–
An assortment of desserts on a table
2.
Cold
–
Colitose is a mannose-derived 3, 6-dideoxysugar produced by certain bacteria. It is a constituent of the lipopolysaccharide, the sugar was first isolated in 1958, and subsequently was enzymatically synthesized in 1962. The biosynthesis of colitose begins with ColE, a mannose-1-phosphate guanylyltransferase that catalyzes the addition of a GMP moiety to mannose, in the next step, ColB, an NADP-dependent short-chain dehydrogenase-reductase enzyme, catalyzes the oxidation at C-4 and the removal of the hydroxyl group at C-6. In the final step, the product of ColD, GDP-4-keto-3, 6-dideoxymannose, reacts with ColC, the resulting product, GDP-L-colitose, is then incorporated into the O-antigen by glycosyltransferases and O-antigen processing proteins. Further reactions join the O-antigen to the core polysaccharide to form the full lipopolysaccharide, ColD is a PLP-dependent enzyme responsible for the removal of the C-3 hydroxyl group during the biosynthesis of GDP-colitose. It is a product of the Wbdk or ColD genes in Escherichia coli O55 or Salmonella enterica, respectively, and is commonly referred to as ColD
Cold
–
The GDP- L -colitose biosynthesis pathway. For clarity, groups modified by the previous enzymatic step are highlighted in yellow.
Cold
3.
Gelatin
–
Gelatin or gelatine is a translucent, colorless, brittle, flavorless food derived from collagen obtained from various animal body parts. It is commonly used as an agent in food, pharmaceutical drugs, vitamin capsules, photography. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a way are called gelatinous. It is found in most gummy candy, as well as other such as marshmallows, gelatin desserts, and some ice creams, dips. Gelatin for recipe use comes in the form of sheets, granules, instant types can be added to the food as they are, others need to be soaked in water beforehand. During hydrolysis, the molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Its chemical composition is, in respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. Photographic and pharmaceutical grades of gelatin generally are sourced from beef bones, Gelatin readily dissolves in hot water and sets to a gel on cooling. When added directly to water, it does not dissolve well. Gelatin also is soluble in most polar solvents, Gelatin solutions show viscoelastic flow and streaming birefringence. Solubility is determined by the method of manufacture, typically, gelatin can be dispersed in a relatively concentrated acid. Such dispersions are stable for 10–15 days with little or no changes and are suitable for coating purposes or for extrusion into a precipitating bath. The mechanical properties of gelatin gels are very sensitive to variations, the previous thermal history of the gels. The upper melting point is below human body temperature, a factor that is important for mouthfeel of foods produced with gelatin, the viscosity of the gelatin-water mixture is greatest when the gelatin concentration is high and the mixture is kept cool at about 4 °C. The gel strength is quantified using the Bloom test, the worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 375, 000–400,000 tonnes per year. On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from by-products of the meat, recently, fish by-products also have been considered suitable because they eliminate some of the religious obstacles surrounding gelatin consumption. Gelatin is derived from pork skins, pork, and cattle bones, the raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes that are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate. These processes may take weeks, and differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the final gelatin products
Gelatin
–
Eggs in
aspic
Gelatin
–
Sheet (or leaf) gelatin for cooking
Gelatin
–
Capsules made of gelatin.
4.
Hannah Glasse
–
Hannah Glasse was an English cookery writer of the 18th century. She is remembered mainly for her cookbook, The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy. The book was reprinted within its first year of publication, appeared in 20 editions in the 18th century, Glasse was christened on 28 March 1708 at St Andrews, Holborn, London. Her mother is said to have been Hannah Reynolds, a widow and her father was Isaac Allgood, a landowner of Brandon and Simonburn, both in Northumberland. He had recently married Hannah Clark, the daughter of a London vintner and she once described her mother in a letter as being a wicked wretch. During her childhood, Glasse formed a relationship with her fathers youngest sister, Margaret Widdrington, the surviving letters are the major source of information about Glasses personal life. On 5 August 1724 at Leyton, Glasse married an Irish soldier, Glasses letters reveal that from 1728–1732 the couple held positions in the household of the 4th Earl of Donegall at Broomfield, Essex. Thereafter, it seems, they lived in London, Glasses identity as the author of one of the most popular of 18th-century cookery books was confirmed in 1938 by the historian Madeline Hope Dodds. The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy was published by subscription in 1747, a second edition appeared before the year was out. The book did not reveal its authorship, using the vague cover By a Lady and this permitted the erroneous claim that it was written by John Hill, for instance in Boswell’s Life of Johnson. In 1747, the year in which the book appeared. Also in that year, Glasse set herself up as a habitmaker or dressmaker in Tavistock Street, Covent Garden and her stock was not auctioned after the bankruptcy, as it was all held in Margaret’s name. However, on 29 October 1754, Glasse was forced to auction her most prized asset, on 17 December 1754, the London Gazette stated that Glasse would be discharged from bankruptcy on 11 January 1755. In the same year, she and her brother Lancelot repaid the sum of £500 they had jointly borrowed of Sir Henry Bedingfeld two years before, Glasse once again fell into dire financial difficulties and was consigned on the 22 June 1757 to the Marshalsea debtors prison. In July 1757, she was transferred to Fleet Prison and it was not a commercially successful venture, although its plagiarized editions were popular in North America. Her daughter continued to pay the rates on the Tavistock Street premises until 1758, in 1755 Ann Cook published Professed Cookery, containing a 68-page attack on Glasse. Cook lived in Hexham, and was reacting to a campaign of intimidation and persecution by Lancelot Allgood. In the same year, Glasse published her third and last work and it was reprinted several times, but did not match the success that she had enjoyed with The Art of Cookery
Hannah Glasse
–
Hannah Glasse's signature at the top of the first chapter of her book,
The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy, 6th Edition, 1758, a defence against rampant
plagiarism
Hannah Glasse
–
Letter to
The Times by a pseudonymous wag at the
Beefsteak Club, 1845
5.
The Art of Cookery
–
The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy is a cookbook by Hannah Glasse first published in 1747. It was a best seller for a century after its first publication, dominating the English-speaking market, the book ran through at least 40 editions, many of them pirated. It was published in Dublin from 1748, and in America from 1805, Glasse emphasised in her note To the Reader that she used plain language so that servants would be able to understand it. Glasse expressed criticism of French influence, but included dishes with French names, other recipes use imported ingredients such as cocoa, cinnamon, nutmeg, pistachios and even musk. The book was popular in the Thirteen Colonies of America, and its appeal survived the American War of Independence, copies being owned by Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, the book was updated significantly both during her life and after her death. Some of the recipes were plagiarised, to the extent of being reproduced verbatim from earlier books by other writers, in addition, the first page of the main text is signed in ink by the author. The first edition of the book was published by Glasse herself, funded by subscription, COVER the bottom of your dish or bowl with Naples biscuits broke in pieces, mackeroons broke in halves, and ratafia cakes. Just wet them all through with sack, then make a good boiled custard not too thick, and you may garnish it with ratafia cakes, currant jelly, and flowers. The book has a table of contents on the title page, followed by a note To the Reader. There is an alphabetical index at the back. And she comments that the great Cooks have such a way of expressing themselves. Chapters sometimes begin with an introduction giving general advice on the topic at hand, such as cooking meat. The recipes give no indication of cooking time or oven temperature, there are no separate lists of ingredients, where necessary, the recipes specify quantities directly in the instructions. Many recipes do not mention quantities at all, simply instructing the cook what to do, thus, an example of such a recipe is To à la Daube Pigeons, a daube is a rich French meat stew from Provence, traditionally made with beef. Her A Goose à la Mode is served in a sauce flavoured with red wine, home-made Catchup, veal sweetbread, truffles, morels, and mushrooms. She occasionally uses French ingredients, To make a rich Cake includes half a Pint of right French Brandy, ingredients from faraway countries were becoming available. The recipe for Elder-Shoots, in Imitation of Bamboo makes use of an ingredient to substitute for a foreign one that English travellers had encountered in the Far East. The same recipe also calls for a variety of imported spices to flavour the pickle, an Ounce of white or red Pepper, an Ounce of Ginger sliced, a little Mace, and a few Corns of Jamaica Pepper
The Art of Cookery
–
Frontispiece and title page in an early posthumous edition, published by L. Wangford, c. 1777
The Art of Cookery
–
Hannah Glasse 's signature at the top of the first chapter of her book, 6th Edition, 1758
The Art of Cookery
–
Glasse used costly
truffles in some recipes, despite her dislike of
French cuisine.
6.
Wood-engraving
–
Wood engraving is a printmaking and letterpress printing technique, in which an artist works an image or matrix of images into a block of wood. Functionally a variety of woodcut, it uses relief printing, where the artist applies ink to the face of the block and prints using relatively low pressure. By contrast, ordinary engraving, like etching, uses a metal plate for the matrix, and is printed by the method, where the ink fills the valleys. As a result, wood engravings deteriorate less quickly than copper-plate engravings, Thomas Bewick developed the wood engraving technique at the end of the 18th century. His work differed from earlier woodcuts in two key ways, first, rather than using woodcarving tools such as knives, Bewick used an engravers burin. With this, he could create thin delicate lines, often creating large areas in the composition. Second, wood engraving traditionally uses the woods end grain—while the older technique used the side grain. The resulting increased hardness and durability facilitated more detailed images, wood-engraved blocks could be used on conventional printing presses, which were going through rapid mechanical improvements during the first quarter of the 19th century. The blocks were made the same height as, and composited alongside, the combination of this new wood engraving method and mechanized printing drove a rapid expansion of illustrations in the 19th century. Further, advances in stereotype let wood-engravings be reproduced onto metal, by the mid-19th century, many wood engravings rivaled copperplate engravings. In 15th and 16th-century Europe, woodcuts were a technique in printmaking and printing. They were still made for printing press work such as newspapers or almanacs. The beginnings of modern wood engraving techniques developed at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, Bewick generally engraved harder woods, such as boxwood, rather than the woods used in woodcuts, and he engraved the ends of blocks instead of the side. Finding a woodcutting knife not suitable for working against the grain in harder woods, Bewick used a burin, from the beginning of the nineteenth century Bewicks techniques gradually came into wider use, especially in Britain and the United States. Alexander Anderson introduced the technique to the United States, Bewicks work impressed him, so he reverse engineered and imitated Bewicks technique—using metal until he learned that Bewick used wood. This was, in ways a unnatural application, since engravers had to cut away almost all the surface of the block to produce the printable lines of the artists drawing. Nonetheless, it became the most common use of wood engraving, in the United States, wood-engraved publications also began to take hold, such as Harpers Weekly. A single design was divided into a grid, and each worked on a square
Wood-engraving
–
Leather-covered sandbag, wood blocks and tools (
burins), used in wood engraving
Wood-engraving
–
Thomas Bewick. Barn Owl (
Tyto alba) in
History of British Birds. 1797–1804.
Wood-engraving
–
This is a large wood engraving on an 1883 cover of
Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper. Such news engravings were composed of multiple component blocks, combined to form a single image, so as to divide the work among a number of engravers.
Wood-engraving
–
The modified technique in the wood engraving Crucifixion of Jesus by
Gustave Doré.
7.
Bog myrtle
–
Myrica gale is a species of flowering plant in the genus Myrica, native to northern and western Europe and parts of northern North America. Common names include Bog-myrtle and sweetgale and it is a deciduous shrub growing to 1–2 m tall. The leaves are arranged, simple, 2–5 cm long, oblanceolate with a tapered base and broader tip. The flowers are catkins, with male and female catkins on separate plants, the fruit is a small drupe. It typically grows in peat bogs, and to cope with these difficult nitrogen-poor growing conditions. The foliage has a resinous scent and is a traditional insect repellent. It is also a component of Royal Wedding bouquets and is used variously in perfumery. In modern times, some brewers have revisited this historic technique and in Denmark, in some native cultures in Eastern Canada, the plant has been used as a traditional remedy for stomach aches, fever, bronchial ailments and liver problems. The Creole Doctor, an 1886 article by Lafcadio Hearn, discusses the uses of the plant, known locally as cirier batard, in Louisiana creole folk remedies. In Scotland it has traditionally used to ward off the Highland midge. In 2007 there were plans to increase production of the plant in Scotland for use as an oil for treating sensitive skin. The plant has been listed as an abortifacient and therefore should not be consumed by women who are, or might be, sweetgale can grow in a narrow band in the intertidal zone, especially if logs have been washed into the estuary on which to establish itself. It is a food of beavers, and low beaver dams can be found in the intertidal zone if sufficient sweetgale is present. The ponds thus formed are often submerged at high tide. If too deep for predation by wading birds juvenile salmon may flourish
Bog myrtle
–
Myrica gale
Bog myrtle
–
Male plant with catkins.
8.
Eliza Acton
–
This introduced the now-universal practice of listing ingredients and giving suggested cooking times with each recipe. It included the first recipe for Brussels sprouts, isabella Beetons bestselling Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management was closely modelled on it. Delia Smith is quoted as calling Acton the best writer of recipes in the English language, Modern Cookery long survived her, remaining in print until 1914. Acton was born in Battle, Sussex in 1799, the eldest of the five children of Elizabeth Mercer and John Acton, the family returned to Ipswich shortly after her birth, and Eliza was raised there. When she was seventeen, she co-founded a girls school with a Miss Nicholson in Claydon and this remained open for four years, until Eliza Acton left due to poor health. She spent some time in France after this, after returning to England, her first collection of Poems was published in 1826, mostly on the theme of unrequited love. The book was successful, and was reprinted a few weeks after its first issue. Actons best-known work Modern Cookery for Private Families was first published in 1845 and it was the result of several years of research, undertaken at the prompting of Longman, who had published her Poems. Many of the came from her friends. Modern Cookery quickly became a popular work, appearing in several editions. This was a departure from previous cookbooks, which were less precise. Shortly after the publication of Modern Cookery, Acton relocated to Hampstead, London, alongside recipes, this contained a scholarly history of bread-making, which included Actons strong opinions on some contemporary baking practices. This work was less successful than Modern Cookery, and was only reprinted in 1990. She is the first recorded user of the word spaghetti in the English language, Acton, who suffered from poor health for much of her life, died in 1859, at the age of 59. Poems The Chronicles of Castel Framlingham The Voice of the North Modern Cookery for Private Families The English Bread Book Ray, ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison
Eliza Acton
–
from
Modern Cookery for Private Families by Eliza Acton (London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1871, page 48)
Eliza Acton
–
Title page of Poems by Eliza Acton (London: Longmans, 1826, page 48)
9.
Modern Cookery for Private Families
–
Modern Cookery for Private Families is an English cookery book by Eliza Acton. It was first published by Longmans in 1845, and was a best-seller, running through 13 editions by 1853 and it was one of the first cookery books to provide lists of ingredients, exact quantities, and cooking times, and to include Eastern recipes for chutneys. Its first edition was the first book to refer to Christmas pudding, the book was the result of several years of research, prompted by Longman, who had published Actons Poems. Many of the came from her friends. Modern Cookery quickly became a work, appearing in several editions. This was a departure from previous cookbooks, which were less precise. The first known mention of Christmas pudding, too, is in the first edition of 1845, the dish had earlier been known simply as plum pudding. Her recipe for mincemeat still contained meat – she suggests ox tongue or beef sirloin – which she combined with lemons boiled quite tender and chopped up entirely with the exception of the pips. The book remained in print for over 50 years through most of the Victorian era, but it is Mrs Beetons book, first published in 1861, which is now remembered from that period. The title varied somewhat over the years, the 1845 editions full title was Modern Cookery, In All Its Branches, Reduced to a System of Easy Practice, in a Series of Practical Receipts, Which Have Been Strictly Tested, And are Given with the Most Minute exactness. The following list refers to the 1860 edition, Actons book is divided into chapters with brief, often single word titles such as Fish. In a marked departure from eighteenth century English cookery books like Hannah Glasses The Art of Cookery, these are written as connected wholes. The chapter on fish begins with an essay on how to fish for freshness, there follows some advice on how to bake fish. The recipes follow, these too are written as stories rather than simply as instructions, where appropriate, recipes end with a list of ingredients, as well as the cooking time, in marked change from eighteenth century practice. Recipes are grouped, in the case of fish by species, Acton adds comments where she sees fit, indicating anything from when the food is in season to where a recipe came from, and how much she likes it. It may easily be known by its yellow colour, its one large dark spot on either side, the long filaments on the back, a general thickness of form. It is dressed in the manner, and served usually with the same sauces as a turbot. The fins should be cut off before it is cooked, serve them with the same sauce as baked soles
Modern Cookery for Private Families
–
Title Page of 1860 edition
Modern Cookery for Private Families
–
Cover of 1847 edition
Modern Cookery for Private Families
–
Wood engraving of "Copper Fish or Ham Kettle"
Modern Cookery for Private Families
–
Wood engraving of
John Dory
10.
Fruit juice
–
Juice is a beverage made from the extraction or pressing out of the natural liquid contained in fruit and vegetables. It can also refer to liquids that are flavored with these or other food sources such as meat. Juice is commonly consumed as a beverage or used as an ingredient or flavoring in foods or other beverages, juice emerged as a popular beverage choice after the development of pasteurization methods allowed for its preservation without using fermentation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimated the world production of citrus fruit juices to be 12,840,318 tonnes in 2012. The largest fruit juice consumers are New Zealand and Colombia, fruit juice consumption on average increased with country income level. The word juice comes from Old French in about 1300, it developed from the Old French words jus, juis, jouis, the Old French jus juice, sap, liquid. From Latin ius broth, sauce, juice, soup, from PIE root *yeue- to blend, the use of the word juice to meanthe watery part of fruits or vegetables was first recorded in the early 14th century. Since the 19th century, the juice has also been used in a figurative sense. Today, au jus refers to meat served along with its own juice, juice is prepared by mechanically squeezing or macerating fruit or vegetable flesh without the application of heat or solvents. For example, orange juice is the extract of the fruit of the orange tree. Juice may be prepared in the home from fresh fruit and vegetables using a variety of hand or electric juicers, many commercial juices are filtered to remove fiber or pulp, but high-pulp fresh orange juice is a popular beverage. Additives are put in some juices, such as sugar and artificial flavours, common methods for preservation and processing of fruit juices include canning, pasteurization, concentrating, freezing, evaporation and spray drying. After the fruits are picked and washed, the juice is extracted by one of two automated methods. In the first method, two cups with sharp metal tubes on the bottom cup come together, removing the peel. The juice of the fruit then escapes through small holes in the tube, the peels can then be used further, and are washed to remove oils, which are reclaimed later for usage. The second method requires the fruits to be cut in half before being subjected to reamers, which extract the juice. After the juice is filtered, it may be concentrated in evaporators, Juices are concentrated by heating under a vacuum to remove water, and then cooling to around 13 degrees Celsius. About two thirds of the water in a juice is removed, the juice is then later reconstituted, in which the concentrate is mixed with water and other factors to return any lost flavor from the concentrating process
Fruit juice
–
A glass of
orange juice
Fruit juice
–
A juice bar at
London Heathrow Terminal 5
11.
Isinglass
–
This aircraft was considered too costly for development, and the project was abandoned in 1967. The Isinglass/Rheinberry concept was considered to be superior to spy satellites in a number of ways, including rapid turnaround time and quick response capability. As there was funding to be had from the CIA budget, McDonnell developed the aircraft using its own funds. The McDonnell Isenglass/Rheinberry proposals shape remains classified, although it has described as being similar to the Space Shuttle. A 1/3 cross-sectional model of the aircraft was constructed to illustrate the principles used in its construction, in addition, there were concerns that the aircrafts trajectory could be mistaken for that of an incoming ballistic missile
Isinglass
–
A B-52 carrying two
D-21 drones; Isinglass would have been carried and launched in this fashion
Isinglass
12.
Hartshorn
–
Hartshorn is the horn of male red deer. Various substances were made from hartshorn shavings, Oil of hartshorn is an animal oil obtained from the destructive distillation of male red deer bones or horns. Salt of hartshorn refers to ammonium carbonate, a form of smelling salts obtained by dry distillation of oil of hartshorn. Spirit of hartshorn is a solution of ammonia. Originally, this term was applied to a solution manufactured from the hooves and horns of the red deer, the aqueous solution was colorless and pungent, consisting of about 28.5 percent ammonia. It was used chiefly as a detergent, for removing stains and extracting certain vegetable coloring agents, later, the term was applied to the partially purified similar products of the action of heat on nitrogenous animal matter generally. Finally, the term was applied to any solution of ammonia. Hartshorn jelly or a decoction of burnt hartshorn in water was used to treat diarrhea, the coal of hartshorn, called calcinated hartshorn, was used as an absorbent, as well as in the treatment of dysentery. Salt of hartshorn was used as a sudorific for treatment of fevers, hartshorn was used to treat insect bites, sunstroke, stye, and snakebites. Hartshorn salt, also simply as hartshorn, and bakers ammonia, was used as a leavening agent, in the baking of cookies. It was used mainly in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as a forerunner of baking powder, a half-teaspoon of hartshorn can substitute for one teaspoon of baking powder. It is called for in old German and Scandinavian recipes and, although used in modern times. Hartshorn helps molded cookies such as Springerle to retain their intricate designs during baking, cookies made with hartshorn can be kept for a long time without hardening. Use of hartshorn may turn some ingredients, such as sunflower seeds, ammonium carbonate is especially suited to thin, dry cookies and crackers. When heated, it releases ammonia and carbon dioxide gases, the absence of water allows cookies to cook and dry out more quickly, and thinner cookies allow the pungent ammonia to escape, rather than to remain trapped, as it would in a deeper mass. Ammonia released during the baking process reacts with glucose and fructose to form intermediate molecules that in turn, react with asparagine to form acrylamide, a carcinogen
Hartshorn
–
Male
red deer
13.
Saffron
–
Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Saffron crocus grows to 20–30 cm and bears up to four flowers, the styles and stigmas, called threads, are collected and dried to be used mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food. Saffron, long among the worlds most costly spices by weight, is native to Southwest Asia and was probably first cultivated in or near Greece. As a genetically monomorphic clone, it was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was brought to parts of North Africa, North America. Saffrons taste and iodoform or hay-like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocin and it also contains a carotenoid pigment, crocin, which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal, Iran now accounts for approximately 90% of the world production of saffron. A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word saffron and it might stem from the 12th-century Old French term safran, which comes from the Latin word safranum or from Arabic, az-zafaran, having unknown origin. Safranum comes from the Persian intercessor zafarān, the domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn-flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. Its progenitors are possibly the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus, which is known as wild saffron. The saffron crocus probably resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmata. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources, a corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten cormlets that can grow into new plants in the next season. Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm above the plants neck, the plant grows to a height of 20–30 cm, and sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosynthetic leaves known as cataphylls. These membrane-like structures cover and protect the crocuss 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 1–3 mm in diameter, C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems, after aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm in length. The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance, upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm in height. A three-pronged style emerges from each flower, each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma 25–30 mm in length. The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from Crocus cartwrightianus, if C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it may have emerged via plant breeding, which would have selected for elongated stigmata, in late Bronze Age Crete
Saffron
–
Saffron – delicate threads, plucked from the flowers and dried in Vienna
Saffron
–
corolla
Saffron
–
C. sativus.
Saffron
14.
Cochineal
–
The cochineal is a scale insect in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, from which the natural dye carmine is derived. A primarily sessile parasite native to tropical and subtropical South America as well as Mexico and Arizona and these insects are found on the pads of prickly pear cacti, then are brushed off and dried. The insect produces carminic acid that deters predation by other insects, carminic acid, typically 17-24% of dried insects weight, can be extracted from the body and eggs, then mixed with aluminium or calcium salts to make carmine dye, also known as cochineal. Today, carmine is primarily used as a colorant in food, the carmine dye was used in Central America in the 15th century for coloring fabrics and became an important export good during the colonial period. After synthetic pigments and dyes such as alizarin were invented in the late 19th century, some towns in the Mexican state of Oaxaca are still working in handmade textiles using this cochineal. The primary biological distinctions between species are minor differences in host plant preferences, in addition to different geographic distributions. Cochineal is probably from French cochenille, Spanish cochinilla, Latin coccinus, meaning scarlet-colored, and Latin coccum, meaning berry yielding scarlet dye. See also the word kermes which is the source of a similar but weaker Mediterranean dye also called crimson. Some sources identify the Spanish source word for cochineal as cochinilla wood louse, Cochineal dye was used by the Aztec and Maya peoples of Central and North America. Eleven cities conquered by Montezuma in the 15th century paid a tribute of 2000 decorated cotton blankets and 40 bags of cochineal dye each. Production of cochineal is depicted in Codex Osuna, during the colonial period, the production of cochineal grew rapidly. Produced almost exclusively in Oaxaca by indigenous producers, cochineal became Mexicos second-most valued export after silver, soon after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, it began to be exported to Spain, and by the 17th century was a commodity traded as far away as India. The dyestuff was consumed throughout Europe and was so prized, its price was regularly quoted on the London. In 1777, French botanist Nicolas-Joseph Thiéry de Menonville, presenting himself as a physician, smuggled the insects. This particular collection failed to thrive and ultimately died out, leaving the Mexican monopoly intact, after the Mexican War of Independence in 1810–1821, the Mexican monopoly on cochineal came to an end. Large-scale production of cochineal emerged, especially in Guatemala and the Canary Islands, it was cultivated in Spain. The delicate manual labour required for the breeding of the insect could not compete with the methods of the new industry. The tuna blood dye stopped being used and trade in cochineal almost totally disappeared in the course of the 20th century, the breeding of the cochineal insect has been done mainly for the purposes of maintaining the tradition rather than to satisfy any sort of demand
Cochineal
–
Cochineal
Cochineal
–
Indian Collecting Cochineal with a Deer Tail by
José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez (1777)
Cochineal
–
A cluster of females
Cochineal
–
Cochineals on cacti in
La Palma
15.
Trifle
–
Trifle in English cuisine is a dessert made with fruit, a thin layer of sponge fingers or sponge cake soaked in sherry or another fortified wine, and custard. It can be topped with whipped cream, the fruit and sponge layers may be suspended in fruit-flavoured jelly, and these ingredients are usually arranged to produce three or four layers. The earliest use of the name trifle was in a recipe for a thick cream flavoured with sugar, ginger and rosewater, Trifle evolved from a similar dessert known as a fool, and originally the two names were used interchangeably. Jelly is first recorded as part of the recipe in later editions of Hannah Glasses eighteenth century book The Art of Cookery, in her recipe she instructed using hartshorn or bones of calves feet as the base ingredient for the jelly. The poet Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote of trifles containing jelly in 1861, trifles may contain a small amount of alcohol such as port, or, most commonly, sweet sherry or madeira wine. One popular trifle variant has the sponge soaked in jelly when the trifle is made, the cake and jelly bind together and produce a pleasant texture if made in the correct proportions. The Scots have a dish to trifle, tipsy laird. In the Southern US, a variant of trifle is known as tipsy cake. A trifle is often used for decoration as well as taste, incorporating the bright, layered colours of the fruit, jelly, jam, trifles are often served at Christmas, sometimes as a lighter alternative to the much denser Christmas pudding. A Creole trifle is a different but related dessert item consisting of pieces of a variety of mixed and packed firmly, moistened with alcohol and a sweet syrup or fruit juice. The resulting cake contains a variety of colour and flavour, a similar dessert in Germany and Austria goes by the name of Punschtorte. In Italy, a similar to and probably based on trifle is known as zuppa inglese. Cassata List of custard desserts Traditional Trifle recipe by Delia Smith Time-lapse video of a trifle being constructed
Trifle
–
Trifle
Trifle
–
Illustrations from
Isabella Beeton's Book of Household Management, 1861
Trifle
–
Layers of a trifle dessert.
16.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
Sugar
–
Closeup of raw (unrefined, unbleached) sugar
Sugar
–
Ant feeding on sugar crystals.
Sugar
–
Sugar cane plantation
Sugar
–
Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary, by
George Flegel, first half of 17th century
17.
Sugar substitute
–
A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are produced by nature, and others produced synthetically and those that are not produced by nature are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners and these are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible, the sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, in the United States, seven intensely sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are stevia, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, cyclamates are used outside the U. S. but have been prohibited in the U. S. since 1969. Others, which may or may not be approved depending on jurisdiction, include allulose, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a generally recognized as safe list of additives, stevia is exempt under the FDAs GRAS policy due to its being a natural substance in wide use well before 1958, and the FDA has approved it on these grounds. The conclusions about safety are based on a review of a large body of information. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and it is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, other natural substitutes are known, but these have yet to gain official approval for food use. Sorbitol and xylitol are examples of sugar alcohols and these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing these with high-intensity sweeteners, as with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process. This allows them to eat the foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight. Dental care – Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, the bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that can actually benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the surface, thus preventing plaque formation
Sugar substitute
–
Packets of
Assugrin, a brand of
cyclamate.
Sugar substitute
–
Cyclamate-based sugar substitute sold in Canada.
Sugar substitute
–
Saccharin, historical wrapping;
Sugar Museum (Berlin)
18.
Adipic acid
–
Adipic acid or hexanedioic acid is the organic compound with the formula 42. Adipic acid otherwise rarely occurs in nature, adipic acid is produced from a mixture of cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone called KA oil, the abbreviation of ketone-alcohol oil. The KA oil is oxidized with nitric acid to give adipic acid, nitrous oxide is produced as well, via the intermediacy of a nitrolic acid. Related processes start from cyclohexanol, which is obtained from the hydrogenation of phenol, several methods have been developed by carbonylation of butadiene. For example, the proceeds as follows, CH2=CH−CH=CH2 +2 CO +2 H2O → HO2C4CO2H Another method is oxidative cleavage of cyclohexene using hydrogen peroxide. Historically, adipic acid was prepared by oxidation of various fats, adipic acid is a dibasic acid. The pKa values for their successive deprotonations are 4.41 and 5.41, with the carboxylate groups separated by four methylene groups, adipic acid is suited for intramolecular condensation reactions. Upon treatment with barium hydroxide at elevated temperatures, it undergoes ketonization to give cyclopentanone, about 60% of the 2.5 billion kg of adipic acid produced annually is used as monomer for the production of nylon by a polycondensation reaction with hexamethylene diamine forming nylon 66. Other major applications also involve polymers, it is a monomer for production of polyurethane and its esters are plasticizers, adipic acid has been incorporated into controlled-release formulation matrix tablets to obtain pH-independent release for both weakly basic and weakly acidic drugs. It has also incorporated into the polymeric coating of hydrophilic monolithic systems to modulate the intragel pH. The disintegration at intestinal pH of the enteric polymer shellac has been reported to improve when adipic acid was used as a pore-forming agent without affecting release in the acidic media, other controlled-release formulations have included adipic acid with the intention of obtaining a late-burst release profile. Adipic acid is used to make bisobrin an antifibrinolytic, small but significant amounts of adipic acid are used as a food ingredient as a flavorant and gelling aid. It is used in some calcium carbonate antacids to make them tart, as an acidulant in baking powders, it avoids the undesireable hygroscopic properties of tartaric acid. Adipic acid, rare in nature, does occur naturally in beets, adipic acid, like most carboxylic acids, is a mild skin irritant. It is mildly toxic, with an LD50 of 3600 mg/kg for oral ingestion by rats, the production of adipic acid is linked to emissions of N 2O, a potent greenhouse gas and cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. At adipic acid producers DuPont and Rhodia, processes have been implemented to convert the nitrous oxide to innocuous products,2 N2O →2 N2 + O2 E-number E355
Adipic acid
–
Adipic acid
19.
Fumaric acid
–
Fumaric acid or trans-butenedioic acid is the chemical compound with the formula HO2CCH=CHCO2H. This white crystalline compound is one of two isomeric unsaturated dicarboxylic acids, the other being maleic acid, in fumaric acid the carboxylic acid groups are trans and in maleic acid they are cis. Fumaric acid has a fruit-like taste, the salts and esters are known as fumarates. Fumarate can also refer to the C4H2O4−− ion, Fumaric acid was first prepared from succinic acid. A traditional synthesis involves oxidation of furfural using chlorate in the presence of a vanadium-based catalyst, currently, industrial synthesis of fumaric acid is mostly based on catalytic isomerisation of maleic acid in aqueous solutions at low pH. Maleic acid is accessible in large volumes as a product of maleic anhydride. The chemical properties of acid can be anticipated from its component functional groups. This weak acid forms a diester, it undergoes additions across the double bond, Fumaric acid does not combust in a bomb calorimeter under conditions where maleic acid deflagrates smoothly. Fumaric acid is found in fumitory, bolete mushrooms, lichen, fumarate is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle used by cells to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate from food. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, fumarate is then converted by the enzyme fumarase to malate. Human skin naturally produces fumaric acid when exposed to sunlight, fumarate is also a product of the urea cycle. Fumaric acid has been used as a food acidulant since 1946 and it is approved for use as a food additive in the EU, USA and Australia and New Zealand. As a food additive, it is used as an acidity regulator and it is generally used in beverages and baking powders for which requirements are placed on purity. As well as being a component of some artificial vinegar flavors, such as Salt and Vinegar flavored potato chips, in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, the ester dimethyl fumarate significantly reduced relapse and disability progression in a phase 3 trial. It activates the Nrf2 antioxidant response pathway, the primary defense against the cytotoxic effects of oxidative stress. Various Fumaric acid esters have specific immunomodulating properties which are responsible for effects in the treatment of psoriasis. In the Netherlands, Germany, Austria and the Benelux countries substances derived from fumaric acid have been used for half a century for this purpose, such studies should in the future help specify which psoriasis variants are suited to be treated with fumaric acid esters. Fumaric acid is present in the herb called Fumaria officinalis
Fumaric acid
–
Fumaric acid
20.
Trisodium citrate
–
Trisodium citrate has the chemical formula of Na3C6H5O7. It is sometimes referred to simply as sodium citrate, though sodium citrate can refer to any of the three sodium salts of citric acid and it possesses a saline, mildly tart flavor. It is mildly basic and can be used along with citric acid to make biologically compatible buffers, sodium citrate is chiefly used as a food additive, usually for flavor or as a preservative. Sodium citrate is employed as an agent in certain varieties of club soda. Sodium citrate is common as an ingredient in Bratwurst, and is used in commercial ready to drink beverages and drink mixes. It is found in gelatin mix, ice-cream, jams, sweets, milk powder, processed cheeses, carbonated beverages, sodium Citrate can also be used as an emulsifier for oils when making cheese. Sodium citrate allows the cheeses to melt without becoming greasy, consider the following quote from modernist cuisine, Our modernist version of mac and cheese owes its chemistry to James L. Kraft, who in 1916 patented the first American cheese slice. He showed that sodium phosphate keeps the water and fat droplets mixed when the cheese is melted and we use sodium citrate, which has the same effect and is easier to find. The resulting texture is as smooth as melted American cheese, but as complex, as a conjugate base of a weak acid, citrate can perform as a buffering agent or acidity regulator, resisting changes in pH. Sodium citrate is used to control acidity in some substances, such as gelatin desserts and it can be found in the mini milk containers used with coffee machines. The compound is the product of antacids, such as Alka-Seltzer, the pH of a solution of 5 g/100 ml water at 25 °C is 7.5 –9.0. It continues to be used today in blood collection tubes and for the preservation of blood in blood banks, the citrate ion chelates calcium ions in the blood by forming calcium citrate complexes, disrupting the blood clotting mechanism. In 2003, Ööpik, et al. showed the use of sodium citrate improved running performance over 5 km by 30 seconds. Sodium citrate is used to discomfort in urinary tract infections, such as cystitis, to reduce the acidosis seen in distal renal tubular acidosis. It is a component of the WHO Oral Rehydration Solution. It is used as an antacid, especially prior to anaesthesia, sodium citrate is a particularly effective agent for removal of carbonate scale from boilers without removing them from operation and for cleaning automobile radiators
Trisodium citrate
–
Sodium citrate
21.
Food color
–
Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of liquids, powders, gels, Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Food colorants are used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, home craft projects. People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the flavor in anything from candy to wine. During the Middle Ages, the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture, under feudalism, aesthetic aspects were not considered, at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population. This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age, one of the very first food laws, created in Augsburg, Germany, in 1531, concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned. With the onset of the revolution, people became dependent on foods produced by others. These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost, analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few. Copper arsenite was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale and it also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860. Again his tea if mixed or green, he would not escape without the administration of a little Prussian blue. Many color additives had never tested for toxicity or other adverse effects. Historical records show that injuries, even deaths, resulted from tainted colorants, in 1851, about 200 people were poisoned in England,17 of them fatally, directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges. Originally, these were dubbed coal-tar colors because the materials were obtained from bituminous coal. Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives, some synthetic food colorants are diazo dyes. Diazo dyes are prepared by coupling of a compound with a second aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting compounds contain conjugated systems that absorb light in the visible parts of the spectrum. The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color, lipophilicity, the color of the dyes can be controlled by selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents. Yellow shades are often achieved by using acetoacetanilide, Red colors are often azo compounds
Food color
–
Food coloring spreading on a thin water film in the
International Space Station
Food color
–
Natural food colors can make a variety of different hues
22.
Animal product
–
An animal product is any material derived from the body of an animal. Examples are fat, flesh, blood, milk, eggs, in the EU, animal by-products are defined somewhat more broadly, as materials from animals that people do not consume <https, //ec. europa. eu/food/safety/animal-by-products_en>. Thus, chicken eggs for consumption are considered by-products in the US but not France. This does not in itself reflect on the condition, safety, the sale of animal by-products allows the meat industry to compete economically with industries selling sources of vegetable protein. Generally, products made from fossilized or decomposed animals, such as petroleum formed from the ancient remains of animals, are not considered animal products. Crops grown in soil fertilized with animal remains are rarely characterized as animal products, several diets prohibit the inclusion of some animal products, including vegetarian, kosher, and halaal. Other diets, such as veganism and the raw vegan diet, slaughterhouse waste is defined as animal body parts cut off in the preparation of carcasses for use as food. This waste can come from sources, including slaughterhouses, restaurants, stores. In the UK, slaughterhouse waste is classed as category 3 risk waste in the Animal By-Products Regulations, Vegan Society - Criteria For Vegan Food Extensive list identifying animal-derived and vegan ingredients FDA Consumer Magazine, The Lowdown on Labels Heinz, G. & Hautzinger, P. Meat Processing Technology, Food and Agriculture Organization,2007, accessed March 30,2012, leoci, R. Animal by-products, origins, uses, and European regulations, Mantova, Universitas Studiorum,2014. ISBN 978-88-97683-47-6 Mian N Riaz, Riaz N Riaz, Muhammad M Chaudry, halal Food Production, CRC Press,2004. Whats in a can of dog food, earthly Origin of Materials, is a material animal, vegetable, or mineral
Animal product
–
Varieties of goat cheese
Animal product
–
A dish called "Duck, Duck, Duck" because the three parts come from the complex body of the duck: duck eggs, duck
confit and roast duck breast
Animal product
–
Major types
23.
Refrigerate
–
Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is driven by mechanical work. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units. Refrigeration has had a impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman, however, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. Settlements were also developing in parts of the country, filled with new natural resources. These new settlement patterns sparked the building of cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas and Las Vegas. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, the increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have begun earlier than 1000 B. C. A Chinese collection of lyrics from this period known as the Shih king. However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was used for. ”Historians have interpreted this to mean that the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass, chaff, like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. Slaves would moisten the outside of the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water, the ancient people of India used this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use storage to preserve food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where the weather could be hot and dry and this consisted of a room with hessian curtains hanging from the ceiling soaked in water. The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air circulating in the room and this would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat. Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes, as these two things became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses
Refrigerate
–
Commercial refrigeration
Refrigerate
–
Ice harvesting in
Massachusetts, 1852, showing the
railroad line in the background, used to transport the ice.
Refrigerate
–
William Cullen, the first to conduct experiments into artificial refrigeration.
Refrigerate
–
Ferdinand Carré 's ice-making device
24.
Colloid
–
A colloid, in chemistry, is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid, the colloidal suspension refers unambiguously to the overall mixture. Unlike a solution, whose solute and solvent constitute only one phase, a colloid has a dispersed phase, to qualify as a colloid, the mixture must be one that does not settle or would take a very long time to settle appreciably. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter between approximately 1 and 1000 nanometers, such particles are normally easily visible in an optical microscope, although at the smaller size range, an ultramicroscope or an electron microscope may be required. Homogeneous mixtures with a phase in this size range may be called colloidal aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams, colloidal dispersions. The dispersed-phase particles or droplets are affected largely by the surface chemistry present in the colloid, some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color, Colloidal suspensions are the subject of interface and colloid science. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by Scottish scientist Thomas Graham, because of the size exclusion, the colloidal particles are unable to pass through the pores of an ultrafiltration membrane with a size smaller than their own dimension. The smaller the size of the pore of the ultrafiltration membrane, the measured value of the concentration of a truly dissolved species will thus depend on the experimental conditions applied to separate it from the colloidal particles also dispersed in the liquid. This is particularly important for solubility studies of readily hydrolyzed species such as Al, Eu, Am, Cm, the colloid particles are attracted toward water. They are also called reversible sols, hydrophobic colloids, These are opposite in nature to hydrophilic colloids. The colloid particles are repelled by water and they are also called irreversible sols. In some cases, a colloid suspension can be considered a homogeneous mixture and this is because the distinction between dissolved and particulate matter can be sometimes a matter of approach, which affects whether or not it is homogeneous or heterogeneous. The following forces play an important role in the interaction of particles, Excluded volume repulsion. Electrostatic interaction, Colloidal particles often carry a charge and therefore attract or repel each other. The charge of both the continuous and the phase, as well as the mobility of the phases are factors affecting this interaction. Van der Waals forces, This is due to interaction between two dipoles that are permanent or induced. Even if the particles do not have a permanent dipole, fluctuations of the electron density gives rise to a dipole in a particle
Colloid
–
Milk is an
emulsified colloid of liquid
butterfat globules dispersed within a
water -based solution.
25.
Marshmallow
–
Some marshmallow recipes call for eggs. This confection is the version of a medicinal confection made from Althaea officinalis. The word marshmallow stems from the plant that is a genus of an herb native to parts of Europe, North Africa. The word marsh is used because the plant grows in marshes. The plant itself has a stem, leaves, and a flower that has five white petals. There is no date as to when marshmallows were invented. Ancient Egyptians were said to be the first to enjoy this gooey treat and it was strictly reserved for gods and royalty, who took the root of the plant and used it as a medicinal to soothe coughs and sore throats, and heal wounds. The first marshmallows were prepared by boiling pieces of pulp with sugar until it thickened. Once thickened, the mixture was strained, cooled, and then used as intended, whether it was being used for candy or medicinal purposes, the manufacturing process was limited to a small scale. In the early to mid-1800s, the marshmallow had made its way to France where confectioners married the plants medicinal purposes with indulgent ingredients utilized by the Egyptians, owners of small candy stores would whip the sap from the mallow root into a fluffy candy mold. This candy was called Pâté de Guimauve and it was a spongy-soft dessert made from whipping dried marshmallow roots with sugar, water, and egg whites. It was sold in bar form as a lozenge, the only issue now was that the drying and preparing of the marshmallow took 1 to 2 days before the final product could be produced. Thus, these stores could never keep up with the demand. In the late 1800s, candy makers started looking for a new process, the way this system worked was that there were trays of modified corn starch, and each tray had a mold firmly pushed down in it to create cavities within the starch. The cavities were filled with the whipped marshmallow sap mixture. At the same time, candy makers had begun to replace the mallow root with gelatin which created a form of marshmallow. By the early 1900s, thanks to the starch mogul system, marshmallows were introduced to the United States and they were sold in tins as penny candy, and began to be used in a variety of food recipes like banana fluff, lime mallow sponge, and tutti frutti. In 1948, Alex Doumak revolutionized the process for manufacturing marshmallows and he created and patented the extrusion process which involved taking the marshmallow ingredients, and running them through tubes
Marshmallow
–
White marshmallows
Marshmallow
–
A marshmallow that has been toasted over an open flame.
Marshmallow
–
Toasting a marshmallow
Marshmallow
–
Marshmallow bunnies in an Easter basket
26.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
Fruit
–
Culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Several
culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Mixed fruit
Fruit
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
27.
Custard
–
Custard is a variety of culinary preparations based on a cooked mixture of milk or cream and egg yolk. Depending on how much egg or thickener is used, custard may vary in consistency from a thin pouring sauce to a thick pastry cream used to fill éclairs, most common custards are used as desserts or dessert sauces and typically include sugar and vanilla. Custard bases may also be used for quiches and other savory foods, sometimes flour, corn starch, or gelatin is added as in pastry cream or crème pâtissière. Custard preparation is an operation, because a temperature increase of 3–6 °C leads to overcooking and curdling. Generally, a fully cooked custard should not exceed 80 °C, a water bath slows heat transfer and makes it easier to remove the custard from the oven before it curdles. Mixtures of milk and eggs thickened by heat have long been part of European cuisine, examples include Crustardes of flessh and Crustade, in the 14th century English collection The Forme of Cury. These recipes include solid ingredients such as meat, fish, stirred custards cooked in pots are also found under the names Creme Boylede and Creme boiled. In modern times, the custard is sometimes applied to starch-thickened preparations like blancmange. While custard may refer to a variety of thickened dishes. Crème pâtissière is a key ingredient in many French desserts including mille-feuille and it is also used in Italian pastry and sometimes in Boston cream pie. Although egg thickens the custard, the effect is minimal, with the majority of thickening resulting from starch, corn flour or flour thicken at 100 °C and as such many recipes instruct the pastry cream to be boiled. Once cooled, the amount of starch in pastry cream sets the cream, when gelatin is added, it is known as crème anglaise collée. When starch is used alone as a thickener, the result is a blancmange, in the United Kingdom, custard has various traditional recipes some thickened principally with cornflour rather than the egg component, others involving regular flour, see custard powder. After the custard has thickened, it may be mixed with other ingredients, mixed with beaten egg whites and gelatin, it is chiboust cream, mixed with whipped cream. Beating in softened butter produces German buttercream or crème mousseline, a quiche is a savoury custard tart. Some kinds of timbale or vegetable loaf are made of a custard base mixed with chopped savoury ingredients, Custard royale is a thick custard cut into decorative shapes and used to garnish soup, stew or broth. In German it is known as Eierstich and is used as a garnish in German Wedding Soup, chawanmushi is a Japanese savoury custard, steamed and served in a small bowl or on a saucer. Chinese steamed egg is a similar but larger savoury egg dish, Custard may also be used as a top layer in gratins, such as the South African bobotie and many Balkan versions of moussaka
Custard
–
A bowl of crème anglaise custard, dusted with nutmeg
Custard
–
A bowl of custard
Custard
–
A formal custard preparation, garnished with raspberries
Custard
–
Layers of a
trifle showing the custard in between
cake, fruit &
whipped cream
28.
Gummy candy
–
Gummy and Gummi redirect here - for namesakes, see Gummy Gummi, gummy, gummies, or jelly candies are a broad category of gelatin-based, chewable sweets. Gummi bears are popular and are a well-known part of the sweets industry. Gummies are available in a variety of shapes including bears, bottles, worms, frogs, hamburgers, sharks, toy soldiers, full-size rats, large human body parts. Various brands such as Haribo, Betty Crocker, Disney and Kelloggs manufacture various forms of Gummi snacks, the candy and the name gummi originated in Germany. Gummies have a history as a popular confectionery. The first gelatin based candy was the bear, introduced by Haribo in 1920. Haribo produces over 80 million bears a day, Disney capitalized on making a television show with gummy based characters for children in 1985 called gummy bears. From then on gummy bears are consumed daily by society as a sweet or sour treat, the gummi bear originated in Germany, where it is popular under the name Gummibär or Gummibärchen. Hans Riegel Sr. a candy maker from Bonn, produced these sweets under the Haribo company, cola bottles are sweets in the shape of classic Coca-Cola-style bottles with a cola flavor. They are produced by numerous companies, fizzy Blue Bottles, made by Lutti, are sweets typically found in a pick and mix selection. These are very similar to cola bottle gummies in shape, but they are sour and coloured blue. Blue Bottles, a variation from another company, are identifiable by the small rims around the sides, ring-shaped gummi candy is often covered in sugar or sour powder. The most common and popular flavor is the peach ring, other flavors include green apple, melon, blue raspberry, strawberry, and aniseed - although these are typically coated in chocolate. A commonly known producer of gummi rings is Trolli, for which the rings are an important asset. In Australia, jelly confectionery in the shape of frogs has been popular since the 1930s. They are colored red or green, although they are referred to as red frogs. These have influenced the shape, structure, consistency and formula that makes gummy bears, in February 2005, following complaints by the New Jersey Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Kraft decided to stop production of the controversial Trolli U. S. Road Kill Gummies. The society complained that the products, shaped as partly flattened squirrels, chickens and snakes, in Australia, jelly confectionery in the shape of teeth has been very popular since the 1930s
Gummy candy
–
Collection of gummy candies at a market
Gummy candy
–
Haribo gummy bears were the first gummi candy ever made.
Gummy candy
–
Junk food-shaped gummi candy
29.
Shooter (mixed drink)
–
A shooter is a neologism for an alcoholic mixed drink that contains 30 millilitres of two or more spirits. Some shooters also have a non-alcoholic ingredient and they are generally drunk quickly, rather than being sipped. Shooters can be shaken, stirred, blended, layered, or simply poured, shot glasses or sherry glasses are the usual drinkware in which shooters are served. They are most commonly served at bars, and some bartenders have their own signature shooter, the ingredients of shooters vary from bartender to bartender and from region to region. Two shooters can have the name but different ingredients, resulting in two very different tastes. U-Boot, a beer mix Irish Car Bomb, a mix of Irish whisky, Mixed shooters Jägerbomb, or Bulldozer, or Blaster, a shot glass with Jägermeister dropped into a glass of half a can of Red Bull. In German speaking countries this drink is called Fliegender Hirsch and it can also be made by filling a shot glass with half Jägermeister and half Red Bull or by placing a shot glass full of Jägermeister at the bottom of a glass and filling with Red Bull. Jägerbomb Switch, Reverse Jägerbomb or Adult Jägerbomb, a glass with Redbull dropped into half a glass of Jägermeister. Geritol, a glass with Grand Marnier dropped into a glass of half a can of Red Bull. It can also be made by filling a glass with half Grand Marnier and half Red Bull or by placing a shot glass full of Grand Marnier at the bottom of a glass. Mixed shooters ABC, equal parts Amaretto, Baileys Irish Cream, arrow Bar, 1/3 creme de menthe, 2/3 Baileys Irish Cream poured over crushed ice and strained. Carrot Cake, equal parts Baileys Irish Cream, Cinnamon Schnapps, alternately made equal parts Baileys Irish Cream, Butterscotch Schnapps, and Goldschlager. Lukes Prediction, Equal parts Drambuie honey-flavored whiskey, Strawberry Flavored vodka, add Baileys Irish Cream last to blend with the rest of the mixture. Baby Guinness, Tia Maria topped by a layer of Baileys Irish Cream poured over the back of a bar spoon to sit atop the Tia Maria. Bloody Brain or Brain Hemorrhage, peach schnapps, with Baileys Irish Cream poured over a bar spoon on top, Blow Job, quarter of a fluid ounce of coffee flavored liquor layered with half a fluid ounce of amaretto liquor. Typically the drink is mixed in a shot glass and topped with whipped cream. An individual picks up the glass with their mouth and tilts their head back to drink it, if the cream is spilled, it may be licked off by a fellow drinker. Can also be done with Baileys, Kahlua and a few drops of strawberry liquor on top, buttery Nipple, equal parts butterscotch schnapps and Irish Cream
Shooter (mixed drink)
–
A
B-52 shooter served in a
shot glass
Shooter (mixed drink)
–
A
sake oyster shooter
Shooter (mixed drink)
–
A Brain Hemorrhage layered shooter.
Shooter (mixed drink)
–
Fermented beverage
30.
Jello shot
–
Jell-O is a registered trademark of Kraft Foods for varieties of gelatin desserts, including fruit gels, puddings and no-bake cream pies. Jell-O is sold prepared or in form, and is available in various colors and flavors. The powder contains powdered gelatin and flavorings, including sugar or artificial sweeteners and it is dissolved in hot water, then chilled and allowed to set. Fruit, vegetables, and whipped cream can be added to make elaborate snacks that can be molded into shapes, Jell-O must be put in a refrigerator until served, and once set, it can be eaten. There are non-gelatin pudding and pie filling products sold under the Jell-O brand, Pudding is cooked on the stove top with milk, then eaten warm or chilled until firmly set. Jell-O has an instant pudding product which is mixed with cold milk, to make pie fillings, the same products are prepared with less liquid. Gelatin, a protein produced from collagen extracted from boiled bones, connective tissues, gelatin was popularized in Bellows Falls in the Victorian era with spectacular and complex jelly moulds. Gelatin was sold in sheets and had to be purified, which was time-consuming, gelatin desserts were the province of royalty and the relatively well-to-do. In 1845, a patent for powdered gelatin was obtained by industrialist Peter Cooper, who built the first American steam-powered locomotive and this powdered gelatin was easy to manufacture and easier to use in cooking. In 1897, in LeRoy, New York, carpenter and cough syrup manufacturer, Pearle Bixby Wait trademarked a gelatin dessert and he and his wife May added strawberry, raspberry, orange and lemon flavoring to granulated gelatin and sugar. Then in 1899, Jell-O was sold to Orator Francis Woodward, part of the legal agreement between Woodward and Wait dealt with the similar Jell-O name. Various elements were key to Jell-O becoming a product, new technologies, such as refrigeration, powdered gelatin and machine packaging, home economics classes. Initially Woodward struggled to sell the powdered product, beginning in 1902, to raise awareness, Woodwards Genesee Pure Food Company placed advertisements in the Ladies Home Journal proclaiming Jell-O to be Americas Most Famous Dessert. Jell-O was a success until 1904, when Genesee Pure Food Company sent armies of salesmen into the field to distribute free Jell-O cookbooks. Within a decade, three new flavors, chocolate, cherry and peach, were added, and the brand was launched in Canada, celebrity testimonials and recipes appeared in advertisements featuring actress Ethel Barrymore and opera singer Ernestine Schumann-Heink. Some Jell-O illustrated advertisements were painted by Maxfield Parrish, in 1923, the newly rechristened Jell-O Company launched D-Zerta, an artificially sweetened version of Jell-O. Two years later, Postum and Genesee merged, and in 1927 Postum acquired Clarence Birdseyes frozen foods company to form the General Foods Corporation, popular Jell-O recipes often included ingredients like cabbage, celery, green peppers, and even cooked pasta. By the 1950s, salads would become so popular that Jell-O responded with savory and vegetable such as celery, Italian, mixed vegetable
Jello shot
–
A variety of packaged gelatin desserts
Jello shot
–
Wood-engraving of "Orange Jellies" garnished with
myrtle leaves, in
Eliza Acton 's
Modern Cookery for Private Families, 1845
Jello shot
–
Packets of
Rowntree's gelatin dessert cubes, known as jelly in the United Kingdom, which are now manufactured by
Hartley's
Jello shot
–
A tray of
gelatin shots prior to refrigeration.
31.
Jell-O
–
Jell-O is a registered trademark of Kraft Foods for varieties of gelatin desserts, including fruit gels, puddings and no-bake cream pies. Jell-O is sold prepared or in form, and is available in various colors and flavors. The powder contains powdered gelatin and flavorings, including sugar or artificial sweeteners and it is dissolved in hot water, then chilled and allowed to set. Fruit, vegetables, and whipped cream can be added to make elaborate snacks that can be molded into shapes, Jell-O must be put in a refrigerator until served, and once set, it can be eaten. There are non-gelatin pudding and pie filling products sold under the Jell-O brand, Pudding is cooked on the stove top with milk, then eaten warm or chilled until firmly set. Jell-O has an instant pudding product which is mixed with cold milk, to make pie fillings, the same products are prepared with less liquid. Gelatin, a protein produced from collagen extracted from boiled bones, connective tissues, gelatin was popularized in Bellows Falls in the Victorian era with spectacular and complex jelly moulds. Gelatin was sold in sheets and had to be purified, which was time-consuming, gelatin desserts were the province of royalty and the relatively well-to-do. In 1845, a patent for powdered gelatin was obtained by industrialist Peter Cooper, who built the first American steam-powered locomotive and this powdered gelatin was easy to manufacture and easier to use in cooking. In 1897, in LeRoy, New York, carpenter and cough syrup manufacturer, Pearle Bixby Wait trademarked a gelatin dessert and he and his wife May added strawberry, raspberry, orange and lemon flavoring to granulated gelatin and sugar. Then in 1899, Jell-O was sold to Orator Francis Woodward, part of the legal agreement between Woodward and Wait dealt with the similar Jell-O name. Various elements were key to Jell-O becoming a product, new technologies, such as refrigeration, powdered gelatin and machine packaging, home economics classes. Initially Woodward struggled to sell the powdered product, beginning in 1902, to raise awareness, Woodwards Genesee Pure Food Company placed advertisements in the Ladies Home Journal proclaiming Jell-O to be Americas Most Famous Dessert. Jell-O was a success until 1904, when Genesee Pure Food Company sent armies of salesmen into the field to distribute free Jell-O cookbooks. Within a decade, three new flavors, chocolate, cherry and peach, were added, and the brand was launched in Canada, celebrity testimonials and recipes appeared in advertisements featuring actress Ethel Barrymore and opera singer Ernestine Schumann-Heink. Some Jell-O illustrated advertisements were painted by Maxfield Parrish, in 1923, the newly rechristened Jell-O Company launched D-Zerta, an artificially sweetened version of Jell-O. Two years later, Postum and Genesee merged, and in 1927 Postum acquired Clarence Birdseyes frozen foods company to form the General Foods Corporation, popular Jell-O recipes often included ingredients like cabbage, celery, green peppers, and even cooked pasta. By the 1950s, salads would become so popular that Jell-O responded with savory and vegetable such as celery, Italian, mixed vegetable
Jell-O
–
Cherry flavor, produced by
Kraft Foods
Jell-O
–
Lime Jell-O
Jell-O
–
Quick, Easy Jell-O Wonder Dishes, Jello-O Cookbook
Jell-O
–
Jell-O Museum, Le Roy, NY, August 2010
32.
Shooter (drink)
–
A shooter is a neologism for an alcoholic mixed drink that contains 30 millilitres of two or more spirits. Some shooters also have a non-alcoholic ingredient and they are generally drunk quickly, rather than being sipped. Shooters can be shaken, stirred, blended, layered, or simply poured, shot glasses or sherry glasses are the usual drinkware in which shooters are served. They are most commonly served at bars, and some bartenders have their own signature shooter, the ingredients of shooters vary from bartender to bartender and from region to region. Two shooters can have the name but different ingredients, resulting in two very different tastes. U-Boot, a beer mix Irish Car Bomb, a mix of Irish whisky, Mixed shooters Jägerbomb, or Bulldozer, or Blaster, a shot glass with Jägermeister dropped into a glass of half a can of Red Bull. In German speaking countries this drink is called Fliegender Hirsch and it can also be made by filling a shot glass with half Jägermeister and half Red Bull or by placing a shot glass full of Jägermeister at the bottom of a glass and filling with Red Bull. Jägerbomb Switch, Reverse Jägerbomb or Adult Jägerbomb, a glass with Redbull dropped into half a glass of Jägermeister. Geritol, a glass with Grand Marnier dropped into a glass of half a can of Red Bull. It can also be made by filling a glass with half Grand Marnier and half Red Bull or by placing a shot glass full of Grand Marnier at the bottom of a glass. Mixed shooters ABC, equal parts Amaretto, Baileys Irish Cream, arrow Bar, 1/3 creme de menthe, 2/3 Baileys Irish Cream poured over crushed ice and strained. Carrot Cake, equal parts Baileys Irish Cream, Cinnamon Schnapps, alternately made equal parts Baileys Irish Cream, Butterscotch Schnapps, and Goldschlager. Lukes Prediction, Equal parts Drambuie honey-flavored whiskey, Strawberry Flavored vodka, add Baileys Irish Cream last to blend with the rest of the mixture. Baby Guinness, Tia Maria topped by a layer of Baileys Irish Cream poured over the back of a bar spoon to sit atop the Tia Maria. Bloody Brain or Brain Hemorrhage, peach schnapps, with Baileys Irish Cream poured over a bar spoon on top, Blow Job, quarter of a fluid ounce of coffee flavored liquor layered with half a fluid ounce of amaretto liquor. Typically the drink is mixed in a shot glass and topped with whipped cream. An individual picks up the glass with their mouth and tilts their head back to drink it, if the cream is spilled, it may be licked off by a fellow drinker. Can also be done with Baileys, Kahlua and a few drops of strawberry liquor on top, buttery Nipple, equal parts butterscotch schnapps and Irish Cream
Shooter (drink)
–
A
B-52 shooter served in a
shot glass
Shooter (drink)
–
A
sake oyster shooter
Shooter (drink)
–
A Brain Hemorrhage layered shooter.
Shooter (drink)
–
Fermented beverage
33.
Distilled beverage
–
This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
Distilled beverage
–
An old
whiskey still
Distilled beverage
–
A display of various distilled beverages in a supermarket
Distilled beverage
–
Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century Greek alchemist
Zosimos of Panopolis, from the
Byzantine Greek manuscript Parisinus graces.
Distilled beverage
–
An illustration of brewing and distilling industry methods in England, 1858
34.
Vodka
–
Vodka is a distilled beverage composed primarily of water and ethanol, sometimes with traces of impurities and flavorings. Traditionally, vodka is made by the distillation of cereal grains or potatoes that have been fermented, though some modern brands use other substances, the European Union has established a minimum of 37. 5% ABV for any European vodka to be named as such. Products sold as vodka in the United States must have an alcohol content of 40%. Even with these restrictions, most vodka sold contains 40% ABV. For homemade vodkas and distilled beverages referred to as moonshine, see moonshine by country, Vodka is traditionally drunk neat, though it is often served chilled in the vodka belt countries. It is also used in cocktails and mixed drinks, such as the vodka martini, Cosmopolitan, vodka tonic, Screwdriver, Greyhound, Black or White Russian, Moscow Mule. The name vodka is a form of the Slavic word voda, interpreted as little water. The word vodka was recorded for the first time in 1405 in Akta Grodzkie, at the time, the word vodka referred to medicines and cosmetic products, while the beverage was called gorzałka, which is also the source of Ukrainian horilka. The word vodka written in Cyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of Kievan Rus. Although the word vodka could be found in manuscripts and in lubok pictograms. It was attested in Sámuel Gyarmathis Russian-German-Hungarian glossary of 1799, where it is glossed with Latin vinum adustum, in English literature the word vodka was attested already in the late 18th century. In a book of his travels published in English in 1780, william Tooke in 1799 glossed vodka as rectified corn-spirits. In French, Théophile Gautier in 1800 glossed it as a grain liquor served with meals in Poland, in Russian during the 17th and 18th centuries, горящѣе вино or горячее вино was widely used. Others languages include the German Branntwein, Danish brændevin, Dutch, brandewijn, Swedish, brännvin, scholars debate the beginnings of vodka. It is an issue because very little historical material is available. For many centuries, beverages differed significantly compared to the vodka of today, as the spirit at that time had a different flavor, color and smell and it contained little alcohol, an estimated maximum of about 14%, as only this amount can be attained by natural fermentation. The still, allowing for distillation, increased purity, and increased alcohol content, was invented in the 8th century, in Poland, vodka has been produced since the early Middle Ages with local traditions as varied as the production of cognac in France, or Scottish whisky. The word written in Cyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of Kievan Rus, in these early days, the spirits were used mostly as medicines
Vodka
–
Selection of vodkas and spirits at a store in
Sanok, Poland
Vodka
–
Belvedere
Vodka
Vodka
35.
Tequila
–
Although tequila is similar to mezcal, modern tequila differs somewhat in the method of its production, in the use of only blue agave plants, as well as in its regional specificity. Tequila is commonly served neat in Mexico and as a shot with salt, the red volcanic soil in the surrounding region is particularly well suited to the growing of the blue agave, and more than 300 million of the plants are harvested there each year. Agave tequila grows differently depending on the region, Blue agaves grown in the highlands Los Altos region are larger in size and sweeter in aroma and taste. Agaves harvested in the lowlands, on the hand, have a more herbaceous fragrance. Mexican laws state that tequila can only be produced in the state of Jalisco and limited municipalities in the states of Guanajuato, Michoacán, Nayarit, Tequila is recognized as a Mexican designation of origin product in more than 40 countries. Tequila is most often made at a 38% alcohol content for domestic consumption, per U. S law, tequila must contain at least 40% alcohol to be sold in the United States. Tequila was first produced in the 16th century near the location of the city of Tequila, the native Chichimeca and otomí had previously made a fermented beverage from the agave plant, long before the Spanish arrived in 1521. When the Spanish conquistadors ran out of their own brandy, they began to distill agave to produce one of North Americas first indigenous distilled spirits. Some 80 years later, around 1600, Don Pedro Sánchez de Tagle, by 1608, the colonial governor of Nueva Galicia had begun to tax his products. Spains King Carlos IV granted the Cuervo family the first license to make tequila. Don Cenobios grandson Don Francisco Javier gained international attention for insisting that there cannot be tequila where there are no agaves and his efforts led to the practice that real tequila can come only from the State of Jalisco. Although some tequilas have remained as family-owned brands, most well-known tequila brands are owned by multinational corporations. However, over 100 distilleries make over 900 brands of tequila in Mexico, due to this, each bottle of tequila contains a serial number depicting in which distillery the tequila was produced. Because only so many distilleries are used, multiple brands of tequila come from the same location, in 2003, Mexico issued a proposal that would require all Mexican-made tequila be bottled in Mexico before being exported to other countries. The Mexican government said that bottling tequila in Mexico would guarantee its quality, on January 17,2006, the United States and Mexico signed an agreement allowing the continued bulk import of tequila into the United States. The agreement also created a tequila bottlers registry to identify approved bottlers of tequila, the Tequila Regulatory Council of Mexico originally did not permit flavored tequila to carry the tequila name. In 2004, the Council decided to allow flavored tequila to be called tequila, with the exception of 100% agave tequila, which still cannot be flavored. A new Norma Oficial Mexicana for tequila was issued in 2006, a one-liter bottle of limited-edition premium tequila was sold for $225,000 in July 2006 in Tequila, Jalisco, by the company Tequila Ley.925
Tequila
–
Fields that form part of the
UNESCO World Heritage Site Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila.
Tequila
–
From left to right, examples of plata, reposado and añejo tequila
Tequila
–
A distillery oven loaded with agave piñas or "pineapples", the first step in the production of tequila post harvest.
Tequila
–
A tahona, large stone wheel, at the Hacienda Doña Engracia that was used to crush the piña. Large, modern distilleries commonly complete this process mechanically.
36.
Neutral grain spirit
–
In some countries, denatured alcohol or denatured rectified spirit may commonly be available as rectified spirit, but this is poisonous and depending on ones body size, ingestion can be fatal. It typically contains 95% alcohol by volume, neutral spirits can be produced from grain, corn, grapes, sugar beets, sugarcane, tuber, or other fermented plant material. In particular, large quantities of alcohol are distilled from wine. Such a product made from grain is grain neutral spirit, while such a spirit made from grapes is called grape neutral spirit, neutral spirits are used in the production of blended whisky, cut brandy, some liqueurs, and some bitters. As a consumer product, it is almost always mixed with other beverages to create such drinks as punch and it is also used to make homemade liqueurs, such as limoncello, and in cooking because its high concentration of alcohol acts as a solvent to extract flavors. Rectified spirits are used for medicinal tinctures, and as a household solvent. It is sometimes drunk undiluted, however as the alcohol is very high-proof, neutral spirit is legally defined as spirit distilled from any material distilled at or above 95% ABV and bottled at or above 40% ABV. When the term is used in an informal context rather than as a term of U. S. law, availability of neutral spirit for retail purchase varies between states. States where consumer sales of spirit are prohibited include Minnesota, Florida, Maine, Ohio, Nevada, North Carolina. In Virginia, the purchase of neutral spirits requires a no-cost Grain Alcohol Permit, issued strictly for industrial, commercial, in German, rectified spirit is generically called Primasprit or, more technically, Neutralalkohol. It contains 95. 6% alcohol and is available in pharmacies, bigger supermarkets, in the former East Germany, it was available in regular stores. In Germany, Primasprit is most often used for making homemade liqueurs, most of the Primasprit produced in Germany is made from grain and is therefore a neutral grain spirit
Neutral grain spirit
–
Rectified spirit made by
Polmos
37.
Tom Lehrer
–
Thomas Andrew Tom Lehrer is a retired American singer-songwriter, satirist, and mathematician. He has lectured on mathematics and musical theater and he is best known for the pithy, humorous songs he recorded in the 1950s and 60s. His work often parodies popular song forms, though he usually creates original melodies when doing so, a notable exception is The Elements, where he sets the names of the chemical elements to the tune of the Major-Generals song from Gilbert and Sullivans Pirates of Penzance. Lehrers early work dealt with non-topical subject matter and was noted for its black humor in songs such as Poisoning Pigeons in the Park. In the 1960s, he produced a number of songs dealing with social and political issues of the day, particularly when he wrote for the U. S. version of the television show That Was the Week That Was. Despite their topical subjects and references, the popularity of songs has endured, Lehrer quoted a friends explanation, Always predict the worst. In the early 1970s, he retired from public performances to devote his time to teaching mathematics and music theatre at the University of California. Lehrer was born in 1928 to a Jewish family and grew up in Manhattans Upper East Side, although he was raised Jewish, Lehrer became an agnostic. He began studying piano at the age of seven, but was more interested in the popular music of the age. Eventually, his mother sent him to a popular-music piano teacher. Lehrer attended the Horace Mann School in Riverdale, New York and he also attended Camp Androscoggin, both as a camper and a counselor. Lehrer was considered a prodigy and entered Harvard College at the age of 15 after graduating from Loomis Chaffee School. As a mathematics student at Harvard College, he began to write comic songs to entertain his friends, including Fight Fiercely. Those songs were later named The Physical Revue, a reference to a leading scientific journal. Lehrer earned his Bachelor of Arts in mathematics from Harvard University in 1946 and he received his MA degree the next year, and was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa. He taught classes at MIT, Harvard, Wellesley, and the University of California and he remained in Harvards doctoral program for several years, taking time out for his musical career and to work as a researcher at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. He served in the U. S. Army from 1955 to 1957 and these experiences became fodder for songs, e. g. Fight Fiercely, Harvard, The Wild West Is Where I Want to Be and It Makes a Fellow Proud to Be a Soldier. From 1962, he taught in the science department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Tom Lehrer
–
Lehrer performing in 1960
38.
National Security Agency
–
NSA is concurrently charged with protection of U. S. government communications and information systems against penetration and network warfare. Moreover, NSA maintains physical presence in a number of countries across the globe. SCS collection tactics allegedly encompass close surveillance, burglary, wiretapping, breaking and entering, additionally, the NSA Director simultaneously serves as the Commander of the United States Cyber Command and as Chief of the Central Security Service. Originating as a unit to decipher coded communications in World War II, NSA surveillance has been a matter of political controversy on several occasions, such as its spying on anti-Vietnam-war leaders or economic espionage. In 2013, the extent of some of the NSAs secret surveillance programs was revealed to the public by Edward Snowden, internationally, research has pointed to the NSAs ability to surveil the domestic Internet traffic of foreign countries through boomerang routing. The origins of the National Security Agency can be traced back to April 28,1917, a code and cipher decryption unit was established as the Cable and Telegraph Section which was also known as the Cipher Bureau. It was headquartered in Washington, D. C. and was part of the war effort under the executive branch without direct Congressional authorization, during the course of the war it was relocated in the armys organizational chart several times. On July 5,1917, Herbert O. Yardley was assigned to head the unit, at that point, the unit consisted of Yardley and two civilian clerks. It absorbed the navys cryptoanalysis functions in July 1918, World War I ended on November 11,1918, and MI-8 moved to New York City on May 20,1919, where it continued intelligence activities as the Code Compilation Company under the direction of Yardley. MI-8 also operated the so-called Black Chamber, the Black Chamber was located on East 37th Street in Manhattan. Its purpose was to crack the codes of foreign governments. Other Black Chambers were also found in Europe, during World War II, the Signal Security Agency was created to intercept and decipher the communications of the Axis powers. When the war ended, the SSA was reorganized as the Army Security Agency, on May 20,1949, all cryptologic activities were centralized under a national organization called the Armed Forces Security Agency. This organization was established within the U. S. Department of Defense under the command of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The AFSA was tasked to direct Department of Defense communications and electronic intelligence activities, in December 1951, President Harry S. Truman ordered a panel to investigate how AFSA had failed to achieve its goals. The results of the led to improvements and its redesignation as the National Security Agency. The agency was established by Truman in a memorandum of October 24,1952. Since President Trumans memo was a document, the existence of the NSA was not known to the public at that time
National Security Agency
–
After
Osama bin Laden moved to
Afghanistan in the 1980s, the NSA recorded all of his phone calls via
satellite, logging over 2,000 minutes of conversation
National Security Agency
–
Seal of the National Security Agency
National Security Agency
–
Keith B. Alexander, the former director of the National Security Agency
National Security Agency
–
Defense Security Service (DSS) polygraph brochure given to NSA applicants
39.
Jerry Thomas (bartender)
–
Jeremiah P. Thomas was an American bartender who owned and operated saloons in New York City. Because of his work in popularizing cocktails across the United States as well. In addition to writing the work on cocktails, Thomas displayed creativity and showmanship while preparing drinks. As such, he was often nicknamed Professor Jerry Thomas, Thomas was born about 1830 in Sackets Harbor, New York. As a young man, he learned bartending in New Haven, while in California, Thomas worked as a bartender, gold prospector and minstrel show manager. According to his 1885 obituary, he was some money by his father. Thomas moved back to the East Coast in 1851, settling in New York City and he opened a saloon below Barnums American Museum, it would be the first of four saloons he would run in New York City over his lifetime. At one point he toured Europe, carrying along a set of bar tools. He was well known for his showmanship as a bartender, he developed elaborate and flashy techniques of mixing cocktails, sometimes while juggling bottles, cups and he often wore flashy jewelry and had his bar tools and cups embellished with precious stones and metals. At the Occidental Hotel in San Francisco, Thomas was earning $100 a week—more than the Vice President of the United States, in 1862, Thomas finished Bar-Tenders Guide, the first drink book ever published in the United States. He would update it several times in his lifetime to include new drinks that he discovered or created. The first edition of the guide included the first written recipes of such cocktails as the Brandy Daisy, Fizz, Flip, Sour and variations of the earliest form of mixed drink, Punch. The 1876 edition included the first written recipe for the Tom Collins, Thomas developed his signature drink, the Blue Blazer, at the El Dorado gambling saloon in San Francisco. The drink is made by lighting whiskey afire and passing it back, Thomas continued to develop new drinks throughout his life. His mixing of the Martinez, which recipe was published in the 1887 edition of his guide, has sometimes been viewed as a precursor to the modern martini. Thomas claimed to have invented the Tom and Jerry and did much to popularize it in the United States, however, upon returning to New York City, he became head bartender at the Metropolitan hotel. In 1866 he opened his own bar again, on Broadway between 21st and 22nd Streets, which became his most famous establishment, Thomas was one of the first to display the drawings of Thomas Nast. In his saloon he hung Nasts caricatures of the political and theatrical figures, one notable drawing and this historic bar has been adapted for use as a Restoration Hardware store
Jerry Thomas (bartender)
–
Thomas mixing his signature drink:
The Blue Blazer
40.
Agar
–
Agar or agar-agar is a jelly-like substance, equivalent to vegan gelatin, obtained from algae. It was discovered in the late 1650s or early 1660s, by Mino Tarōzaemon in Japan, where it is called kanten. Agar is derived from the polysaccharide agarose, which forms the structure in the cell walls of certain species of algae. These algae are known as agarophytes and belong to the Rhodophyta phylum, Agar is actually the resulting mixture of two components, the linear polysaccharide agarose, and a heterogeneous mixture of smaller molecules called agaropectin. Throughout history into modern times, agar has been used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia. The gelling agent in agar is an unbranched polysaccharide obtained from the walls of some species of red algae, primarily from the genera Gelidium. For commercial purposes, it is derived primarily from Gelidium amansii, in chemical terms, agar is a polymer made up of subunits of the sugar galactose. Agar was discovered in Japan in 1658 by Mino Tarōzaemon, an innkeeper who was said to have discarded surplus seaweed soup, over the following centuries, agar became a common gelling agent in several Southeast Asian cuisines. Agar was first subjected to analysis in 1859 by the French chemist Anselme Payen. Beginning in the late 19th century, agar began to be used heavily as a medium for growing various microbes. Agar was first described for use in microbiology in 1882 by the German microbiologist Walther Hesse, Agar quickly supplanted gelatin as the base of microbiological media, due to its higher melting temperature, allowing microbes to be grown at higher temperatures without the media liquefying. With its newfound use in microbiology, agar production quickly increased and this production centered on Japan which produced most of the worlds agar until World War II. However, with the outbreak of World War II many nations were forced to establish domestic agar industries in order to continue microbiological research, around the time of World War II, approximately 2,500 tons of agar were produced annually. By the mid-1970s, production worldwide had increased dramatically to approximately 10,000 tons each year, since then, production of agar has fluctuated due to unstable and sometimes over-utilized seaweed populations. The word agar comes from agar-agar, the Malay name for red algae from which the jelly is produced and it is also known as Kanten, Japanese isinglass, Ceylon moss or Jaffna moss. Gracilaria lichenoides is specifically referred to as agal-agal or Ceylon agar, Agar consists of a mixture of two polysaccharides, agarose and agaropectin, with agarose making up about 70% of the mixture. Agarose is a polymer, made up of repeating units of agarobiose. Agar exhibits hysteresis, melting at 85 °C and solidifying from 32–40 °C and this property lends a suitable balance between easy melting and good gel stability at relatively high temperatures
Agar
–
Culinary usage:
Mizu yōkan - a popular Japanese
red bean jelly made from agar
Agar
–
Scientific usage: A
blood agar plate used to culture bacteria and diagnose infection.
Agar
–
100mm diameter
Petri dishes containing agar gel for bacterial culture
Agar
–
Physcomitrella patens plants growing
axenically in vitro on
agar plates (
Petri dish, 9 cm diameter).
41.
Gulaman
–
Gulaman, in Philippine cuisine, refers to the bars of dried seaweed used to make jellies or flan, as well as the desserts made from it. Agarose or agar is made of processed seaweed, mostly from Gelidium corneum—one of the most common edible alga, aside from the gulaman jelly bars, gulaman also comes in jelly powder form. It has also come to refer to the refreshment or dessert, sometimes referred to as samalamig or sagot gulaman, sold at roadside stalls and this drink consists of gulaman cubes and/or sago or tapioca pearls suspended in milk, fruit juice or brown-sugar water flavored with pandan leaves. It is also sold commercially as Pearl Shakes, the term gelatine and gulaman are used synonymously in the Philippines, although they are very different products. While gelatine is a protein, gulaman is a plant-derived carbohydrate and this distinction makes gulaman suitable for those who may not eat gelatine for religious or cultural reasons, such as Muslims. Gelatine dissolves in hot water but boiling water is necessary to dissolve gulaman, unlike gelatine which sets at refrigerator temperature, gulaman sets at room temperature. While gelatine can melt at room temperature, it is uniquely thermo-reversible to its previous shape, when used in desserts, gulaman produces a firm-textured product
Gulaman
–
Sago at gulaman
Gulaman
–
Guinomis (
Hiligaynon for Sago at gulaman)
Gulaman
–
Sago at gulaman (foreground) and
halo-halo.
42.
Pectin
–
Pectin is a structural heteropolysaccharide contained in the primary cell walls of terrestrial plants. It was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot and it is produced commercially as a white to light brown powder, mainly extracted from citrus fruits, and is used in food as a gelling agent, particularly in jams and jellies. It is also used in dessert fillings, medicines, sweets, as a stabilizer in fruit juices and milk drinks, and as a source of dietary fiber. In plant biology, pectin consists of a set of polysaccharides that are present in most primary cell walls and are particularly abundant in the non-woody parts of terrestrial plants. Pectin is a component of the middle lamella, where it helps to bind cells together. The amount, structure and chemical composition of pectin differs among plants, within a plant over time, Pectin is an important cell wall polysaccharide that allows primary cell wall extension and plant growth. A similar process of cell separation caused by the breakdown of pectin occurs in the zone of the petioles of deciduous plants at leaf fall. Pectin is a part of the human diet, but does not contribute significantly to nutrition. The daily intake of pectin from fruits and vegetables can be estimated to be around 5 g, in human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble dietary fiber, Pectin has been observed to have DNA repair properties. Pectinaceous surface pellicles, which are rich in pectin, create a layer that holds in dew that helps the cell repair its DNA. Consumption of pectin has been shown to reduce cholesterol levels. The mechanism appears to be an increase of viscosity in the intestinal tract, in the large intestine and colon, microorganisms degrade pectin and liberate short-chain fatty acids that have positive influence on health. A study found a mean of 4.5 ppm methanol in the breath of subjects. The mean endogenous methanol production in humans of 0.45 g/d may be metabolized from pectin found in fruit, methanol is poisonous to the central nervous system and may cause blindness, coma, and death. However, in amounts, methanol is a natural endogenous compound found in normal. Pectins, also known as polysaccharides, are rich in galacturonic acid. Several distinct polysaccharides have been identified and characterised within the pectic group, homogalacturonans are linear chains of α--linked D-galacturonic acid
Pectin
–
Pectin, a bio polymer of (among other constituents)
D-galacturonic acid, shown here in a powder form.
43.
Carbohydrate
–
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
Carbohydrate
–
Grain products: rich sources of carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
44.
Red algae
–
The red algae, or Rhodophyta, are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae. The Rhodophyta also contains one of the largest phyla of algae, the majority of species are found in the Florideophyceae, and consist of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. Approximately 5% of the red algae occur in freshwater environments, red algae store sugars as floridean starch, which is a type of starch that consists of highly branched amylopectin without amylose, as food reserves outside their plastids. Most red algae are multicellular, macroscopic, marine. The red algal life history is typically an alternation of generations that may have three rather than two. Chloroplasts evolved following an event between an ancestral, photosynthetic cyanobacterium and an early eukarytoic Phagotroph. This event resulted in the origin of the red and Green algae, and the Glaucophytes, a secondary endosymbiosis event involving an ancestral red alga and a heterotrophic eukaryote resulted in the evolution and diversification of several other photosynthetic lineages. The coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play a role in building coral reefs. Red algae such as dulse and laver are a part of European and Asian cuisines and are used to make other products such as agar, carrageenans. Unicellular members of the Cyanidiophyceae are thermoacidophiles and are found in hot springs. The remaining taxa are found in marine and freshwater environments, most rhodophytes are marine with a worldwide distribution, and are often found at greater depths compared to other seaweeds because of dominance in certain pigments within their chloroplasts. Some marine species are found on sandy shores, while most others can be attached to rocky substrata. A few freshwater species are found in waters with sandy bottoms. Bangiomorpha pubescens, a fossil from arctic Canada, strongly resembles the modern red alga Bangia despite occurring in rocks dating to 1.2 billion years ago. Two kinds of fossils resembling red algae were found sometime between 2006 and 2011 in well-preserved sedimentary rocks in Chitrakoot, central India, red algae are important builders of limestone reefs. The earliest such coralline algae, the solenopores, are known from the Cambrian period, other algae of different origins filled a similar role in the late Paleozoic, and in more recent reefs. Calcite crusts that have been interpreted as the remains of red algae. Thallophytes resembling coralline red algae are known from the late Proterozoic Doushantuo formation, in the system of Adl et al
Red algae
–
Had'n
Red algae
–
Some red algae are
iridescent when not covered with water
45.
Veganism
–
Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of either the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan, distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who not only follow a diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives. Donald Watson coined the term vegan in 1944 when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England, at first he used it to mean non-dairy vegetarian, but from 1951 the society defined it as the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals. Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s, more vegan stores opened, and vegan options became increasingly available in supermarkets and restaurants in many countries. Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease and they are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. The German Society for Nutrition cautions against vegan diets for children, because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12, researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement. The origin of the English term vegetarian is unknown, the earliest known use is attributed to the actress Fanny Kemble, writing around 1839 in Georgia in the United States. The practice can be traced to Indus valley civilization in 3300 -1300 BCE Ancient India, the earliest known vegan was the Arab poet Al-Maʿarri. Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century England and the United States, a minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely. Lambe called animal food an habitual irritation, and argued that ilk eating and flesh eating are but branches of a common system, and they must stand or fall together. Sylvester Grahams meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, several vegan communities were established around this time. In 1843 members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food, led by Sophia Chichester, Alcott House also helped to establish the British Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent. Belongs to the more moderate division. The first known vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldons No Animal Food, the consumption of milk and eggs became a battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger, it appears from the pages that many opponents of veganism came from within the vegetarian community. This lent support to the position, although Gandhi himself drank goats milk
Veganism
–
Clockwise from top left:
Seitan pizza; roasted
sprouts,
tofu and pasta; cocoa–avocado
brownies; leeks and beans with dumplings.
Veganism
Veganism
Veganism
46.
Vegetarians
–
Vegetarianism /vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat, and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons, many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs, as well as animal rights advocacy, other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or personal preference. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs and dairy, some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax, leather or silk clothing, and goose-fat shoe polish. Often, prior to purchase or consumption, vegetarians will scrutinize products for animal-derived ingredients, vegetarians feelings vary with regard to these ingredients. Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats and those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism. A pescetarian diet has been described as fish but no other meat, the term vegetarian has been in use since 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable diet. The word is believed to be a compound of vegetable. The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester, the earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House, a school on the north side of Ham Common, London, opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from Indus Valley Civilization as early as the 7th century BCE, in the Indian culture, the diet was closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes vegetarianism, chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, through couplets 251 to 260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians and others, it had medical or ritual purification purposes and those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt, one animal is not to be fed to another. —Edicts of Ashoka, Fifth Pillar Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did on other continents, except India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons and it re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, in 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the century as a result of nutritional, ethical
Vegetarians
–
Vegetarianism
Vegetarians
–
A variety of
vegan and vegetarian
deli foods.
Vegetarians
–
Roadside café near
Kullu, India.
Vegetarians
–
A fruit stall in
Barcelona
47.
Carrageenan
–
Carrageenans or carrageenins are a family of linear sulphated polysaccharides that are extracted from red edible seaweeds. They are widely used in the industry, for their gelling, thickening. Their main application is in dairy and meat products, due to their binding to food proteins. There are three varieties of carrageenan, which differ in their degree of sulphation. Kappa-carrageenan has one group per disaccharide, Iota-carrageenan has two, and Lambda-carrageenan has three. Gelatinous extracts of the Chondrus crispus seaweed have been used as food additives since approximately the fifteenth century, carrageenan is a vegetarian and vegan alternative to gelatin in some applications or may be used to replace gelatin in confectionery. Carrageenans are large, highly flexible molecules that curl forming helical structures and this gives them the ability to form a variety of different gels at room temperature. They are widely used in the food and other industries as thickening and stabilizing agents, all carrageenans are high-molecular-weight polysaccharides made up of repeating galactose units and 3,6 anhydrogalactose, both sulfated and nonsulfated. The units are joined by alternating α-1,3 and β-1,4 glycosidic linkages, there are three main commercial classes of carrageenan, Kappa forms strong, rigid gels in the presence of potassium ions, it reacts with dairy proteins. It is sourced mainly from Kappaphycus alvarezii, iota forms soft gels in the presence of calcium ions. It is produced mainly from Eucheuma denticulatum, lambda does not gel, and is used to thicken dairy products. The primary differences that influence the properties of kappa, iota, higher levels of ester sulfate lower the solubility temperature of the carrageenan and produce lower strength gels, or contribute to gel inhibition. Many red algal species produce different types of carrageenans during their developmental history, for instance, the genus Gigartina produces mainly kappa carrageenans during its gametophytic stage, and lambda carrageenans during its sporophytic stage. All are soluble in hot water, but in cold water, when used in food products, carrageenan has the EU additive E-number E407 or E407a when present as processed eucheuma seaweed. Technically carrageenan is considered a dietary fibre, the end-product is a kind of jelly similar to pannacotta, tapioca, or blancmange. 5oz rinsed Irish moss is cooked with 8 quarts of water for 10 minutes, hard water should be mixed with 1/2 oz of borax. Two quarts of water are rapidly added to the hot brew. It is then cooled for 24 hours and becomes gelatinous, as of 2011, global sales of carrageenan were estimated at $640 million
Carrageenan
–
Eucheuma denticulatum being farmed for iota-carrageenan in an off-bottom cultivation in Tanzania.
Carrageenan
–
The molecular structures of different types of carrageenan
48.
Kosher
–
Kashrut is a set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to halakha is termed kosher /ˈkoʊʃər/ in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér, there are also laws regarding agricultural produce that might impact the suitability of food for consumption. Most of the laws of kashrut are derived from the Torahs Books of Leviticus. Their details and practical application, however, are set down in the oral law, while the Torah does not state the rationale for most kashrut laws, many reasons have been suggested, including philosophical, practical and hygienic. Over the past century, there have developed numerous rabbinical organizations that certify products, manufacturers, currently, about a sixth of American Jews or 0. 3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more abstain from some non-kosher foods, especially pork. Some Jewish scholars say that kashrut should be categorized as laws for which there is no particular explanation, in this line of thinking, the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of Gods authority, and man must obey without asking why. However, Maimonides believed that Jews were permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah, some theologians have said that the laws of kashrut are symbolic in character, Kosher animals represent virtues, while non-kosher animals represent vices. The 1st century BCE Letter of Aristeas argues that the laws have been given, to awake pious thoughts and to form the character. This view reappears in the work of the 19th century Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, the Torah prohibits seething the kid in its mothers milk. While the Bible does not provide a reason, it has suggested that the practice was perceived as cruel. These sparks of Holiness are released whenever a Jew manipulates any object for a reason, however. The Hasidic argument is that animals are imbued with signs that reveal the release of these sparks, in 1953, David Macht, an Orthodox Jew and proponent of the theory of biblical scientific foresight, conducted toxicity experiments on many kinds of animals and fish. At the same time, these explanations are controversial, scholar Lester L. Grabbe, writing in the Oxford Bible Commentary on Leviticus, says n explanation now almost universally rejected is that the laws in this section have hygiene as their basis. Although some of the laws of ritual purity roughly correspond to ideas of physical cleanliness. For example, there is no evidence that the animals are intrinsically bad to eat or to be avoided in a Mediterranean climate. The laws of kashrut can be classified according to the origin of the prohibition, biblically prohibited foods include, Non-kosher animals and birds, mammals require certain identifying characteristics, while birds require a tradition that they can be consumed. All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition, no reptiles or amphibians are kosher. Carrion, meat from an animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of shechita
Kosher
–
Kosher meal approved by the
Beth din of
Johannesburg
Cookbook: Gelatin dessert 
Media: Gelatin dessert
