1.
Ice cream
–
Ice cream is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It is usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream and it is typically sweetened with sugar or sugar substitutes. Typically, flavourings and colourings are added in addition to stabilizers, the mixture is stirred to incorporate air spaces and cooled below the freezing point of water to prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. The result is a smooth, semi-solid foam that is solid at low temperatures. It becomes more malleable as its temperature increases, the meaning of the phrase ice cream varies from one country to another. Phrases such as frozen custard, frozen yogurt, sorbet, gelato, products that do not meet the criteria to be called ice cream are labelled frozen dairy dessert instead. In other countries, such as Italy and Argentina, one word is used for all variants, analogues made from dairy alternatives, such as goats or sheeps milk, or milk substitutes, are available for those who are lactose intolerant, allergic to dairy protein, or vegan. Ice cream may be served in dishes, for eating with a spoon, or in cones, Ice cream may be served with other desserts, such as apple pie. Ice cream is used to other desserts, including ice cream floats, sundaes, milkshakes, ice cream cakes and even baked items. During the 5th century BC, ancient Greeks ate snow mixed with honey, the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates, encouraged his Ancient Greek patients to eat ice as it livens the life-juices and increases the well-being. In 400 BC, the Persians invented a special chilled food, made of water and vermicelli. The ice was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavours, a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC. The Roman Emperor Nero had ice brought from the mountains and combined it with fruit toppings to create chilled delicacies, in the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets. When Italian duchess Catherine de Medici married the Duke of Orléans in 1533, there is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century. The first recipe in French for flavoured ices appears in 1674, recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latinis Lo Scalco alla Moderna. Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialots Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits, Massialots recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the consistency of sugar. Ice cream recipes first appeared in England in the 18th century, the recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Ealess Receipts in London in 1718
Ice cream
–
A
cocktail glass of ice cream, with
whipped cream and a wafer
Ice cream
–
A
yakhchal, an ancient type of ice house, in
Yazd,
Iran
Ice cream
–
Italian duchess
Catherine de' Medici, credited with introducing ice cream into Europe in the 16th century
Ice cream
–
Title page to The Art of Cookery by
Hannah Glasse
2.
Sicily
–
Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
Sicily
–
Mount Etna rising over suburbs of Catania
Sicily
–
Sicily Sicilia
Sicily
–
Sicilian landscape
Sicily
–
Location of the
Salso
3.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
4.
Milk
–
Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
Milk
–
A glass of
pasteurized cow's milk
Milk
–
A human baby feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
A
goat kid feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
Holstein cattle, the dominant breed in industrialized dairying today
5.
Cream
–
Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location
Cream
–
A milk bottle showing cream risen to the top
Cream
–
Stewed
nectarines and heavy cream
Cream
–
Meiji whipping cream
6.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
Sugar
–
Closeup of raw (unrefined, unbleached) sugar
Sugar
–
Ant feeding on sugar crystals.
Sugar
–
Sugar cane plantation
Sugar
–
Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary, by
George Flegel, first half of 17th century
7.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
Fruit
–
Culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Several
culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Mixed fruit
Fruit
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
8.
Nut (fruit)
–
A nut is a fruit composed of a hard shell and a seed, which is generally edible. In a general context, however, a variety of dried seeds are called nuts. The translation of nut in certain languages frequently requires paraphrases, as the word is ambiguous. Most seeds come from fruits that naturally free themselves from the shell, unlike nuts such as hazelnuts, chestnuts, and acorns, which have hard shell walls and originate from a compound ovary. The general and original usage of the term is less restrictive, and many nuts, such as almonds, pecans, pistachios, walnuts, common usage of the term often refers to any hard-walled, edible kernel as a nut. A nut in botany is a dry fruit with one seed in which the ovary wall becomes increasingly hard as it matures. Most nuts come from the pistils with inferior ovaries and all are indehiscent, true nuts are produced, for example, by some plant families of the order Fagales. Order Fagales Family Fagaceae Beech Chestnut Oak Stone-oak Tanoak Family Betulaceae Hazel, in botany, this term specifically refers to a pyrena or pyrene, which is a seed covered by a stony layer, such as the kernel of a drupe. Walnuts and hickories have fruits that are difficult to classify and they are considered to be nuts under some definitions, but are also referred to as drupaceous nuts. Tryma is a term for hickory fruits. In common use, a nut is, as the name implies. This most often comes up regarding allergies, where people are allergic specifically to peanuts. A nut in cuisine is a less restrictive category than a nut in botany. Any large, oily kernels found within a shell and used in food are called nuts. Nuts are an important source of nutrients for humans and wildlife. Because nuts generally have an oil content, they are a highly prized food. A large number of seeds are edible by humans and used in cooking, eaten raw, sprouted, or roasted as a food, or pressed for oil that is used in cookery. Nuts are also a significant source of nutrition for wildlife, Nuts used for food, whether true nut or not, are among the most common food allergens
Nut (fruit)
–
Chestnuts are both botanical and culinary nuts.
Nut (fruit)
–
A
walnut, left, and its seed, right, having been removed from its pericarp.
Nut (fruit)
–
Korean Pine seeds — unshelled, and shell, above; shelled, below
Nut (fruit)
–
Raw
mixed nuts, sold as a snack food. This is a "fancy" mix, meaning that it does not include peanuts.
9.
Butterfat
–
Butterfat or milkfat is the fatty portion of milk. Milk and cream are sold according to the amount of butterfat they contain. The fatty acids of butterfat are typically composed as follows, As shown above, fatty acids do not occur as such in milk. Instead, they are incorporated into compounds called triglycerides, in the U. S. there are federal standards for butterfat content of dairy products. Many other countries also have standards for minimum fat levels in dairy products, commercial products generally contain the minimum legal amount of fat with any excess being removed to make cream, a valuable commodity
Butterfat
–
Butterfat is a
triglyceride (a fat) derived from fatty acids such as myristic, palmitic, and oleic acids.
10.
Ancient Rome
–
In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Rome
–
Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Rome
–
Roman Republic
Ancient Rome
–
According to legend,
Rome was founded in 753 BC by
Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Rome
–
This bust from the
Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of
Lucius Junius Brutus.
11.
Egypt
–
Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
Egypt
–
The
Giza Necropolis is the oldest of the
ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence.
Egypt
–
Flag
Egypt
–
The Greek Ptolemaic queen
Cleopatra VII and her son by Julius Caesar,
Caesarion at the
Temple of Dendera.
Egypt
–
The 1803
Cedid Atlas, showing
Ottoman Egypt.
12.
Italians
–
Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
Italians
–
Amerigo Vespucci, the notable geographer and traveller from whose name the word
America is derived.
Italians
Italians
–
Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of the
New World.
Italians
–
Laura Bassi, the first chairwoman of a university in a scientific field of studies.
13.
Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli
–
Procopio Cutò, or Francesco Procopio Cutò or Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli was an Italian chef from Sicily. Billing himself as a modern Procopius, he founded in 1686 what has become the oldest extant cafe in Paris and it became the first literary coffeehouse in Paris. For over 200 years the cafe-restaurant attracted notables in the world of arts, politics, some sources say Procopio was born near Mount Etna in Sicily around the town of Aci Trezza. Other sources say he was born at or near Palermo, Sicily, a certificate of baptism of 10 February 1651 has been found in the archives of the parish church of SantIppolito in Palermo, one day after the birth of Procopio. The document shows his first name as Francesco and his surname as Cutò, a third possibility is that he was born near Palermo and lived in Aci Trezza for a period of time. Procopio received his name of dei Coltelli from the French, who misunderstood his Sicilian family name of Cutò, hence, translating back into Italian gives Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli, the other name he is known by. Francesco Procopio are his forenames, Francesco was his grandfathers name, Procopio married Marguerite Crouin in 1675 in the church of Saint Sulpice. The marriage record shows the witnesses as his father Onofrio Cutò, Procopio and Marguerite had eight children during their long marriage before Procopio became a widower. Procopio played in the snow when he was a boy, the snow was mixed with fruit juices and honey to make a type of sorbet. This type of ice cream was eaten by both aristocrats and by peasants. This is where Procopio got the idea of developing gelato, the history of gelato shows Procopio as a most influential person in promoting this new food. Procopio worked first as a fisherman like his father Onofrio and his grandfather Francesco, becoming part of Procopios name, was also a fisherman from Aci Trezza who built gelatiere machines part-time, when he was not fishing. Francesco eventually left his invention to Procopio as an inheritance, Procopio tinkered with his grandfathers ice cream machine making various improvements. Procopio eventually felt that he had developed a machine that would produce gelato on a large scale and he left Sicily and went to France by way of Italy. Procopio acquired the skills to become a cook, possibly in Palermo on his way to France, Procopio arrived in Paris sometime between 1670 and 1674. Pascals attempt at such a business in Paris was not successful and he went to London in 1675, leaving the stall to Procopio who took it over, and later moved to rue des Fossés Saint Germain. Procopio had learned in about 1680 how to make a beverage of ice made of lemonade using salt to lower its temperature and this gave him exclusive rights to these unique sweet and cool products from his kiosk booth at Foire Saint Germain. Prior to Procopio arriving in France there had been other cafés there, some were referred to as lemonade stands, meaning they sold various cold drinks including lemonade
Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli
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Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli
Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli
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Founded
Café Procope in Paris in 1686.
14.
Varese
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Varese is a city and comune in north-western Lombardy, northern Italy,55 kilometres north of Milan. It is the capital of the Province of Varese, the hinterland or urban part of the city is called Varesotto. The city of Varese lies at the feet of Sacro Monte di Varese, part of the Campo dei Fiori mountain range, that hosts an astronomical observatory, as well as the Prealpino Geophysical Centre. The village which is in the middle of the mountain is called Santa Maria del Monte because of the medieval sanctuary, which is reached through the avenue of the chapels of the Sacred Mountain. Varese is situated on seven hills, the San Pedrino Hill, the Giubiano Hill, the Campigli Hill, the SantAlbino Hill, the Biumo Superiore Hill, Colle di Montalbano, the city also looks over Lake Varese. Vareses winters are less mitigated by the proximity of the Lago Maggiore, low temperatures in the late autumn and winter frequently go down a few degrees below zero. This differentiates it from south of the city. As in other cities in the foothills of Lombardy, fog is an infrequent phenomenon, Varese is on average cooler than other cities of the Lombard Prealps, especially in winter. The rainfall of Varese is among the highest in Italy, with more than 1,500 millimetres of annual average, in winter, snow falls quite frequently, especially in January. Varese, like the province, has a high immigrant population owing to both its economy and its location. In 1859, Giuseppe Garibaldi confronted Austrian forces led by Field Marshal-Lieutenant Carl Baron Urban near Varese, also, it was here where Alessandro Marchettis Savoia-Marchetti SM.93 made his first test flights. In particular, the movements are incoming and internally to Varese. In the average weekday over 113,000 vehicles enter in Varese, the most used form of transportation in Varese is the private vehicle, followed by the local public transport. The A8 motorway connects Varese with Milan and this motorway was part of the first toll road system in the world. The city has also a Ring Road System, Vareses Ring Road, consists of a road currently in operation, many important statal and provincial roads pass through Varese. The entire rail network serving the capital is electrified, in addition, there is a project under way to connect Varese with Malpensa Airport, this line would then continue past Varese to Mendrisio and Lugano in Switzerland. International bus services are operated by Swiss Post Bus of the line 523 that link Varese to Lugano, in Varese there is also a funicular service on the line Vellone-Sacro Monte. The city is home to the Sacro Monte di Varese, a place of pilgrimage and it is one of the Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy, included on the UNESCO World Heritage list
Varese
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Palazzo Estense, town hall of Varese
15.
Cocoa powder
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Cocoa solids are a mixture of many substances remaining after cocoa butter is extracted from cacao beans. When sold as an end product, it may also be called cocoa powder or cocoa, in contrast, the fatty component of chocolate is cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is 50% to 57% of the weight of cocoa beans, Cocoa liquor or cocoa mass is a paste of roasted cocoa beans with cocoa butter and solids in their natural proportions. Chocolate requires the addition of cocoa butter to cocoa liquor, leading to an excess of cocoa solids. Cocoa solids are one of the richest sources of flavanol antioxidants and they are a key ingredient of chocolate, chocolate syrup, and chocolate confections. Natural cocoa powder has a brown color and an extractable pH of 5.3 to 5.8. The processed cocoa powder is darker in color, ranging from red to nearly black. The alkalization process reduces bitterness and improves solubility, which is important for beverage product applications, all of these pH values are considered safe for food use. Cocoa powder contains several minerals including calcium, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, all of these minerals are found in greater quantities in cocoa powder than either cocoa butter or cocoa liquor. Cocoa solids also contain 230 mg of caffeine and 2057 mg of theobromine per 100g, Cocoa powder is rich in flavonoids, a type of phenolic acid. The amount of flavonoids depends on the amount of processing and manufacturing the cocoa powder undergoes, however, its alkalization, also known as Dutch processing, causes its content of flavonoids to be substantially reduced. Cocoa and cacao powders may contain cadmium, a heavy metal. From January 12019, the European Union will impose a limit for cadmium in cocoa powders of 0.6 µg per gram of cocoa powder, and 0.8 µg per gram for chocolate with >= 50% total dry cocoa solids. In Canada, a serving of a natural health product must contain no more than 6 µg of cadmium for an individual weighing 150 pounds and 3 µg for a 75 lb individual. Baking chocolate Chocolate Cocoa butter Hamel, PJ
Cocoa powder
–
A bowl of cocoa powder
Cocoa powder
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Overview
16.
Sucrose
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Sucrose is a common saccharide found in many plants and plant parts. Saccharose is a term for sugars in general, especially sucrose. The molecule is a combination of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose with the formula C12H22O11. Sucrose is often extracted and refined from either sugarcane or beet sugar for human consumption, modern industrial sugar refinement processes often involve bleaching and crystallization, producing a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste of pure sucrose. This refined form of sucrose is commonly referred to as sugar or just sugar. It plays a role as an additive in food production all over the world. About 175 million metric tons of sucrose were produced worldwide in 2013, the term sucrose was first used in 1857 by English chemist William Miller from the French sucre and the generic chemical suffix for sugars -ose. The abbreviated term Suc is often used for sucrose in scientific literature, in sucrose, the components glucose and fructose are linked via an acetal bond between C1 on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit. The bond is called a glycosidic linkage, glucose exists predominantly as two isomeric pyranoses, but only one of these forms links to the fructose. Fructose itself exists as a mixture of furanoses, each of which having α and β isomers and this linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units. Since it contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose crystallizes in the space group P21 with room-temperature lattice parameters a =1.08631 nm, b =0.87044 nm, c =0.77624 nm. The purity of sucrose is measured by polarimetry, through the rotation of plane-polarized light by a solution of sugar, the specific rotation at 20 °C using yellow sodium-D light is +66. 47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter, Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions. The formula for sucrose decomposition can be represented as a 2 step reaction, C12H22O11 + heat → 12C + 11H2O 12C + 12O2 → 12CO2 Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes—at 186 °C —to form caramel, like other carbohydrates, it combusts to carbon dioxide and water. Mixing sucrose with the potassium nitrate produces the fuel known as rocket candy that is used to propel amateur rocket motors. C12H22O11 +6 KNO3 →9 CO +3 N2 +11 H2O +3 K2CO3 This reaction is somewhat simplified though, some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the water-gas shift reaction also take place
Sucrose
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Table sugar production in the 19th century.
Sugar cane plantations (upper image) employed slave or indentured laborers. The picture shows workers harvesting cane, loading it on a boat for transport to the plant, while a European overseer watches in the lower right. The lower image shows a sugar plant with two furnace chimneys. Sugar plants and plantations were harsh, inhumane work.
Sucrose
–
Sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose
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A
sugarloaf was a traditional form for sugar from the 17th to 19th centuries.
Sugar nips were required to break off pieces.
17.
Inverted sugar
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Inverted or invert sugar syrup is a mixture of glucose and fructose, it is obtained by splitting the disaccharide sucrose into these two components. Compared with its precursor, sucrose, inverted sugar is alluringly sweet, inverted sugar is therefore valued by bakers, who refer to the syrup as invert syrup. Sucrose is a disaccharide, a derived from two simple sugars. In sucrose, the building blocks are fructose and glucose. The splitting of sucrose is a hydrolysis reaction, the hydrolysis can be induced simply by heating an aqueous solution of sucrose, but more commonly, catalysts are added to accelerate the conversion. The biological catalysts that are added are called sucrases and invertases, sucrases and invertases are types of glycoside hydrolase enzymes. Acid, such as lemon juice or cream of tartar, can accelerate the conversion of sucrose to invert sugar. The term inverted is derived from the practice of measuring the concentration of sugar syrup using a polarimeter, plane polarized light, when passed through a sample of pure sucrose solution, is rotated to the right. As the solution is converted to a mixture of sucrose, fructose and glucose, c12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 net, +66. 5° converts to −19. 65° Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which a molecule breaks down by the addition of water. Hydrolysis of sucrose yields glucose and fructose about 85%, the temperature can be maintained at 50–60 °C. Inverted sugar syrup can be made by adding water and roughly one gram of citric acid per kilogram of sugar. Cream of tartar or fresh lemon juice may also be used, the mixture is boiled to get to a temperature of 114 °C, and will convert enough of the sucrose to effectively prevent crystallization, without giving a noticeably sour taste. Commercially prepared enzyme-catalyzed solutions are inverted at 60 °C, the optimum pH for inversion is 5.0. Invertase is added at a rate of about 0. 15% of the syrups weight, when completed the syrup temperature is raised to inactivate the invertase, but the syrup is concentrated in a vacuum evaporator to preserve color. Commercially prepared hydrochloric-acid catalysed solutions may be inverted at the low temperature of 50 °C. The optimum pH for acid-catalysed inversion is 2.15, as the inversion temperature is increased, the inversion time decreases. They are neutralized when the level of inversion is reached. In confectionery and candy making, cream of tartar is commonly used as the acidulant, the use of cream of tartar imparts a honey-like flavor to the syrup
Inverted sugar
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Chemistry
Inverted sugar
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Invert sugar
18.
Guar gum
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The guar seeds are dehusked, milled and screened to obtain the guar gum. It is typically produced as a free-flowing, off-white powder and it is classed as a galactomannan. The guar bean is grown in India, Pakistan, U. S. India produces 2.5 -3.5 million tons of guar annually, making it the largest producer with about 80% of world production, while Pakistan produced 250,000 tons of guar in 2013. In India, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana are the main producing regions, the United States has produced 4,600 to 14,000 tonnes of guar over the last 5 years. Texas acreage since 1999 has fluctuated from about 7,000 to 50,000 acres, the world production for guar gum and its derivatives is about 1.0 Million tonnes. Industrial guar gum accounts for about 70% of the total demand, mainly it is used as a proppant transport / proppant suspending agent in hydraulic fracturing. In 2012 guar prices increased by 900-1000%, at its peak it reached to $28000 per ton. However later stabilised to $8000 per ton,2013 was a strong year for guar sowing and production in India. The total sowing area rose by 21 percent in 2013 to reach 10.6 million acres, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat – the three key guar-producing states – exceeded the sowing area target set by their respective agriculture departments. Non-traditional guar cultivators in other Indian states also showed keen interest in the crop in 2013, calgary-based Trican Well Services Ltd. touts its trademarked guar substitutes TriFrac-C and Novum. Baker Hughes trademarked something called “AquaPerm, ” while Halliburton rolled out “PermStim”, by 2013, Schlumberger was advertising its trademarked guar-substitute, “HiWay. ”Most of these laboratory substitutes use biodegradable polymers. But according to market trends analyst Thomasnet. com, “…there isnt anything currently available with the reliability and quantities of guar gum. One of India’s biggest guar exporters, Vikas WSP, gave away 3,000 tons of seeds to encourage farmers to switch away from cotton. Chemically, guar gum is a composed of the sugars galactose and mannose. The backbone is a chain of β1, 4-linked mannose residues to which galactose residues are 1, 6-linked at every second mannose. Guar gum is more soluble than locust bean gum, as it has more galactose branch points, unlike locust bean gum, it is not self-gelling. However, either borax or calcium can cross-link guar gum, causing it to gel, in water, it is nonionic and hydrocolloidal
Guar gum
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Guar gum
19.
Frozen custard
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Frozen custard is a cold dessert similar to ice cream, but made with eggs in addition to cream and sugar. Egg yolks have been integrated into ice creams since at least the 1690s, in their first weekend on the boardwalk, they sold 18,460 cones. A frozen custard stand at the 1933 Worlds Fair in Chicago introduced the dessert to a wider audience, following the fair, the desserts popularity spread throughout the Midwest, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in particular, became known as the unofficial frozen custard capital of the world. Louis and Abbotts Frozen Custard in Rochester, New York, in the U. S. the Food and Drug Administration requires products marketed as frozen custard to contain at least 10 percent milkfat and 1.4 percent egg yolk solids. If it has a percentage of egg yolk solids, it is considered ice cream. True frozen custard is a very dense dessert, soft serve ice creams may have an overrun as large as 100%, meaning half of the final product is composed of air. Frozen custard, when made in a proper continuous freezer will have an overrun of 15–30% depending on the machine manufacturer. Air is not pumped into the mix, nor is it added as an ingredient, the high percentage of butterfat and egg yolk gives frozen custard a thick, creamy texture and a smoother consistency than ice cream. Frozen custard can be served at −8 °C, warmer than the −12 °C at which ice cream is served, another difference between commercially produced frozen custard and commercial ice cream is the way the custard is frozen. The mix enters a tube and, as it freezes, blades scrape the product cream off the barrel walls. The now frozen custard is discharged directly into containers from which it can be served, the speed with which the product leaves the barrel minimizes the amount of air in the product but more importantly ensures that the ice crystals formed are very small. Frozen custard is usually prepared fresh at the place of sale, rather than stored, however, generally, modern frozen custard stands provide up to three different flavors per day, vanilla, chocolate, and a unique flavor of the day. The older vintage custard stands tend to have a dozen or so standard flavors
Frozen custard
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Chocolate flavored frozen custard
20.
Frozen yogurt
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Frozen yogurt is a frozen dessert made with yogurt and sometimes other dairy products. It is usually more tart than ice cream, as well as being lower in fat and it is different from ice milk and conventional soft serve. Unlike yogurt, frozen yogurt is not regulated by the U. S. Food, frozen yogurt may or may not contain live and active bacteria cultures. People have been eating plain yogurt for over four millennia, particularly in the Middle East, yogurt was brought to the U. S. in the early 1900s and steadily increased in popularity as a health food item over the next several decades. In the 1930s Dannon began selling prepackaged yogurt for the first time in the U. S, by the 1970s, with the popularity of ice cream surging, freezing and production technology was transferred to the production of frozen yogurt. Many consumers, however, complained about the yogurt taste, capitalizing on consumer demand for a sweet product that tasted like ice cream but was healthier, TCBY opened its first store in 1981. Unlike previous pre-packaged versions introduced earlier, TCBYs yogurt was soft-serve dispensed at the point of sale through a machine, TCBY became the largest frozen yogurt franchise in the world at that time. As others saw the success of TCBY, frozen yogurt took off in the 1980s, demand for frozen yogurt slowed considerably in the late 1990s as Americans turned their attention to high-protein, high-fat diets. Low-fat foods such as frozen yogurt fell out of favor as food trends favored higher fat, trends changed back to frozen yogurt in the mid 2000s with the advent of live probiotic powder-based mixes invented by John Wudel, pioneer of alternative sweeteners in the frozen dessert industry. Dry base mix made frozen yogurt accessible in many countries outside the United States for the first time, in 2005, a small retail shop in California named Pinkberry introduced a new extra tart variety of soft-serve frozen yogurt to the market. In 2006, Yogurtland invented the first self-serve frozen yogurt concept when they opened their first shop in Fullerton, CA, self-serve pioneer Yogurtland, which now has more than 320 shops, features dairy-free, no sugar added and gluten-free frozen yogurt choices. The company also owns its dairy, allowing it to control the process to ensure a high quality product. Frozen yogurt usually consists of milk solids, some kind of sweetener, milk fat, yogurt culture, natural or artificial flavorings, milk fat comprises about 0. 55–6% of the yogurt. Added in quantities proportional to the amount of milk solids. Milk solids account for 8–14% of the volume, providing lactose for sweetness and proteins for smoothness. Cane or beet sugar provides 15–17% of the yogurts ingredients, in addition to adding sweetness, the sugar increases the volume of solid ingredients in the yogurt, improving body and texture. Animal gelatin and/or vegetable additives stabilize the yogurt, reducing crystallization and this stabilization ensures that the frozen yogurt maintains a smooth consistency regardless of handling or temperature change. Major companies often use assembly lines specifically dedicated to frozen yogurt production, the milk products and stabilizing agent are combined and homogenized
Frozen yogurt
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Tart flavored frozen yogurt
Frozen yogurt
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Frozen yogurt being enjoyed by a youngster at an ice cream shop in
Claremore, Oklahoma.
21.
Granita
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Granita is a semi-frozen dessert made from sugar, water and various flavorings. Originally from Sicily, it is all over Italy in somewhat different forms. It is related to sorbet and Italian ice, however, in most of Sicily, it has a coarser, common and traditional flavoring ingredients include lemon juice, mandarin oranges, jasmine, coffee, almonds, mint, and when in season wild strawberries and black mulberries. Chocolate granitas have a tradition in the city of Catania and, according to Steingarten, another popular flavor used in granita is pistachio, also an agricultural product of Sicily. Granita with coffee is very common in the city of Messina, granita in combination with a yeast pastry called brioche is a common breakfast in summer time. Granita is often served as a slush-type drink rather than a dessert, in a paper or plastic cup with a plastic lid. Granita, made with savory ingredients or less sugar than the dessert, is served between courses of a meal as a palate cleanser
Granita
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An
almond -flavored granita with
brioche
Granita
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Tris di granite (trio of granitas) with wild strawberry, mandarin and almond flavors.
22.
Italian ice
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Todays Italian ice is a sweetened frozen dessert made with fruit or other natural or artificial food flavorings, similar to sorbet. Water ice is not shaved ice that is flavored, rather, it is made by the process by which ice cream is made. Italian ice is similar to sorbet, but differs from American-style sherbet in that it not contain dairy or egg ingredients. Common flavors include blue raspberry, cherry, lemon, mango, orange, strawberry and it is believed to be derived from the Sicilian granita, a related dessert which may have been brought by immigrants to the United States. Authentic water ice contains no pieces of fruit, smooth tiny grains of flavored ice, cornetto, the Italian ice cream cone Granita, a Sicilian preparation made of partially frozen water, flavorings, and sometimes sugar Gelato, the Italian style of ice cream
Italian ice
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Italian ice in a paper cup in Chicago
23.
Semifreddo
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Semifreddo is a class of semi-frozen desserts. The principal ingredients are eggs, sugar and cream. It has the texture of frozen mousse, such a desserts Spanish counterpart is called semifrío. It is often called a cake, but a true ice-cream cake has layers of cake & ice-cream. List of custard desserts Recipe for semifreddo
Semifreddo
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Semifreddo
24.
Sorbet
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Sorbet /sɔːrˈbeɪ/ is a frozen dessert made from sweetened water with flavouring. Sorbet is often confused with ice and often taken to be the same as sherbet. In the UK and Australia, sherbet refers to a fizzy powder type of sweet, sorbets and American sherbets may also contain alcohol, which lowers the freezing temperature, resulting in softer texture. Whereas ice cream is based on products with air copiously whipped in, sorbet has neither. Sorbet is served as a non-fat or low-fat alternative to ice cream, in Italy, a similar though crunchier textured dish called granita is made. As the liquid in granita freezes it forms noticeably large-size crystals, granita is also often sharded with a fork to give an even crunchier texture when served. Agraz is a type of sorbet, usually associated with the Maghreb and it is made from almonds, verjuice, and sugar. It has an acidic flavour, because of the verjuice. Givré is the term for a sorbet served in a coconut shell or fruit peel. The word sorbet is derived from the Arabic word Sharbat, however, the root is present in such Indo-European languages as Greek and Persian for example. The English word sherbet entered English directly from the Turkish in the early 17th century. Once as popular in Turkey and parts of the Middle East such as Iran and Afghanistan as cola is today, like many Ottoman dishes, Sherbet appears in quite a few anecdotes. When an Ottoman vizer had found he had displeased his sultan, he was served a glass of sherbet by one of the Sultan’s Bostanbasi, if the sherbet was white, he would live, if it was red, he would know he was a condemned man. Suleiman the Magnificent was said to be a fan of Sherbet. One popular story concerns the sultan ordering sherbet on a hot day while inspecting the janissary quarters and he was said to have returned his glass filled with gold, starting an annual tradition where the Janissaries would return the empty cup every time, expecting gold. His wife, the famous Roxelana even has one named after her, in the Ottoman hey-day, sherbet was sold by a serbetci, who would carry a large brass flask on their back, and serve sherbet in cups from a long nozel. In the United States, Sherbet and sorbet are different products, for Americans, sherbet typically designates a fruity flavored frozen dairy product with a butterfat content between 1% and 2%. Sorbet, on the hand, is considered by Americans to be a fruity frozen product with no dairy content
Sorbet
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Raspberry sorbet
Sorbet
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Strawberry sorbet
Sorbet
–
A Central Asian Sherbet with nuts
25.
Stracciatella (ice cream)
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Stracciatella is a variety of gelato, consisting of milk-based ice cream filled with fine, irregular shavings of chocolate. It was originally created in Bergamo, northern Italy, in 1962, and was inspired by stracciatella soup, made from egg and broth and it is one of the most renowned Italian gelato flavours. This process creates the shreds of chocolate that give stracciatella its name, while traditionally flavoured with milk ice cream and milk chocolate, modern variations can also be made with vanilla and dark chocolate. The flavour was created in 1962 by Enrico Panattoni, the owner of La Marianna, according to Panattoni, the idea came to him after he had grown tired of stirring eggs into broth to satisfy customers of his restaurant who kept asking for stracciatella soup. List of ice cream flavors Notes References
Stracciatella (ice cream)
–
Stracciatella over chocolate ice cream
26.
San Francisco Gate
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It was founded in 1865 as The Daily Dramatic Chronicle by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H. de Young. The paper is owned by the Hearst Corporation, which bought it from the de Young family in 2000. The paper benefited from the growth of San Francisco and was the largest circulation newspaper on the West Coast of the United States by 1880. Like many other newspapers, it has experienced a fall in circulation in the early 21st century. The newspaper publishes two web sites, SFGate, which has a mixture of news and web features. Between World War II and 1971, new editor Scott Josephine Newhall took a bold, the newspaper grew in circulation to become the citys largest, overtaking the rival San Francisco Examiner. The demise of other San Francisco dailies through the late 1950s and early 1960s left the Examiner, from 1965 on the two papers shared a single classified-advertising operation. This arrangement stayed in place until the Hearst Corporation took full control of the Chronicle, beginning in the early 1990s, the Chronicle started to face competition beyond the borders of San Francisco. The Chronicle launched five zoned sections to appear in the Friday edition of the paper, the sections covered San Francisco, and four different suburban areas. They each featured a unique columnist, enterprise pieces and local news specific to the community, the newspaper added 40 full-time staff positions to work in the suburban bureaus. The de Young family controlled the paper, via the Chronicle Publishing Company, until July 27,2000, following the sale, the Hearst Corporation transferred the Examiner to the Fang family, publisher of the San Francisco Independent and AsianWeek, along with a $66-million subsidy. Under the new owners, the Examiner became a free tabloid, in 1949, the de Young family founded KRON-TV, the Bay Areas third television station. Until the mid-1960s, the station, operated from the basement of the Chronicle Building, KRON moved to studios at 1001 Van Ness Avenue. The frequent bold-faced, all-capital-letter headlines typical of the Chronicles front page were eliminated, editor Ward Bushees note heralded the issue as the start of a new era for the Chronicle. On July 6,2009, the paper unveiled some alterations to the new design that included yet newer section fronts and wider use of color photographs and graphics. In a special section publisher Frank J. Vega described new, the newer look was accompanied by a reduction in size of the broadsheet. On November 9,2009, the Chronicle became the first newspaper in the nation to print on high-quality glossy paper, the high-gloss paper is used for some section fronts and inside pages. As of 2013 the publisher of the Chronicle is Jeffrey Johnson, audrey Cooper was named editor-in-chief in January 2015 and is the first woman to hold the position
San Francisco Gate
–
San Francisco Chronicle cover, April 22, 1906
San Francisco Gate
–
The
Old Chronicle Building following the
1906 earthquake and fire
San Francisco Gate
–
Bill German,left, the Chronicle 's editor emeritus and Page One Editor Jack Breibart in the newsroom, March 1994
San Francisco Gate
–
San Francisco Chronicle CEO John Sias announces the sale of the San Francisco Chronicle to the Hearst Corporation August 6, 1999.
27.
NPR
–
These differ from combinations, which are selections of some members of a set where order is disregarded. For example, written as tuples, there are six permutations of the set, namely and these are all the possible orderings of this three element set. As another example, an anagram of a word, all of whose letters are different, is a permutation of its letters, in this example, the letters are already ordered in the original word and the anagram is a reordering of the letters. The study of permutations of finite sets is a topic in the field of combinatorics, Permutations occur, in more or less prominent ways, in almost every area of mathematics. For similar reasons permutations arise in the study of sorting algorithms in computer science, the number of permutations of n distinct objects is n factorial, usually written as n. which means the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n. In algebra and particularly in group theory, a permutation of a set S is defined as a bijection from S to itself and that is, it is a function from S to S for which every element occurs exactly once as an image value. This is related to the rearrangement of the elements of S in which each element s is replaced by the corresponding f, the collection of such permutations form a group called the symmetric group of S. The key to this structure is the fact that the composition of two permutations results in another rearrangement. Permutations may act on structured objects by rearranging their components, or by certain replacements of symbols, in elementary combinatorics, the k-permutations, or partial permutations, are the ordered arrangements of k distinct elements selected from a set. When k is equal to the size of the set, these are the permutations of the set, fabian Stedman in 1677 described factorials when explaining the number of permutations of bells in change ringing. Starting from two bells, first, two must be admitted to be varied in two ways which he illustrates by showing 12 and 21 and he then explains that with three bells there are three times two figures to be produced out of three which again is illustrated. His explanation involves cast away 3, and 1.2 will remain, cast away 2, and 1.3 will remain, cast away 1, and 2.3 will remain. He then moves on to four bells and repeats the casting away argument showing that there will be four different sets of three, effectively this is an recursive process. He continues with five bells using the casting method and tabulates the resulting 120 combinations. At this point he gives up and remarks, Now the nature of these methods is such, in modern mathematics there are many similar situations in which understanding a problem requires studying certain permutations related to it. There are two equivalent common ways of regarding permutations, sometimes called the active and passive forms, or in older terminology substitutions and permutations, which form is preferable depends on the type of questions being asked in a given discipline. The active way to regard permutations of a set S is to them as the bijections from S to itself. Thus, the permutations are thought of as functions which can be composed with each other, forming groups of permutations
NPR
–
In the
15 puzzle the goal is to get the squares in ascending order. Initial positions which have an odd number of inversions are impossible to solve.
NPR
NPR
–
Biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
Cookbook: Gelato 
Media: Gelato
