1.
Hitchin
–
Hitchin is a market town in the North Hertfordshire District in Hertfordshire, England, with an estimated population of 33,350. Hitchin is first noted as the place of the Hicce people mentioned in a 7th-century document. The tribal name is Brittonic rather than Old English and derives from *siccā, meaning dry, which is perhaps a reference to the local stream, the Hiz. Evidence has been found to suggest that the town was provided with an earthen bank and ditch fortification, probably in the early tenth century. The modern spelling Hitchin first appears in 1618 in the Hertfordshire Feet of Fines, the name of the town also is associated with the small river that runs through the town, most picturesquely in front of the east end of St. Marys Church, the towns parish church. The river is noted on maps as the River Hiz, contrary to how most people now pronounce the name, that is to say as spelt, the z is an abbreviated character for a tch sound in Domesday Book. It would have been pronounced River Hitch, Hitchin is notable for St. Marys Church, which is remarkably large for a town of its size. The size of the church is evidence of how Hitchin prospered from the wool trade and it is the largest parish church in Hertfordshire. Most of the dates from the 15th century, with its tower dating from around 1190. During the laying of a new floor in the church in 1911, in form, they appear to be a basilican church of a 7th-century type, with a later enlarged chancel and transepts, perhaps added in the 10th century. This makes the older than the story that the church was founded by Offa. In 1697, Hitchin were subject to what is thought to have been the most severe hailstorm in recorded British history, by the middle of the 19th century the railway had arrived, and with it a new way of life for Hitchin. The corn exchange was built in the place and within a short time Hitchin established itself as a major centre for grain trading. The latter half of the 20th century has brought great changes in communication to Hitchin. Motorways have shortened the time and brought Luton, a few miles away on the M1. By the close of the 20th century, Hitchin had become a dormitory town for London. Hitchin also developed a fairly strong Sikh community based around the Walsworth area, during the medieval period, both a priory and a friary were established, both of which closed during Henry VIIIs Dissolution of the Monasteries. They were never reformed, although The Biggin was for years used as almshouses
Hitchin
–
Hitchin Market Place
Hitchin
–
Hitchin Parish Church
Hitchin
–
Panel representing the foundational history of Hitchin mentioning: King Offa, the River Hiz and the Hicce tribe. Now on the front of Hitchin Library, it was on the Sainsburys on Brand Street until the supermarket relocated to the Bancroft area.
2.
Hertfordshire
–
Hertfordshire is a county in southern England, bordered by Bedfordshire to the north, Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Essex to the east, Buckinghamshire to the west and Greater London to the south. For government statistical purposes, it is placed in the East of England region, in 2013, the county had a population of 1,140,700 living in an area of 634 square miles. Four towns have between 50,000 and 100,000 residents, Hemel Hempstead, Stevenage, Watford and St Albans. Hertford, once the market town for the medieval agricultural county derives its name from a hart. Elevations are high for the region in the north and west and these reach over 240m in the western projection around Tring which is in the Chilterns. The countys borders are approximately the watersheds of the Colne and Lea, hertfordshires undeveloped land is mainly agricultural and much is protected by green belt. The countys landmarks span many centuries, ranging from the Six Hills in the new town of Stevenage built by local inhabitants during the Roman period, Leavesden filmed much of the UK-based $7.7 Bn box office Harry Potter film series and has the countrys studio tour. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill and his martyrs cross of a yellow saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag and coat of arms of Hertfordshire. Hertfordshire is well-served with motorways and railways, providing access to London. The largest sector of the economy of the county is in services, Hertfordshire was the area assigned to a fortress constructed at Hertford under the rule of Edward the Elder in 913. Hertford is derived from the Anglo-Saxon heort ford, meaning deer crossing, the name Hertfordshire is first recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1011. Deer feature in many county emblems, there is evidence of humans living in Hertfordshire from the Mesolithic period. It was first farmed during the Neolithic period and permanent habitation appeared at the beginning of the Bronze Age and this was followed by tribes settling in the area during the Iron Age. 293 the first recorded British martyrdom is believed to have taken place. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill. His martyrs cross of a saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag. He is the Patron Saint of Hertfordshire, with the departure of the Roman Legions in the early 5th century, the now unprotected territory was invaded and colonised by the Anglo-Saxons. By the 6th century the majority of the county was part of the East Saxon kingdom
Hertfordshire
–
Autumn harvest near St Albans
Hertfordshire
Hertfordshire
–
The offices of
T-Mobile, Hatfield
Hertfordshire
–
Headquarters of
Tesco
3.
Homer
–
Homer is the name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the semi-legendary author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of Greek literature. The Odyssey focuses on the home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca. Many accounts of Homers life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a bard from Ionia. The modern scholarly consensus is that these traditions do not have any historical value, the Homeric question - by whom, when, where and under what circumstances were the Iliad and Odyssey composed - continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion on the authorship question falls into two camps, one group holds that most of the Iliad and the Odyssey is the work of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the crystallization of a process of working and re-working by many contributors and it is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century B. C. Most researchers believe that the poems were transmitted orally. The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education, to Plato, the chronological period of Homer depends on the meaning to be assigned to the word Homer. Was Homer a single person, an imaginary person representing a group of poets and this information is often called the world of Homer. The Homeric period would in that cover a number of historical periods, especially the Mycenaean Age. Considered word-for-word, the texts as we know them are the product of the scholars of the last three centuries. Each edition of the Iliad or Odyssey is a different, as the editors rely on different manuscripts and fragments. The term accuracy reveals a belief in an original uniform text. The manuscripts of the work currently available date to no earlier than the 10th century. These are at the end of a missing thousand-year chain of copies made as each generation of manuscripts disintegrated or were lost or destroyed and these numerous manuscripts are so similar that a single original can be postulated. The time gap in the chain is bridged by the scholia, or notes, on the existing manuscripts, librarian of the Library of Alexandria, he had noticed a wide divergence in the works attributed to Homer, and was trying to restore a more authentic copy. He had collected several manuscripts, which he named, the Sinopic, the one he selected for correction was the koine, which Murray translates as the Vulgate. Aristarchus was known for his selection of material
Homer
–
Idealized portrayal of Homer dating to the
Hellenistic period.
British Museum.
Homer
–
Part of an 11th-century manuscript, "the Townley Homer". The writing on the top and right side are
scholia.
Homer
–
Homer and His Guide, by
William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825–1905), portraying Homer on
Mount Ida, beset by dogs and guided by the goatherder Glaucus (as told in
Pseudo-Herodotus)
Homer
–
Raphael 's inspired Homer on
Mount Parnassus.
4.
Dramatist
–
A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is a person who writes plays. The term is not a variant spelling of playwrite, but something quite distinct, hence the prefix and the suffix combine to indicate someone who has wrought words, themes, and other elements into a dramatic form - someone who crafts plays. The homophone with write is in this case entirely coincidental, the term playwright appears to have been coined by Ben Jonson in his Epigram 49, To Playwright, as an insult, to suggest a mere tradesman fashioning works for the theatre. Jonson described himself as a poet, not a playwright, since plays during that time were written in meter and this view was held as late as the early 19th century. The term playwright later lost this negative connotation, the earliest playwrights in Western literature with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. These early plays were written for annual Athenian competitions among playwrights held around the 5th century BC, such notables as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes established forms still relied on by their modern counterparts. For the ancient Greeks, playwriting involved poïesis, the act of making and this is the source of the English word poet. In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle wrote his Poetics, the first play-writing manual, in this famous text, Aristotle established the principle of action or praxis as the basis for all drama. He then included a hierarchy of elements for the beginning with plot, character, thought, diction, music. The ends of drama were plot, character, and thought, the means of drama were language and music, since the myths, upon which Greek tragedy were based, were widely known, plot had to do with the arrangement and selection of existing material. Character was equated with choice as rather than psychology, so that character was determined by action, in tragedy, the notion of ethical choice determined the character of the individual. Thought had more to do and the imitation of an action that is serious, thus, he developed his notion of hamartia, or tragic flaw, an error in judgment by the main character or protagonist. It provides the basis for the play, a term still held as the sine qua non of dramaturgy. The Poetics, while very brief and highly condensed, is studied today. Perhaps the most Aristotelian of contemporary playwrights is David Mamet, who embraces the idea of character as agent of the action, and emphasizes causality in the structure of his plays. His recently revived, Speed-the-Plow, is quintessentially Aristotelian, in that it observes the unities and builds its plot through a causal stream of discoveries and reversals. The Italian Renaissance brought about a stricter interpretation of Aristotle, as this long-lost work came to light in the late 15th century. The neoclassical ideal, which was to reach its apogee in France during the 17th century, dwelled upon the unities, of action, place, and time
Dramatist
–
William Shakespeare
5.
Translator
–
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. While interpreting—the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages—antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature, there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation, on the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated, because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for services and has facilitated language localization. Translation studies systematically study the theory and practice of translation, the English word translation derives from the Latin word translatio, which comes from trans, across + ferre, to carry or to bring. Thus translatio is a carrying across or a bringing across, in this case, the Germanic languages and some Slavic languages have calqued their words for the concept of translation on translatio. The Romance languages and the remaining Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of translation from an alternative Latin word, traductio, the Ancient Greek term for translation, μετάφρασις, has supplied English with metaphrase — as contrasted with paraphrase. Metaphrase corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to formal equivalence, nevertheless, metaphrase and paraphrase may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation. Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity, the ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase and paraphrase. Literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed, Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of imitation, i. e. of adapted translation, When a painter copies from the life. He has no privilege to alter features and lineaments, despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. The grammatical differences between languages and free-word-order languages have been no impediment in this regard. The particular syntax characteristics of a source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a language, translators have borrowed those terms. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, an etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel, the Polish aktualny, the Swedish aktuell, the translators role as a bridge for carrying across values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translators role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, the main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero
Translator
–
Rosetta Stone
Translator
–
John Dryden
Translator
–
Cicero
6.
Poet
–
POET LLC is a U. S. biofuel company that specializes in the creation of bioethanol. The privately held corporation, which was originally called Broin Companies, is headquartered in Sioux Falls, in 2007, the Renewable Fuels Association named POET the largest U. S. ethanol producer, creating 1.1 billion US gallons of fuel per year. Currently, POET produces 1.7 billion gallons of ethanol per year, POET operates 27 ethanol plants spread across Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Minnesota, and South Dakota. In 2007, the received a US$80 million grant from the U. S. Department of Energy for the creation of a cellulosic ethanol production facility in Emmetsburg. A grand opening was held for the facility on September 3rd,2014 and it is expected to produce 25 million gallons of ethanol per year from corncobs, leaves and husks provided by farmers in and around the area. POET has also collaborated with companies, including Deere & Co. and Vermeer Company. Among its products in the process are distillers grains branded Dakota Gold, Inviz, the company traces its history to the family farm in Wanamingo, Minnesota where the Broins began producing ethanol in 1983. In 1986 it became commercial launching its flagship plant in Scotland, in 2007, it was renamed POET. Then company president Jeff Broin said the new name is not an acronym, bush in Wentworth, South Dakota in April 2002 and by Barack Obama in Macon, Missouri in April 2010. POET has constructed an $8 million pilot plant to produce cellulosic ethanol made from corn cobs, a commercial scale project, based on the pilot plant, was undertaken as a joint venture with Royal DSM under the name POET-DSM Advanced Biofuels, LLC. A federal loan guarantee was obtained in July,2011 for a plant to be built in Emmetsburg. This loan guarantee was later declined when the joint venture with Royal DSM was announced. Originally scheduled to open in 2013, the facility opened a year late in September,2014
Poet
7.
Classical scholar
–
Classics or Classical Studies is the study of classical antiquity. It encompasses the study of the Graeco-Roman world, particularly of its languages, and literature but also it encompasses the study of Graeco-Roman philosophy, history, and archaeology. Traditionally in the West, the study of the Greek and Roman classics was considered one of the cornerstones of the humanities and it has been traditionally a cornerstone of a typical elite education. The word Classics is derived from the Latin adjective classicus, meaning belonging to the highest class of citizens, the word was originally used to describe the members of the highest class in ancient Rome. By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality, for example, Aulus Gellius, in his Attic Nights, contrasts classicus and proletarius writers. By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a meaning, referring to pupils at a school. Thus the two meanings of the word, referring both to literature considered to be of the highest quality, and to the standard texts used as part of a curriculum. In the Middle Ages, classics and education were tightly intertwined, according to Jan Ziolkowski, while Latin was hugely influential, however, Greek was barely studied, and Greek literature survived almost solely in Latin translation. The works of even major Greek authors such as Hesiod, whose names continued to be known by educated Europeans, were unavailable in the Middle Ages. Along with the unavailability of Greek authors, there were differences between the classical canon known today and the works valued in the Middle Ages. Catullus, for instance, was almost entirely unknown in the medieval period, the Renaissance led to the increasing study of both ancient literature and ancient history, as well as a revival of classical styles of Latin. From the 14th century, first in Italy and then increasingly across Europe, Renaissance Humanism, Humanism saw a reform in education in Europe, introducing a wider range of Latin authors as well as bringing back the study of Greek language and literature to Western Europe. This reintroduction was initiated by Petrarch and Boccaccio who commissioned a Calabrian scholar to translate the Homeric poems, the late 17th and 18th centuries are the period in Western European literary history which is most associated with the classical tradition, as writers consciously adapted classical models. Classical models were so prized that the plays of William Shakespeare were rewritten along neoclassical lines. From the beginning of the 18th century, the study of Greek became increasingly important relative to that of Latin, in this period Johann Winckelmanns claims for the superiority of the Greek visual arts influenced a shift in aesthetic judgements, while in the literary sphere, G. E. Lessing returned Homer to the centre of artistic achievement, in the United Kingdom, the study of Greek in schools began in the late 18th century. The poet Walter Savage Landor claimed to have one of the first English schoolboys to write in Greek during his time at Rugby School. The 19th century saw the influence of the world, and the value of a classical education, decline, especially in the US
Classical scholar
–
Bust of
Homer, the ancient Greek epic poet
8.
Stoicism
–
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD. Stoicism is predominantly a philosophy of ethics which is informed by its system of logic. It was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BC. Because of this, the Stoics presented their philosophy as a way of life, to live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they taught that everything was rooted in nature. Later Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that, because virtue is sufficient for happiness, from its founding, Stoic doctrine was popular during the Roman Empire—and its adherents included the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It later experienced a decline after Christianity became the religion in the 4th century. Over the centuries, it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance, the Stoics provided a unified account of the world, consisting of formal logic, monistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the focus of human knowledge. A primary aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individuals ethical and moral well-being and this viewpoint was later described as Classical Pantheism. Beginning at around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile, Zenos ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zenos most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for the molding of what is now called Stoicism, later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control. Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases, Early Stoa, from the founding of the school by Zeno to Antipater, middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius. Late Stoa, including Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, no complete work by any Stoic philosopher survives from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survive, diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zenos teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic. This is an approach to logic based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotles Syllogistic. New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic, susanne Bobzien wrote, The many close similarities between Chrysippus philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking. The Stoics held that all being – though not all things – is material and they accepted the distinction between concrete bodies and abstract ones, but rejected Aristotles belief that purely incorporeal being exists. Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras idea that if an object is hot, but, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents
Stoicism
–
Zeno of Citium, cast in
Pushkin Museum in
Moscow from original in
Naples
Stoicism
–
Antisthenes, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy
9.
Shakespeare
–
William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
Shakespeare
–
The
Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed.
National Portrait Gallery, London.
Shakespeare
–
John Shakespeare's house, believed to be
Shakespeare's birthplace, in
Stratford-upon-Avon.
Shakespeare
–
Shakespeare's coat of arms, as it appears on the rough draft of the application to grant a coat-of-arms to John Shakespeare. It features a spear as a
pun on the family name.
Shakespeare
–
Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon.
10.
Metaphysical Poets
–
These poets were not formally affiliated and few were highly regarded until 20th century attention established their importance. Given the lack of coherence as a movement, and the diversity of style between poets, it has suggested that calling them Baroque poets after their era might be more useful. Cowley has copied him to a fault, when it came to justify his charges with examples, Johnson quoted just three poets, Cowley himself, John Donne and John Cleveland, which is hardly sufficient for such a blanket condemnation. John Dryden had already satirised the Baroque taste for them in his Mac Flecknoe and Joseph Addison, in quoting him, there is no scholarly consensus regarding which English poets or poems fit within the Metaphysical genre. Two 20th century anthologies have been important in defining the Metaphysical canon, Herbert Grierson’s Metaphysical Lyrics and Poems of the Seventeenth Century and Helen Gardners Metaphysical Poets. The latter also included proto-metaphysical poets such as William Shakespeare and Sir Walter Raleigh and, extending into the Restoration, brought in Edmund Waller, while comprehensive, her selection, as Burrow remarks, so dilutes the style as to make it virtually coextensive with seventeenth-century poetry. During the course of the 1920s, T. S. Eliot did much to establish the importance of the school, by 1961 A. Alvarez was commenting that “it may perhaps be a little late in the day to be writing about the Metaphysicals. The great vogue for Donne passed with the passing of the Anglo-American experimental movement in modern poetry, burrows opinion, on the other hand, is that the term Metaphysical poets’ still retains some value. For one thing, Donnes poetry had considerable influence on subsequent poets, however, the term does isolate English poets from those who shared similar stylistic traits in Europe and America. Since the 1960s, therefore, it has argued that gathering all of these under the heading of Baroque poets would be more helpfully inclusive. Johnson’s definition of the Metaphysical poets was that of a hostile critic looking back at the style of the previous century, in 1958 Alvarez proposed an alternative approach in a series of lectures eventually published as The School of Donne. This was to look at the practice and self-definition of the circle of friends about Donne, who were the recipients of many of his verse letters. They were a group of fifteen young professionals with an interest in poetry, many of them poets themselves although, like Donne for much of his life. Instead, copies were circulated in manuscript among them, uncertain ascriptions resulted in some poems from their fraternity being ascribed to Donne by later editors. A younger second generation was a group of courtiers, some of them with family or professional ties to Donne’s circle. Among them were Lord Herbert of Cherbury and his brother George, eventually George Herbert, Henry Vaughan and Richard Crashaw, all of whom knew each other, took up the religious life and extended their formerly secular approach into this new area. A later generation of Metaphysical poets, writing during the Commonwealth, became increasingly more formulaic and these included Cleveland and his imitators as well as such transitional figures as Cowley and Marvell. What all had in common, according to Alvarez, was esteem, not for metaphysics but for intelligence
Metaphysical Poets
–
John Donne, the most famous metaphysical poet
11.
Iliad
–
The iLiad was an electronic handheld device, or e-Reader, which could be used for document reading and editing. Like the Barnes and Noble nook, Sony Reader or Amazon Kindle, in 2010, sales of the iLiad ended when its parent company, iRex, filed for bankruptcy. The display used is an active matrix display, which uses E Ink Vizplex Imaging Film manufactured by E Ink Corporation. Underneath the E Ink screen is a tablet by WACOM which requires a stylus for input. When it was introduced, the Iliad had largest screen size of existing e-paper products, the iLiad can display document files in several formats, including PDF, Mobipocket, XHTML and plain text. It can also display JPEG, BMP and PNG images, as of May 3,2007 Mobipocket is supported, making the mobipocket digital rights management content available on this platform. IRexs product page for the states that Support for additional E-book formats will become available over the coming months. Through its wireless service, iDS, the iLiad can also download content. Les Echos, a French financial newspaper, is distributed this way, users can connect to their computer over a wireless network to sync new data onto the iLiads internal memory or an inserted MMC, SD, or CF card. The distributor of the iLiad is iRex Technologies, a Philips spin-off company and it was initially advertised in December 2005, to be launched in April 2006, but was delayed until July, when it started to be sold as a beta product. It was released to the public near the end of July. Its list price in Europe is €649, and in US $699, one of the advanced features of the iLiad is the ability to add notes to existing documents. With the integrated Wacom tablet and stylus, it is possible to directly on almost any document. Using the desktop software, those notes can be merged into the original document and this provides malleability, an important feature of physical books that is missing from most ebook products, allowing users to annotate, highlight, and personalize the text. Because of its open Linux operating system, the iLiad is able to run third party applications created for it, developers and users wishing to create or run third party applications can request shell access from the manufacturer. Developers have been able to improve on the devices functionality by porting viewers such as FBReader, full screen PDF reading is made available by community-supported iPDF releases. Programs for recreation, including audio playback, sudoku, and calendars, are rapidly growing community content available for use on the iLiad, independent users have also reported successful porting of mobile web browsers to iLiads Linux platform, although with limited functionality and many bugs. IRex as a company has had a relationship with its Open Source developers
Iliad
–
iRex iLiad
Iliad
Iliad
–
iLiad in sunlight
Iliad
–
iLiad e-book reader equipped with e-paper display
12.
Odyssey
–
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the Odyssey is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second-oldest extant work of Western literature, the Iliad is the oldest. Scholars believe the Odyssey was composed near the end of the 8th century BC, somewhere in Ionia, the poem mainly focuses on the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journey home after the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War. In his absence, it is assumed Odysseus has died, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must deal with a group of suitors, the Mnesteres or Proci. The Odyssey continues to be read in the Homeric Greek and translated into languages around the world. Many scholars believe the poem was composed in an oral tradition by an aoidos, perhaps a rhapsode. The details of the ancient oral performance and the conversion to a written work inspire continual debate among scholars. The Odyssey was written in a dialect of Greek—a literary amalgam of Aeolic Greek, Ionic Greek. Among the most noteworthy elements of the text are its non-linear plot, in the English language as well as many others, the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage. The Odyssey has a lost sequel, the Telegony, which was not written by Homer and it was usually attributed in antiquity to Cinaethon of Sparta. In one source, the Telegony was said to have stolen from Musaeus by either Eugamon or Eugammon of Cyrene. The Odyssey begins ten years after the end of the ten-year Trojan War, and Odysseus has still not returned home from the war. Odysseus protectress, the goddess Athena, requests to Zeus, king of the gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Odysseus enemy, then, disguised as a Taphian chieftain named Mentes, she visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality, they observe the suitors dining rowdily while the bard Phemius performs a poem for them. Penelope objects to Phemius theme, the Return from Troy, because it reminds her of her missing husband and that night Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the suitors. Accompanied by Athena, he departs for the Greek mainland and the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, now at home in Pylos
Odyssey
–
Charles Gleyre,
Odysseus and
Nausicaä
Odyssey
–
Greek text of the Odyssey' s opening passage
Odyssey
–
Odysseus Overcome by
Demodocus ' Song, by
Francesco Hayez, 1813–15
Odyssey
–
Odysseus and the Sirens, eponymous vase of the
Siren Painter, ca. 480-470 BC, (
British Museum)
13.
University of Oxford
–
The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
University of Oxford
–
Balliol College – one of the university's oldest constituent colleges
University of Oxford
–
University of Oxford
seal
University of Oxford
–
Aerial view of
Merton College 's
Mob Quad, the oldest
quadrangle of the university, constructed in the years from 1288 to 1378
University of Oxford
–
In 1605 Oxford was still a walled city, but several colleges had been built outside the city walls (north is at the bottom on this map)
14.
Low Countries
–
Most of the Low Countries are coastal regions bounded by the North Sea or the English Channel. The countries without access to the sea have linked themselves politically and economically to those with access to one union of port. The Low Countries were the scene of the northern towns, newly built rather than developed from ancient centres. In that period, they rivaled northern Italy for the most densely populated region of Europe, all of the regions mainly depended on trade, manufacturing and the encouragement of the free flow of goods and craftsmen. Germanic languages such as Dutch and Luxembourgish were the predominant languages, secondary languages included French, Romance-speaking Belgium, the Romance Flanders, and Namur. Governor Mary of Hungary used both the expressions les pays de par deça and Pays dEmbas, which evolved to Pays-Bas or Low Countries, today the term is typically fitted to modern political boundaries and used in the same way as the term Benelux, which also includes Luxembourg. The name of the country the Netherlands has the same meaning. The same name of countries can be found in other European languages, for example German Niederlande, French, les Pays-Bas, and so on. In the Dutch language itself no plural is used for the name of the modern country, so Nederland is used for the modern nation and de Nederlanden for the 16th century domains of Charles V. In Dutch, and to an extent in English, the Low Countries colloquially means the Netherlands and Belgium, sometimes the Netherlands. For example, a Derby der Lage Landen, is an event between Belgium and the Netherlands. Belgium was renamed only in 1830, after splitting from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, politically, before the Napoleonic wars, it was referred to as the Southern, Spanish or later Austrian Netherlands. It is still referred to as part of the low countries, the region politically had its origins in Carolingian empire, more precisely, most of it was within the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia. After the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia, the Low Countries were brought under the rule of various lordships until they came to be in the hands of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy. Hence, a part of the low countries came to be referred to as the Burgundian Netherlands also called the Seventeen Provinces up to 1581. Even after the secession of the autonomous Dutch Republic in the north. The Low Countries were part of the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica, Germania Inferior and they were inhabited by Belgic and Germanic tribes. In the 4th and 5th century, Frankish tribes had entered this Roman region and they came to be ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, under which dynasty the southern part was re-Christianised
Low Countries
–
The Low Countries as seen from space with modern day boundaries drawn in thin blue.
15.
Francis Vere
–
Sir Francis Vere was an English soldier, famed for his military career in the Low Countries. Francis Vere, born about 1560, was the son of Geoffrey Vere of Crepping Hall, Essex, a younger son of John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford. His mother was Elizabeth Hardekyn, daughter of Richard Hardekyn of Wotton House near Castle Hedingham, the young Francis Vere first went on active service under Leicester in 1585, and was soon in the thick of the war raging in the Low Countries. At the siege of Sluys he greatly distinguished himself under Sir Roger Williams, in 1588 he was in the garrison of Bergen op Zoom, which delivered itself from the Spanish besiegers led by the Duke of Parma by its own good fighting. Vere as a result of his heroic deeds was Knighted by Lord Willoughby on the field of battle, in the next year Sir Francis became sergeant major-general of the English troops in the Low Countries, and soon afterwards the chief command devolved upon him. This position he retained during fifteen campaigns, with almost unbroken success, working in close cooperation with the Dutch forces under Maurice of Nassau, he helped to step by step secure the country for the cause of independence. He garnered more rewards and respect from Maurice and the Dutch with his actions in the defeat of Parma during the Siege of Knodsenburg outside Nijmegen in July 1591. The future prominent dramatist and poet Ben Jonson served as a volunteer under his command, Vere won the reputation of being one of the best English soldiers of the day. He was elected Member of Parliament for Leominster in 1593, the culminating point of his career came when, in 1600, on the advice of Oldenbarnevelt, the States General decided to carry the war into the enemys country. In the Battle of Nieuwpoort, one of the most desperately contested battles of the age, Maurice of Nassau, with support by Vere and this was followed by the celebrated defense of Ostend from July 1601 to March 1602. Vere came back to England in 1602, but the remaining English troops kept fighting side by side with the Dutch until the surrender of the garrison in September 1604. Vere returned to the Low Countries with more troops in 1602 and with Maurice laid siege to the Spanish garrison at Grave and he recovered after six months in Ryswick, was again on active service with the Dutch throughout 1603-04 and continued with the governorship of Brill. Vere spent a deal of time visiting his friend, Sir Julius Caesar in Mitcham in Surrey. Caesar was on his marriage to Alice Dent and she had a daughter from a previous marriage - Elizabeth Dent. During these visits he became enamoured with Elizabeth. They fell in love - which was rare in those times -, since Elizabeth’s sister was also engaged, Caesar arranged a grand wedding for his stepdaughters on 26 October 1607. Vere received a dowry of £2,000 and settled property on her for life and she was 16 and he was 52. They were married for 22 months before his death but there is no record of any children, Francis has a large monument of alabaster and black marble showing him lying on a carved rush mattress in civilian dress under a slab on which is laid out his suit of armour
Francis Vere
–
Portrait of Sir Francis Vere
Francis Vere
–
Sir Francis Vere's tomb in Westminster Abbey, circa 1860
16.
Philip Sidney
–
Sir Philip Sidney was an English poet, courtier, scholar, and soldier, who is remembered as one of the most prominent figures of the Elizabethan age. His works include Astrophel and Stella, The Defence of Poesy, born at Penshurst Place, Kent, he was the eldest son of Sir Henry Sidney and Lady Mary Dudley. His mother was the eldest daughter of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, and his younger brother, Robert was a statesman and patron of the arts, and was created Earl of Leicester in 1618. His younger sister, Mary, married Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke and was a writer, translator, Sidney dedicated his longest work, the Arcadia, to her. After her brothers death, Mary reworked the Arcadia, which known as The Countess of Pembrokes Arcadia. Philip was educated at Shrewsbury School and Christ Church, Oxford and he spent the next several years in mainland Europe, moving through Germany, Italy, Poland, the Kingdom of Hungary and Austria. On these travels, he met a number of prominent European intellectuals, returning to England in 1575, Sidney met Penelope Devereux, the future Lady Rich, though much younger, she would inspire his famous sonnet sequence of the 1580s, Astrophel and Stella. Her father, Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, is said to have planned to marry his daughter to Sidney, in England, Sidney occupied himself with politics and art. He defended his fathers administration of Ireland in a lengthy document, more seriously, he quarrelled with Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, probably because of Sidneys opposition to the French marriage, which de Vere championed. In the aftermath of episode, Sidney challenged de Vere to a duel. He then wrote a letter to the Queen detailing the foolishness of the French marriage. Characteristically, Elizabeth bristled at his presumption, and Sidney prudently retired from court, during a 1577 diplomatic visit to Prague, Sidney secretly visited the exiled Jesuit priest Edmund Campion. Sidney had returned to court by the middle of 1581 and in 1584 was MP for Kent and that same year Penelope Devereux was married, apparently against her will, to Lord Rich. An early arrangement to marry Anne Cecil, daughter of Sir William Cecil, in 1583, he married Frances, teenage daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham. In the same year, he made a visit to Oxford University with Giordano Bruno and his artistic contacts were more peaceful and more significant for his lasting fame. During his absence from court, he wrote Astrophel and Stella, somewhat earlier, he had met Edmund Spenser, who dedicated The Shepheardes Calender to him. Both through his heritage and his personal experience, Sidney was a keenly militant Protestant. In the 1570s, he had persuaded John Casimir to consider proposals for a united Protestant effort against the Roman Catholic Church, in the early 1580s, he argued unsuccessfully for an assault on Spain itself
Philip Sidney
–
Sir Philip Sidney
Philip Sidney
–
Memorial for Sir Philip Sidney at the spot where he was fatally injured
Philip Sidney
–
The funeral of Sir Philip Sidney, 1586
Philip Sidney
–
Sir Philip Sidney, as depicted in an 18th-century history of the Netherlands
17.
Astrophil and Stella
–
Probably composed in the 1580s, Philip Sidneys Astrophil and Stella is an English sonnet sequence containing 108 sonnets and 11 songs. The name derives from the two Greek words, aster and phil, and the Latin word stella meaning star, thus Astrophil is the star lover, and Stella is his star. Sidney also adopts the Petrarchan rhyme scheme, though he uses it with such freedom that fifteen variants are employed. Some have suggested that the love represented within the sequence may be a one as Sidney evidently connects Astrophil to himself and Stella to Lady Penelope Devereux. Sidney and Lady Penelope had been betrothed when the latter was a child, for some reason the match was broken off, and Lady Penelope married Lord Rich, with whom she lived for a while most unhappily. She is thought to be the Penelope Rich, the wife of Robert Rich, many of the poems were circulated in manuscript form before the first edition was printed by Thomas Newman in 1591, five years after Sidneys death. This edition included ten of Sidneys songs, a preface by Thomas Nashe and verses from other poets including Thomas Campion, Samuel Daniel, Newman printed a second version later in the year, and though the text was more accurate it was still flawed. The version of Astrophil and Stella commonly used is found in the folio of the 1598 version of Sidneys Arcadia, though still not completely free from error, this was prepared under the supervision of his sister the Countess of Pembroke and is considered the most authoritative text available. All known versions of Astrophil and Stella have the poems in the same order, the Oxford University Press collection of Sidneys major works has this to say about the title, There is no evidence that the title is authorial. It derives from the first printed text, the quarto edition published by Thomas Newman. Newman may also have been responsible for the consistent practice in early printings of calling the lover persona Astrophel, but words came halting forth, wanting Inventions stay, Invention, Natures child, fled step-dame Studys blows, And others feet still seemed but strangers in my way. Thus great with child to speak, and helpless in my throes, Biting my truant pen, beating myself for spite, Fool said my Muse to me, look in thy heart and write. The windowes now through which this heavnly guest Looks over the world, of touch they are that without touch doth touch, Which Cupids selfe from Beauties myne did draw, Of touch they are, and poore I am their straw. 19 On Cupids bow how are my heartstrings bent, That see my wrack, when most I glory, then I feel most shame, I willing run, yet while I run, repent. My best wits still their own disgrace invent, My very ink turns straight to Stellas name, And yet my words, as them my pen doth frame, Avise themselves that they are vainly spent. For though she pass all things, yet what is all That unto me, oh let me prop my mind, yet in his growth, And not in Nature, for best fruits unfit, Scholar, saith Love, bend hitherward your wit. 20 Fly, fly, my friends, I have my death wound, see there that boy, that murthering boy I say, Who like a thief, hid in dark bush doth lie, Till bloody bullet get him wrongful prey. So tyrant he no fitter place could spy, Nor so fair level in so secret stay, As that sweet black which veils the heavnly eye, charles Tessier London 1597 MacArthur, J. Critical Contexts of Sidneys Astrophil and Stella, and Spensers Amoretti
Astrophil and Stella
–
The title page of the 1591 edition of Astrophil and Stella
18.
Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare poem)
–
Venus and Adonis is a narrative poem by William Shakespeare published in 1593. It is probably Shakespeares first publication, the poem tells the story of Venus, who is the goddess of Love, of her unrequited love, and of her attempted seduction of Adonis, an extremely handsome young man, who would rather go hunting. The poem is pastoral, and at times erotic, comic and it contains discourses on the nature of love, and brilliantly described observations of nature. It is written in a form known as sesta rima. The sesta rima form was used by Edmund Spenser and Thomas Lodge. It was published originally as a pamphlet and published with great care. It was probably printed using Shakespeares fair copy, the printer was Richard Field, who also, along with Shakespeare, was from Stratford. Venus and Adonis appeared in print before any of Shakespeares plays were published and it has certain qualities in common with the plays A Midsummer Nights Dream, Romeo and Juliet, and Loves Labours Lost. It was written when the London theatres were closed for a due to the plague. The poem begins with a dedication to Shakespeares patron, Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton. The poem is inspired by and based on stories found in the Metamorphoses, Ovids much briefer version of the tale occurs in book ten of his Metamorphoses. There are other stories in Ovids work that are, to a degree, also considered sources, the tales of Salmacis and Hermaphroditus, Narcissus. It was published five years before Christopher Marlowe’s posthumously published Hero and Leander. Venus and Adonis was extremely popular as soon as it was published and it is surprising that so few of the original quartos have survived. Adonis is a man renowned for his incredible beauty. However, he is not interested at all in love, he wants to go hunting. Venus is the goddess of love, when she sees Adonis, she falls in love with him, and comes down to earth, where she encounters him setting out on a hunt. She desires him to get off his horse, and speak to her, Adonis doesn’t want to talk to any woman, not even a goddess
Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare poem)
–
Title page of the first
quarto (1593)
Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare poem)
–
Pierre-Paul Prud'hon 's Venus and Adonis,
Wallace Collection, London
Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare poem)
–
Titian's
Venus and Adonis, 1554, Prado Museum and Art gallery, Madrid
19.
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex
–
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, KG, PC was an English nobleman and a favourite of Elizabeth I. Politically ambitious, and a general, he was placed under house arrest following a poor campaign in Ireland during the Nine Years War in 1599. In 1601, he led an abortive coup détat against the government and was executed for treason, Essex was born on 10 November 1565 at Netherwood near Bromyard, in Herefordshire, the son of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, and Lettice Knollys. His maternal great-grandmother Mary Boleyn was a sister of Anne Boleyn and he was brought up on his fathers estates at Chartley Castle, Staffordshire, and at Lamphey, Pembrokeshire, in Wales. His father died in 1576, and the new Earl of Essex became a ward of Lord Burghley, in 1577, he was admitted as a fellow-commoner at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1579, he matriculated, and in 1581 he graduated as Master of Arts. On 21 September 1578, Essexs mother married Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, Elizabeth Is long-standing favourite, Essex performed military service under his stepfather in the Netherlands, before making an impact at court and winning the Queens favour. In 1590, he married Frances Walsingham, daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham and widow of Sir Philip Sidney, by whom he was to have several children, Sidney, Leicesters nephew, died in 1586 at the Battle of Zutphen in which Essex also distinguished himself. In October 1591, Devereuxs mistress, Elizabeth Southwell, gave birth to a son who survived into adulthood. Essex first came to court in 1584, and by 1587 had become a favourite of the Queen, in June 1587 he replaced the Earl of Leicester as Master of the Horse. After Leicesters death in 1588, the Queen transferred the late Earls royal monopoly on sweet wines to Essex, in 1593, he was made a member of her Privy Council. Essex underestimated the Queen, however, and his behaviour towards her lacked due respect and showed disdain for the influence of her principal secretary. On one occasion during a heated Privy Council debate on the problems in Ireland, in 1591, he was given command of a force sent to the assistance of King Henry IV of France. In 1596, he distinguished himself by the capture of Cadiz, so when the 3rd Spanish Armada first appeared off the English coast in October 1597, the English fleet was far out to sea, with the coast almost undefended, and panic ensued. This further damaged the relationship between the Queen and Essex, even though he was given full command of the English fleet when he reached England a few days later. Fortunately a storm dispersed the Spanish fleet, and though there were a few landings, Essexs greatest failure was as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, a post which he talked himself into in 1599. The Nine Years War was in its stages, and no English commander had been successful. More military force was required to defeat the Irish chieftains, led by Hugh ONeill, Essex led the largest expeditionary force ever sent to Ireland—16,000 troops—with orders to put an end to the rebellion. Essex had declared to the Privy Council that he would confront ONeill in Ulster, rather than face ONeill in battle, Essex entered a truce that some considered humiliating to the Crown and to the detriment of English authority
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex
–
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, after
Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex
–
Melancholy youth representing the Earl of Essex, c.1588, miniature by
Nicholas Hilliard
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex
–
Frances Walsingham, countess of Essex, and her son
Robert by Robert Peake the elder, 1594
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex
–
Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, Essex's chief co-conspirator
20.
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales
–
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales was the elder son of King James I & VI and Anne of Denmark. His name derives from his grandfathers, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, Prince Henry was widely seen as a bright and promising heir to his fathers thrones. However, at the age of 18, he predeceased his father when he died of typhoid fever and his younger brother Charles succeeded him as heir apparent to the English, Irish and Scottish thrones. Henry was born at Stirling Castle, Scotland and became Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland automatically on his birth. His father placed him in the care of John Erskine, Earl of Mar, although the childs removal caused enormous tension between Anne and James, Henry remained under the care of Mars family until 1603, when James became King of England and his family moved south. Henrys baptism on 30 August 1594 was celebrated with complex theatrical entertainments written by poet William Fowler, Henrys tutor Adam Newton continued to serve the Prince in England, and some Scottish servants from Stirling were retained, including poet David Murray. The king greatly preferred the role of schoolmaster to that of father, the princes popularity rose so high that it threatened his father. Relations between the two could be tense, and on occasion surfaced in public. At one point, the two were hunting near Royston when James criticised his son for lacking enthusiasm for the chase, and Henry initially moved to strike his father with a cane, most of the hunting party then followed the son. Upright to the point of priggishness, he fined all who swore in his presence, according to Charles Carlton, a biographer of Charles I, in addition to the alms box that Henry forced swearers to contribute to, he made sure his household attended church services. His religious views were influenced by the clerics in his household, Charles stamped on the cap and had to be dragged off in tears. With his fathers accession to the throne of England in 1603, as a young man, Henry showed great promise and was beginning to be active in leadership matters. Among his activities, he was responsible for the reassignment of Sir Thomas Dale to the Virginia Company of Londons struggling colony in North America. The Irish Gaelic lord of Inishowen, Sir Cahir ODoherty, had applied to gain a position as a courtier in the household of Henry, unknown to Sir Cahir, on 19 April 1608, the day he launched ODohertys Rebellion by burning Derry, his application was approved. Because of this Tyrone and his entourage mourned when the Prince met his early death, Henry died from typhoid fever at the age of 18. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, Prince Henrys death was widely regarded as a tragedy for the nation. According to Charles Carlton, Few heirs to the English throne have been as widely and deeply mourned as Prince Henry and his body lay in state at St. Jamess Palace for four weeks. On 7 December, over a thousand people walked in the cortege to Westminster Abbey to hear a two-hour sermon delivered by George Abbot
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales
–
Henry Frederick in c. 1610
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales
–
Henry, Prince of Wales, by
Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, c. 1603
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales
–
Henry Frederick c. 1610 by
Robert Peake the Elder.
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales
–
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, aged 13 or 14.
21.
Elizabeth I of England
–
Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
Elizabeth I of England
–
The "Darnley Portrait" of Elizabeth I (
c. 1575)
Elizabeth I of England
–
The Lady Elizabeth in about 1546, by an unknown artist
Elizabeth I of England
–
The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul, a translation from the French, by Elizabeth, presented to
Catherine Parr in 1544. The embroidered binding with the monogram KP for "Katherine Parr" is believed to have been worked by Elizabeth.
Elizabeth I of England
–
Mary I, by
Anthonis Mor, 1554
22.
English literature
–
However, until the early 19th century, it only deals with the literature of the United Kingdom and Ireland. It does not include literature written in the languages of Britain. The English language has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years, the earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible as well as the Great Vowel Shift. Through the influence of the British Empire, the English language has spread around the world since the 17th century. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and ending soon after the Norman Conquest in 1066. These works include such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English, from the 9th century, that chronicle the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The poem Battle of Maldon also deals with history and this is a work of uncertain date, celebrating the Battle of Maldon of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion. Oral tradition was strong in early English culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were popular, and some, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day. Beowulf is the most famous work in Old English, and has achieved national status in England. The only surviving manuscript is the Nowell Codex, the date of which is debated. Beowulf is the title, and its composition is dated between the 8th and the early 11th century. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known, and it is also one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language. The poem, The Dream of the Rood, was inscribed upon the Ruthwell Cross, Two Old English poems from the late 10th century are The Wanderer and The Seafarer. Classical antiquity was not forgotten in Anglo-Saxon England, and several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts, the longest is King Alfreds 9th-century translation of Boethius Consolation of Philosophy. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the form of the Anglo-Saxon language became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the language of courts, parliament
English literature
–
Selected English-language writers:
Geoffrey Chaucer,
William Shakespeare,
Jane Austen,
Mark Twain,
Virginia Woolf,
T. S. Eliot,
Vladimir Nabokov,
Toni Morrison,
Salman Rushdie.
English literature
–
The first page of
Beowulf
English literature
–
Piers Ploughman from a 14th-century manuscript
English literature
–
Geoffrey Chaucer
23.
St Giles in the Fields
–
St Giles-in-the-Fields, also commonly known as the Poets Church, is a church in the London Borough of Camden, in the West End. It is close to the Centre Point office tower and the Tottenham Court Road tube station, the church is part of the Diocese of London within the Church of England. Several buildings have stood on the site, the present structure was built between 1731 and 1733. The first recorded church on site was a chapel of the parish of Holborn attached to a monastery and leper hospital founded by Matilda of Scotland. At that time, it well outside the boundaries of the city of London, though on the main road to Tyburn. This chapel probably came to function as the church of the village that grew up to provide services to the hospital. The hospital was supported by the Crown and administered by the City for its first two hundred years, in fact, it was named a free chapel. Beginning in 1299, on the order of Edward I, it was administered by the Order of Saint Lazarus, during the fourteenth century, the king, on several occasions, interfered by appointing a new head of the hospital. In 1391, Richard II sold the hospital, chapel, and lands to the Cistercian abbey of St Mary de Graces, just by the Tower of London. The property at the time included 8 acres of farmland, a survey-enumerated eight horses, twelve oxen, the grant was revoked in 1402 and the property returned to the Lazars. Lepers were cared-for at this location until the mid century, when the disease abated. During the reign of Henry V, in 1414, the village was the headquarters of Sir John Oldcastles abortive Lollard rebellion, the monastery was dissolved in 1539 during the reign of Henry VIII, with the lands eventually being granted to Lord Lisle in 1548. However, the chapel survived as a parish church. The first Rector of St Giles was appointed in 1547, an illustration from this time shows the church with a round tower and dome. A spire replaced this structure in 1617, the early church fell into disrepair and a Gothic brick structure was built between 1623 and 1630, mostly paid for by the Duchess of Dudley, the wife of Sir Robert Dudley. The new building was consecrated by William Laud, Bishop of London, an illuminated manuscript listing the subscribers to the rebuilding, is still kept in the church. Later moved again, his head was taken to Rome and then given to the Archbishop of Armagh, and is now at Drogheda and he was canonised by Pope Paul VI in 1975. The five Jesuit fathers with whom Plunkett asked to be buried, Thomas Whitbread, William Harcourt, John Fenwick, John Gavan, Edward Coleman, secretary to the Duchess of York
St Giles in the Fields
–
Church of St Giles-in-the-Fields, London
St Giles in the Fields
–
Hogarth's Noon from
Four Times of the Day, showing the church in the background
St Giles in the Fields
–
Looking down the aisle, inside the church
St Giles in the Fields
–
The West side of the interior, showing the organ.
24.
Inigo Jones
–
Inigo Jones was the first significant English architect in the early modern period, and the first to employ Vitruvian rules of proportion and symmetry in his buildings. As the most notable architect in England, Jones was the first person who introduced the classical architecture of Rome and he made major contributions to stage design by his work as theatrical designer for several dozen masques, most by royal command and many in collaboration with Ben Jonson. Beyond the fact that he was born in Smithfield, London, the son of Inigo Jones, a Welsh cloth worker, at some point before 1603 a rich patron sent him to Italy to study drawing after being impressed by the quality of his sketches. From Italy he travelled to Denmark where he worked for King Christian on the design of the palaces of Rosenborg and Frederiksborg, Jones first became famous as a designer of costumes and stage settings, especially after he brought masques to the stage. Under Queen Annes patronage he is credited with introducing movable scenery and this development suggests a second visit to Italy, circa 1606, influenced by the ambassador Henry Wotton. Jones learned to speak Italian fluently and there is evidence that he owned an Italian copy of Andrea Palladios I quattro libri dellarchitettura with marginalia that refer to Wotton and his architectural work was particularly influenced by Palladio. To a lesser extent, he held to the architectural principles of the ancient Roman writer Vitruvius. Joness first recorded architectural design is for a monument to Lady Cotton, circa 1608 and he devised a masque for the Prince and was possibly involved in some alterations to St Jamess Palace. On this trip, Jones was exposed to the architecture of Rome, Padua, Florence, Vicenza, Genoa and his surviving sketchbook shows his preoccupation with such artists as Parmigianino and Schiavone. He is also known to have met Vincenzo Scamozzi at this time and he was probably the first Englishman to study these Roman remains first hand and this was key to the new architecture Jones introduced in England. In September 1615, Jones was appointed Surveyor-General of the Kings Works, fortunately, both James I and Charles I spent lavishly on their buildings, contrasting hugely with the economical court of Elizabeth I. As the Kings Surveyor, Jones built some of his key buildings in London, in 1616, work began on the Queens House, Greenwich, for James Is wife, Anne. With the foundations laid and the first storey built, work stopped suddenly when Anne died in 1619, work resumed in 1629, but this time for Charles Is Queen, Henrietta Maria. It was finished in 1635 as the first strictly classical building in England, employing ideas found in the architecture of Palladio and this is Joness earliest surviving work. The Banqueting House was one of several projects where Jones worked with his personal assistant, the Queens Chapel, St. Jamess Palace, was built between 1623 and 1627, for Charles Is Roman Catholic wife, Henrietta Maria. Parts of the design originate in the Pantheon of ancient Rome and these buildings show the realisation of a mature architect with a confident grasp of classical principles and an intellectual understanding of how to implement them. The other project in which Jones was involved is the design of Covent Garden square and he was commissioned by the Earl of Bedford to build a residential square, which he did along the lines of the Italian piazza of Livorno. It is the first regularly planned square in London, the Earl felt obliged to provide a church and he warned Jones that he wanted to economise
Inigo Jones
–
Portrait of Inigo Jones painted by
William Hogarth in 1758 from a 1636 painting by Sir
Anthony van Dyck
Inigo Jones
–
Bust of Inigo Jones by
John Michael Rysbrack, 1725
Inigo Jones
–
A
masque Costume for a Knight, designed by Inigo Jones
Inigo Jones
–
The Queen's House at Greenwich
25.
Children of the Chapel
–
Children sang in church because their high voices were considered closest to the angels. The Choirs, now just ten, boys are known as the Children of the Chapel Royal. Their special school within St Jamess Palace no longer operates, the boys all attend the City of London School, in former times when educated within the court they were very much a part of court life and by ancient tradition were entitled to many small special privileges. The Choirs duties remain to sing the services in the chapel of the Monarchs home. It is based in the two chapels of St Jamess Palace and services are sung in the chapels of Kensington. The Choir also takes part in many State and National ceremonies and it consists of six Gentlemen in Ordinary and ten choristers and a Sub-Organist. By the accession of James I in 1603, the Chapels Royal was staffed by a dean, a sub-dean, William Cornysh, who was Master of the Children from 1509 to 1523, first began the practice of having the boys choir perform dramatic interludes at Court. William Hunnis was Master of the Children of the Chapel from 1566 to 1597, in 1576, Hunniss deputy Richard Farrant rented space in the old Blackfriars priory, and began public performances by the boys. For unknown reasons, the troupe did not act at Court after 1584, in 1600 the Children of the Chapel returned to the public stage with regular performances. Nathaniel Giles, their Master from 1597 to 1634, became one of the lessees of the Blackfriars Theatre that James Burbage built in 1596, the boys performed at Court on 6 January and 22 February 1601. They had a big hit that year with Ben Jonsons The Poetaster, Nathan Field, John Underwood, and William Ostler, all of whom would later join the Kings Men, were in the cast. Even in the years of this period, the Children of the Chapel were mired in controversy, Giles drafted. Solomon Pavy, the young actor eulogized by Ben Jonson upon his death in 1603, was one boy pressed into service in this high-handed way. They lost their Royal patent, and became simply the Children of the Revels, after another scandal, this one involving The Isle of Gulls by John Day, they were known as the Children of the Blackfriars. They managed to offend the King a third time, in 1608, in regard to their production of George Chapmans two-part play The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles, the double play offended the French Ambassador, who got it banned from the stage. When the Court was not in London, however, the Children of the Blackfriars performed the plays again, in their original offensive form, the angry James swore that the boys should never play more but should first beg their bread. Yet the King liked plays too much to maintain this resolve over the term. They even performed at Court the following Christmas season, also in 1608, the Kings Men took over the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre, effectively evicting the previous tenants
Children of the Chapel
–
Arthur Sullivan aged 13 when he was a chorister of the Chapel Royal, wearing the State Dress
26.
Ben Jonson
–
Benjamin Jonson was an English playwright, poet, actor, and literary critic of the 17th century, whose artistry exerted a lasting impact upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours, Ben Jonson said that his family originally came from the folk of the Anglo-Scottish border country, which genealogy is attested by the three spindles in the Jonson family coat of arms. One spindle is a heraldic device shared with the Border-country Johnstone family of Annandale. Jonsons clergyman father died two months before his birth, his mother married a master bricklayer two years later, Jonson attended school in St. Martins Lane. Later, a family friend paid for his studies at Westminster School, on leaving Westminster School, Jonson was to have attended the University of Cambridge, to continue his book learning but did not, because of his unwilled apprenticeship to his bricklayer stepfather. According to the churchman and historian Thomas Fuller, Jonson at this time built a wall in Lincolns Inn. After having been a bricklayer, Ben Jonson went to the Netherlands. After his military activity on the Continent, Jonson returned to England and worked as an actor, as an actor, Jonson was the protagonist “Hieronimo” in the play The Spanish Tragedy, by Thomas Kyd, the first revenge tragedy in English literature. Regarding his marriage Jonson described his wife to William Drummond as a shrew, concerning the family of Anne Lewis and Ben Jonson, the St. Martins Church registers indicate that Mary Jonson, their eldest daughter, died in November 1593, at six months of age. Moreover,32 years later, a son, also named Benjamin Jonson. By summer 1597, Jonson had an engagement in the Admirals Men, then performing under Philip Henslowes management at The Rose. John Aubrey reports, on authority, that Jonson was not successful as an actor, whatever his skills as an actor. By this time Jonson had begun to write plays for the Admirals Men. None of his early tragedies survive, however, an undated comedy, The Case is Altered, may be his earliest surviving play. In 1597 a play which he co-wrote with Thomas Nashe, The Isle of Dogs, was suppressed after causing great offence, arrest warrants for Jonson and Nashe were issued by Queen Elizabeth Is so-called interrogator, Richard Topcliffe. Jonson was jailed in Marshalsea Prison and charged with Leude and mutynous behaviour, two of the actors, Gabriel Spenser and Robert Shaw, were also imprisoned. A year later, Jonson was again imprisoned, this time in Newgate Prison. While in jail Jonson converted to Catholicism, possibly through the influence of fellow-prisoner Father Thomas Wright, in 1598 Jonson produced his first great success, Every Man in His Humour, capitalising on the vogue for humorous plays which George Chapman had begun with An Humorous Days Mirth
Ben Jonson
–
Ben Jonson (c. 1617), by
Abraham Blyenberch; oil on canvas painting at the
National Portrait Gallery, London
Ben Jonson
–
Westminster School master
William Camden cultivated the artistic genius of Ben Jonson.
Ben Jonson
–
The Scottish poet
William Drummond of Hawthornden was friend and confidant to Jonson.
Ben Jonson
–
Title page of The Workes of Beniamin Ionson (1616), the first
folio publication that included stage plays
27.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
28.
Eastward Hoe
–
Eastward Hoe or Eastward Ho, is an early Jacobean-era stage play, a satire and city comedy written by George Chapman, Ben Jonson, and John Marston, printed in 1605. The play was written in response to Westward Ho, a satire by Thomas Dekker. Eastward Ho offended King James I with its anti-Scottish comedy, which caused Jonson and Chapman to be arrested for a time, the play deals with a goldsmith and his household. He has two apprentices and two daughters, one apprentice, Golding, is industrious and temperate, the other, Quicksilver, is rash and ambitious. One daughter, Mildred, is mild and modest, the other, Gertrude marries the fraudulent Sir Petronel Flash, a man who possesses a title but no money. Sir Petronel promises Gertrude a coach and six and a castle, Sir Petronel takes her dowry and sends her off in a coach for an imaginary castle while he and Quicksilver set off for Virginia after Quicksilver has robbed the goldsmith. During this time, the provident and careful Golding has become a deputy alderman, Quicksilver and Petronel are shipwrecked on the Isle of Dogs and are brought up on charges for their actions. After time in prison, where they repent of their schemes and dishonesty, Eastward Ho was entered into the Stationers Register on 4 September 1605 and printed later that year in a quarto issued by the bookseller William Aspley, printed by George Eld. The three authors are identified on the page, as is the playing company that staged the work. Aspley issued a second quarto in the year,1605. Scholars who have tried to determine the contributions of the three authors have not reached a full consensus of opinion. Marston is normally assigned Act I, Chapmans hand is seen in Acts II and III, individual scholars, from F. G. Fleay to T. M. Parrott to Percy Simpson, have produced their own specific and unmatching divisions of authorship. Eastward Ho has been called one of the best made of Elizabethan comedies, with a clear-cut strength, because of the scandal, a significant body of documentation exists regarding the play, including personal letters written by both Chapman and Jonson while they were in prison. The report was that they should have had their ears cut, in actuality Marston fled and escaped arrest. The play was never banned or suppressed. It was revived by the Lady Elizabeths Men in 1613, and on 25 January 1614, the Isle of Dogs The Isle of Gulls The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron A Game at Chess The Court Beggar Eastward Ho online
Eastward Hoe
–
Title page Eastward Hoe
29.
Scottish People
–
The Scottish people, or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, who founded the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century, and are thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celts. Later, the neighbouring Cumbrian Britons, who spoke a Celtic language, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons. In modern usage, Scottish people or Scots is used to refer to anyone whose linguistic, cultural, the Latin word Scotti, originally the word referred specifically to the Gaels, but came to describe all inhabitants of Scotland. Considered archaic or pejorative, the term Scotch has also used for Scottish people. John Kenneth Galbraith in his book The Scotch documents the descendants of 19th-century Scottish pioneers who settled in Southwestern Ontario and he states the book was meant to give a true picture of life in the community in the early decades of the 20th century. People of Scottish descent live in countries other than Scotland. Scottish emigrants took with them their Scottish languages and culture, large populations of Scottish people settled the new-world lands of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. Canada has the highest level of Scottish descendants per capita in the world, Scotland has seen migration and settlement of many peoples at different periods in its history. The Gaels, the Picts and the Britons have their origin myths. The Venerable Bede tells of the Scotti coming from Spain via Ireland, Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxons, arrived beginning in the 7th century, while the Norse invaded and colonized parts of Scotland from the 8th century onwards. In the High Middle Ages, from the reign of David I of Scotland, there was emigration from France, England. Some famous Scottish family names, including bearing the names which became Bruce, Balliol, Murray. Today Scotland is one of the countries of the United Kingdom, culturally, these peoples are grouped according to language. Most of Scotland until the 13th century spoke Celtic languages and these included, at least initially, the Britons, as well as the Gaels and the Picts. Germanic peoples included the Angles of Northumbria, who settled in south-eastern Scotland in the region between the Firth of Forth to the north and the River Tweed to the south. They also occupied the south-west of Scotland up to and including the Plain of Kyle and their language, south-east of the Firth of Forth, then in Lothian and the Borders, a northern variety of Old English, also known as Early Scots, was spoken. The Northern Isles and some parts of Caithness were Norn-speaking, from 1500 on, Scotland was commonly divided by language into two groups of people, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders and the Inglis-speaking Lowlanders
Scottish People
–
John Wayne was of
Presbyterian Scots-Irish or
Ulster-Scots descent.
Scottish People
Scottish People
–
The Australian city of
Brisbane is named after Scotsman
Thomas Brisbane.
Scottish People
–
Scottish English and
Scottish Gaelic are used on bilingual road signs throughout the Gaelic speaking parts of
Scotland, such as this one, seen in village of
Mallaig.
30.
Folger Library
–
The Folger Shakespeare Library is an independent research library on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. in the United States. It has the worlds largest collection of the works of William Shakespeare. The library was established by Henry Clay Folger in association with his wife and it opened in 1932, two years after his death. The library offers advanced scholarly programs and national outreach to K–12 classroom teachers on Shakespeare education, other performances and events at the Folger include the award-winning Folger Theatre, which produces Shakespeare-inspired theater, Folger Consort, the early-music ensemble-in-residence, the O. B. Hardison Poetry Series, the PEN/Faulkner Reading Series, and numerous exhibits, seminars, talks and lectures. The Folger is also a leader in methods of preserving rare materials, the library is privately endowed and administered by the Trustees of Amherst College. The library building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, toward the end of World War I, he and his wife Emily Jordan Folger began searching for a location for a Shakespeare library based on their collection. They chose a location adjacent to the Library of Congress in Washington, the land was then occupied by townhouses, and Folger spent several years buying the separate lots. The site was designated for expansion by the Library of Congress, the cornerstone of the library was laid in May 1930, but Folger died soon afterward. The bulk of Folgers fortune was left in trust, with Amherst College as administrator, for the library, early members of the board included Amherst graduate and former president Calvin Coolidge, second chairman of the Board of Trustees. Because of the market crash of 1929, Folgers estate was smaller than he had planned. Emily Folger, who had worked with her husband on his collection, the library opened on April 23,1932, the anniversary of what is believed to be Shakespeares date of birth. Emily Folger remained involved in its administration until shortly before her death in 1936, in 2005, the Folger Board of Governors undertook administration of the Folger under the auspices of the Amherst Board of Trustees, though the Amherst board continues to manage the Folgers budget. The Folgers first official reader was B, roland Lewis, who later published The Shakespeare Documents, Facsimiles, Transliterations, Translations, and Commentary based on his research. The first fellowships were distributed in 1936, early Folger exhibitions featured enticing items in the collection, including Ralph Waldo Emersons copy of Shakespeares works, an Elizabethan lute, and Edwin Booths Richard III costume. Current practices for Folger exhibitions did not begin until 1964, when the first exhibition curated on site opened. C, many of the Folgers current public events and programs began in the 1970s under the leadership of director O. B. Under his direction, the Folgers theater was brought up to Washington, D. C. fire code, permitting performances by the Folger Theatre Group, the Folger Poetry Series also began in 1970. Hardison formed the Folger Institute, which coordinates academic programs and research at the Library, Folger Consort, the Librarys early music ensemble, began performances in 1977
Folger Library
–
The Gail Kern Paster Reading Room at the Folger Shakespeare Library, with a
First Folio in the foreground.
Folger Library
–
Henry Clay Folger
Folger Library
–
Emily Jordan Folger
Folger Library
–
Paul Philippe Cret's original designs for the east facade of the Folger Shakespeare Library, early 1930s
31.
Masque
–
The masque was a form of festive courtly entertainment that flourished in 16th- and early 17th-century Europe, though it was developed earlier in Italy, in forms including the intermedio. Professional actors and musicians were hired for the speaking and singing parts, in the tradition of masque, Louis XIV of France danced in ballets at Versailles with music by Jean-Baptiste Lully. The masque tradition developed from the elaborate pageants and courtly shows of ducal Burgundy in the late Middle Ages, masques were typically a complimentary offering to the prince among his guests and might combine pastoral settings, mythological fable, and the dramatic elements of ethical debate. There would invariably be some political and social application of the allegory, such pageants often celebrated a birth, marriage, change of ruler or a Royal Entry and invariably ended with a tableau of bliss and concord. Masque imagery tended to be drawn from Classical rather than Christian sources, Masque thus lent itself to Mannerist treatment in the hands of master designers like Giulio Romano or Inigo Jones. The New Historians, in works like the essays of Bevington, in English masques, purely musical interludes might be accompanied by a dumbshow. The rustic presentation of Pyramus and Thisbe as an entertainment in Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream offers a familiar example. Spectators were invited to join in the dancing, at the end, the players would take off their masks to reveal their identities. A descriptive narrative of a processional masque is the masque of the Seven Deadly Sins in Edmund Spensers The Faerie Queene, a particularly elaborate masque, performed over the course of two weeks for Queen Elizabeth, is described in the 1821 novel Kenilworth, by Sir Walter Scott. Later, in the court of James I, narrative elements of the masque became more significant, plots were often on classical or allegorical themes, glorifying the royal or noble sponsor. At the end, the audience would join with the actors in a final dance, Ben Jonson wrote a number of masques with stage design by Inigo Jones. Their works are thought of as the most significant in the form. Sir Philip Sidney also wrote masques, william Shakespeare wrote a masque-like interlude in The Tempest, understood by modern scholars to have been heavily influenced by the masque texts of Ben Jonson and the stagecraft of Inigo Jones. There is also a sequence in his Romeo and Juliet. John Miltons Comus is described as a masque, though it is reckoned a pastoral play. Reconstructions of Stuart masques have been few and far between, part of the problem is that only texts survive complete, there is no complete music, only fragments, so no authoritative performance can be made without interpretive invention. In the 18th-century, masques were even less frequently staged, but because of its ephemeral nature, not a lot of documentation related to masques remains, and much of what is said about the production and enjoyment of masques is still part speculation. While the masque was no longer as popular as it was at its height in the 17th Century, during the late 17th century, English semi-operas by composers such as Henry Purcell had masque scenes inset between the acts of the play proper
Masque
–
Costume for a Knight, by
Inigo Jones: the plumed helmet, the
"heroic torso" in armour and other conventions were still employed for
opera seria in the 18th century.
32.
Jacobean era
–
The Jacobean era refers to the period in English and Scottish history that coincides with the reign of James VI of Scotland, who also inherited the crown of England in 1603 as James I. The practical if not formal unification of England and Scotland under one ruler was an important shift of order for both nations, and would shape their existence to the present day, in 1609 the Parliament of Scotland began the Plantation of Ulster. The most notorious event of James reign occurred on 5 November 1605, on that date, a group of English Catholics attempted to blow up the King and Parliament in the Palace of Westminster. However, the Gunpowder Plot was exposed and prevented, and the plotters were hanged, drawn. Frederick and Elizabeths election as King and Queen of Bohemia in 1619, before their Bohemian adventure, Elizabeth and Frederick were the focus of an outburst of romantic idealism. The Latin name Jacobus was transliterated from the Greek name Iakobos, in Hebrew, Jacob means Supplanter, and comes from the Hebrew verb aqab which means to take by the heel, assail, circumvent, or supplant. Political events and developments of the Jacobean era cannot be understood separately from the economic, James had inherited a debt of £350,000 from Queen Elizabeth, by 1608 the debt had risen to £1,400,000 and was increasing by £140,000 annually. The Jacobean era ended with an economic depression in 1620–1626. In literature, some of Shakespeares most prominent plays, including King Lear, Macbeth, Patronage came not just from James, but from James wife Anne of Denmark. Also during this period were powerful works by John Webster, Thomas Middleton, John Ford, Ben Jonson also contributed to some of the eras best poetry, together with the Cavalier poets and John Donne. In prose, the most representative works are found in those of Francis Bacon, the wildly popular tale of the Trojan War had until then been available to English readers only in Medieval epic retellings such as Caxtons Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Jonson was also an important innovator in the literary subgenre of the masque. His name is linked with that of Inigo Jones as co-developers of the literary, the fine arts were dominated by foreign talent in the Jacobean era, as was true of the Tudor and Stuart periods in general. Daniel Mytens was the most prominent portrait painter during the reign of James, some would also claim, as part of this trend, Cornelius Johnson, or Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen, born and trained in London and active through the first two Stuart reigns. The decorative arts — furniture, for example — became increasingly rich in color, detail, materials from other parts of the world, like mother-of-pearl, were now available by world-wide trade and were used as decoration. Even familiar materials, such as wood and silver, were worked more deeply in intricate, architecture in the Jacobean era was a continuation of the Elizabethan style with increasing emphasis on classical elements like columns. European influences include France, Flanders, and Italy, st Paul’s Cathedral designed by Sir Christopher Wren in London. In the domain of customs, manners, and everyday life, James I published his A Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604, but the book had no discernible effect, by 1612, London had 7000 tobacconists and smoking houses
Jacobean era
–
Daniel Mytens ' James I (1621)
33.
John Payne Collier
–
John Payne Collier, was an English Shakespearian critic and forger. He was summoned before the House of Commons in 1819 for giving a report of a speech by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but was not called to the bar until 1829, the delay was partly due to his indiscretion in publishing the Criticisms on the Bar by Amicus Curiae. His leisure was given to the study of Shakespeare and the early English drama, after some minor publications, he produced in 1825–1827 a new edition of Dodsleys Old Plays and in 1833 a supplementary volume entitled Five Old Plays. In 1831 appeared his 3-volume History of English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakespeare and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration, in 1847 he was appointed secretary to the Royal Commission on the British Museum. Collier used these opportunities to effect a series of literary fabrications, over the next several years he claimed to find a number of new documents relating to Shakespeares life and business. In this book were numerous manuscript emendations of Shakespeare, said by Collier to be from the hand of an old corrector and he published these corrections as Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakespeare and boldly incorporated them in his next edition of Shakespeare. Their authenticity was disputed by S. W, singer in The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated and by E. A. Brae in Literary Cookery on internal evidence, in 1859 the folio was submitted by its owner, the Duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum, the emendations were incontestably proved to be forgeries of modern date. Collier was exposed by Nicholas Hamilton in his Inquiry and he had produced the Memoirs of Edward Alleyn for the Shakespeare Society in 1841. He followed up this volume with the Alleyn Papers and the Diary of Philip Henslowe, no statement of his can be accepted without verification, and no manuscript he has handled without careful examination, but he did much useful work. His Old Mans Diary is a record, though even here the taint of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately, what he did amiss is more striking to the imagination than what he did aright and he died at Maidenhead, where he had long resided, on 17 September 1883. For an account of the discussion raised by Colliers emendations, see C. M, ingleby, Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy. In the later 20th century, some scholars attempted a re-evaluation of Collier, the main effort was by Dewey Ganzel, in his 1982 study Fortune and Mens Eyes. The case for Collier has relied on the fact that not all of the accusations of forgery against Collier have stood up to critical examination, the consensus of scholarly opinion has remained convinced of Colliers guilt. Samuel Schoenbaum, in his discussion of the Collier case, mentions a damning incident omitted by Ganzel. In his old age in 1875, more than thirty years after the Perkins folio, by this time his reputation was so tarnished that he was not able to launch another campaign of forgery, and while the Milton folio indeed exists, the annotations are not by Milton
John Payne Collier
–
John Payne Collier
34.
John Warburton (officer of arms)
–
John Warburton was an antiquarian, cartographer, and Somerset Herald of Arms in Ordinary at the College of Arms in the early 18th century. He was the son of Benjamin and Mary Warburton, in early life John was an exciseman and then a supervisor, being stationed in 1718–19 at Bedale in Yorkshire. He was admitted F. R. S. in March 1719 and his election as F. S. A. took place on 13 January 1720, but he ceased to be a member before January 1754. On 18 June 1720 he was appointed to the office of Somerset Herald in the College of Arms, Warburtons first wife was Dorothy, but they separated in 1716. He later married a widow with children, and is said to have married her son, by his second wife he had a son called John. Warburton died at his apartments in the College of Arms, London, his place of residence, on 11 May 1759. Warburton published in 1716 from actual survey a map of Northumberland in four sheets, and during the few years brought out similar maps of Yorkshire, Middlesex, Essex. He brought out in 1749 a Map of Middlesex in two sheets of imperial atlas, which came under the censure of John Anstis the Younger. Warburton endeavoured to vindicate himself in London and Middlesex illustrated by Names, Residence, Genealogy, in 1753 he published Vallum Romanum, or the History and Antiquities of the Roman Wall in Cumberland and Northumberland, the survey and plan of which were made by him in 1715. William Hutton applauded him as the judicious Warburton, whom I regard for his veracity, John Nichols printed in 1779 in two volumes from the collections of Warburton and Ducarel Some Account of the Alien Priories, but the compilers names were not mentioned. This omission was rectified in many copies issued in 1786 with a new title-page and he was an avid collector of old book and manuscripts, but often careless. After much drinking and attempting to muddle Humfrey Wanley, he sold in July 1720 to the Earl of Oxford many valuable manuscripts on Wanleys own terms, on another occasion, he left a pile of drama manuscripts in the kitchen. When he came looking for them a later, nearly all were gone. His cook, Betsy Baker, had used over fifty manuscripts as scrap paper while cooking—either for lighting fires or for lining the bottoms of pie pans while baking pies. Notwithstanding his carelessness, he left him a huge collection of books, manuscripts, and prints. Many of his manuscripts are in the Lansdowne collection at the British Museum. Alexias, or The Chaste Gallant, a tragedy by Philip Massinger, antonio and Vallia, attributed to Philip Massinger, its possible this was identical to or a revision of a play of the same name performed by Philip Henslowes company in 1595. Beauty in a Trance, by John Ford, it was performed by the Kings Men on 28 November 1630, Believe as You List, a comedy by Philip Massinger
John Warburton (officer of arms)
–
Contents
35.
Richard Brome
–
Richard Brome /bruːm/, was an English dramatist of the Caroline era. Virtually nothing is known about Bromes private life, repeated allusions in contemporary works, like Ben Jonsons Bartholomew Fair, indicate that Brome started out as a servant of Jonson, in some capacity. Scholars have interpreted the allusions to mean that Brome may have begun as a servant but later became a sort of secretary. A single brief mention of his familys need seems to show that he had a wife and children and he may have had some experience as a professional actor, a 1628 warrant lists him as a member of the Queen of Bohemias Men. Yet he had started writing for the stage by this date. An early collaboration, A Fault in Friendship was licensed in 1623 for Prince Charless Men, the Northern Lass was another success, and made Bromes reputation. Due to the survival of various documents, much more is known about Bromes professional activities than his personal life. Bromes Sparagus Garden was a success at the Salisbury Court in 1635. As a result, Brome signed a contract with Richard Heton, manager of the Salisbury Court. Brome, however, was unable to produce dramas at the pace. In need of money, Brome resorted to Christopher Beeston, actor, impresario, in August 1635 Beeston loaned Brome £6, and in return Brome committed to write Beeston a play. Heton tried to lure Brome back with a £10 payment for a new play, but they fell behind in his payments again, Beeston ejected Queen Henriettas Men from the Cockpit Theatre in 1636, forcing that company to split up for a time. When Bromes 1635 contract with Heton ended in 1638, new disputes arose among Brome, Beeston, and Heton and it seems that once the Puritans closed the theaters in 1642, Brome struggled seriously. He may have authored an entertainment, Juno in Arcadia, which John P. Cutts has argued was performed for Queen Henrietta Marias arrival at Oxford in 1643 and he wrote commendatory verses for the Beaumont and Fletcher First Folio. In 1649–50 he edited a volume of elegies, titled Lachrymae Musarum, on the death of Henry, in 1652, in a dedication to Thomas Stanley for a quarto edition of his A Jovial Crew, Brome described himself as poor and proud. Brome died at Charterhouse Hospital, London, on 24 September 1652, the plays Brome wrote were certainly, and strongly, influenced by Jonsonian comedy. He was, admittedly and unambiguously, one of the Sons of Ben, the canon of his extant plays includes, The City Wit, c. Revived 1637, printed 1653 The Northern Lass, performed 1629, printed 1632 The Queens Exchange, printed 1657 The Novella, performed 1632, printed 1653 The Weeding of Covent Garden, performed 1633
Richard Brome
–
Engraving by T. Cross from Five New Playes (1653)
36.
Walter Raleigh
–
Sir Walter Raleigh was an English landed gentleman, writer, poet, soldier, politician, courtier, spy and explorer. He was cousin to Sir Richard Grenville and younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and he is also well known for popularising tobacco in England. Raleigh was born to a Protestant family in Devon, the son of Walter Raleigh, later, he became a landlord of property confiscated from the native Irish. He rose rapidly in the favour of Queen Elizabeth I and was knighted in 1585, Raleigh was instrumental in the English colonisation of North America and was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia, which paved the way for future English settlements. In 1591, he secretly married Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the Queens ladies-in-waiting, without the Queens permission, for which he, after his release, they retired to his estate at Sherborne, Dorset. In 1594, Raleigh heard of a City of Gold in South America and sailed to find it, publishing an exaggerated account of his experiences in a book that contributed to the legend of El Dorado. After Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, Raleigh was again imprisoned in the Tower, this time for being involved in the Main Plot against King James I, in 1616, he was released to lead a second expedition in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, men led by his top commander ransacked a Spanish outpost and he returned to England and, to appease the Spanish, was arrested and executed in 1618. Raleigh was one of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, in 2002, he was featured in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Little is known about Raleighs birth, some historians believe that he was born on 22 January 1552, although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography currently favours a date of 1554. He grew up in the house of Hayes Barton, a farmhouse near the village of East Budleigh and he was the youngest of five sons born to Catherine Champernowne in two successive marriages. His half-brothers John Gilbert, Humphrey Gilbert, and Adrian Gilbert, Catherine Champernowne was a niece of Kat Ashley, Elizabeths governess, who introduced the young men at court. Raleighs family was highly Protestant in religious orientation and had a number of near escapes during the reign of Roman Catholic Queen Mary I of England, in the most notable of these, his father had to hide in a tower to avoid execution. As a result, Raleigh developed a hatred of Roman Catholicism during his childhood, in matters of religion, Elizabeth was more moderate than her half sister Mary. In 1569, Raleigh left for France to serve with the Huguenots in the French religious civil wars, in 1572, Raleigh was registered as an undergraduate at Oriel College, Oxford, but he left a year later without a degree. Raleigh proceeded to finish his education in the Inns of Court, in 1575, he was registered at the Middle Temple. At his trial in 1603, he stated that he had never studied law and his life is uncertain between 1569 and 1575, but in his History of the World he claimed to have been an eyewitness at the Battle of Moncontour in France. In 1575 or 1576, Raleigh returned to England, between 1579 and 1583, Raleigh took part in the suppression of the Desmond Rebellions
Walter Raleigh
–
Portrait of Sir Walter Raleigh inscribed right: Aetatis suae 34 An(no) 1588 ("In the year 1588 of his age 34") and left: with his motto Amore et Virtute ("By Love and Virtue"). National Portrait Gallery, London, NPG 7
Walter Raleigh
–
Arms of Raleigh family: Gules, five fusils conjoined in bend argent
Walter Raleigh
–
John Everett Millais,
The Boyhood of Raleigh (1871)
Walter Raleigh
–
Sir Walter Raleigh by
William Segar
37.
Christopher Marlowe
–
Christopher Marlowe, also known as Kit Marlowe, was an English playwright, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe was the foremost Elizabethan tragedian of his day and he greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was born in the same year as Marlowe and who rose to become the pre-eminent Elizabethan playwright after Marlowes mysterious early death. Marlowes plays are known for the use of verse and their overreaching protagonists. A warrant was issued for Marlowes arrest on 18 May 1593, no reason was given for it, though it was thought to be connected to allegations of blasphemy—a manuscript believed to have been written by Marlowe was said to contain vile heretical conceipts. On 20 May, he was brought to the court to attend upon the Privy Council for questioning, there is no record of their having met that day, however, and he was commanded to attend upon them each day thereafter until licensed to the contrary. Ten days later, he was stabbed to death by Ingram Frizer, whether the stabbing was connected to his arrest has never been resolved. Marlowe was born in Canterbury to shoemaker John Marlowe and his wife Catherine and his date of birth is not known, but he was baptised on 26 February 1564, and is likely to have been born a few days before. Thus, he was just two months older than his contemporary William Shakespeare, who was baptised on 26 April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon. Marlowe attended The Kings School in Canterbury and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, however, his degree was awarded on schedule when the Privy Council intervened on his behalf, commending him for his faithful dealing and good service to the Queen. No direct evidence supports this theory, although the Councils letter is evidence that Marlowe had served the government in some secret capacity, of the dramas attributed to Marlowe, Dido, Queen of Carthage is believed to have been his first. It was performed by the Children of the Chapel, a company of boy actors, the play was first published in 1594, the title page attributes the play to Marlowe and Thomas Nashe. Marlowes first play performed on the stage in London, in 1587, was Tamburlaine the Great, about the conqueror Tamburlaine. It is among the first English plays in verse, and, with Thomas Kyds The Spanish Tragedy. Tamburlaine was a success, and was followed with Tamburlaine the Great, the two parts of Tamburlaine were published in 1590, all Marlowes other works were published posthumously. The sequence of the writing of his four plays is unknown. The Jew of Malta, about a Maltese Jews barbarous revenge against the city authorities, has a prologue delivered by a character representing Machiavelli and it was probably written in 1589 or 1590, and was first performed in 1592. It was a success, and remained popular for the fifty years. The play was entered in the Stationers Register on 17 May 1594, Edward the Second is an English history play about the deposition of King Edward II by his barons and the Queen, who resent the undue influence the kings favourites have in court and state affairs
Christopher Marlowe
–
An anonymous portrait in
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, believed to show Christopher Marlowe.
Christopher Marlowe
–
Marlowe was christened at St George's Church, in
Canterbury.
Christopher Marlowe
–
The corner of Old Court of
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where Marlowe stayed during his studies.
Christopher Marlowe
–
Title page of the earliest published text of
Edward II (1594)
38.
John Keats
–
John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He had a significant influence on a range of poets. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keatss work was the most significant literary experience of his life, the poetry of Keats is characterised by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of poets, as they aimed to accentuate extreme emotion through the emphasis of natural imagery. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular, John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795 to Thomas Keats and his wife, born Frances Jennings. There is no evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October and he was the eldest of four surviving children, his younger siblings were George, Thomas, and Frances Mary Fanny who eventually married Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez. Another son was lost in infancy and his father first worked as a hostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, the Globe pub now occupies the site, a few yards from the modern-day Moorgate station. He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a dame school as a child. His parents were unable to afford Eton or Harrow, so in the summer of 1803, he was sent to board at John Clarkes school in Enfield, the small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than the larger, more prestigious schools. In the family atmosphere at Clarkes, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, the headmasters son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso, Spenser, and Chapmans translations. The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as a character, always in extremes, given to indolence. However, at 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, in April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died. The cause of death was a fracture, suffered when he fell from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats. Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and the four went to live with their grandmother, Alice Jennings. In March 1810 when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis and she appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, to take care of them. That autumn, Keats left Clarkes school to apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who was a neighbour, Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery at 7 Church Street until 1813
John Keats
–
Portrait of John Keats by
William Hilton.
National Portrait Gallery, London
John Keats
–
Life mask of Keats by
Benjamin Haydon, 1816
John Keats
–
Wentworth Place, now the
Keats House museum (left), Ten Keats Grove (right)
John Keats
–
Ambrotype of Fanny Brawne taken circa 1850 (photograph on glass)
39.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
–
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan and his critical work, especially on William Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. Coleridge coined many words and phrases, including suspension of disbelief. He was an influence on Ralph Waldo Emerson and American transcendentalism. Throughout his adult life Coleridge had crippling bouts of anxiety and depression, it has been speculated that he had bipolar disorder and he was physically unhealthy, which may have stemmed from a bout of rheumatic fever and other childhood illnesses. He was treated for these conditions with laudanum, which fostered a lifelong opium addiction, Coleridge was born on 21 October 1772 in the town of Ottery St Mary in Devon, England. He had previously been Master of Hugh Squiers School in South Molton, Devon, John Coleridge had three children by his first wife. Samuel was the youngest of ten by the Reverend Mr. Coleridges second wife, Anne Bowden, probably the daughter of John Bowden, Mayor of South Molton, Devon, Coleridge suggests that he took no pleasure in boyish sports but instead read incessantly and played by himself. At that school Coleridge became friends with Charles Lamb, a schoolmate, in fancy I can almost hear him now, exclaiming Harp. Pen and ink, boy, you mean, oh aye. the cloister-pump, I suppose. Be this as it may, there was one custom of our masters and he would often permit our theme exercises. To accumulate, till each lad had four or five to be looked over, throughout his life, Coleridge idealised his father as pious and innocent, while his relationship with his mother was more problematic. His childhood was characterised by attention seeking, which has linked to his dependent personality as an adult. He was rarely allowed to return home during the term. He later wrote of his loneliness at school in the poem Frost at Midnight, With unclosed lids, from 1791 until 1794, Coleridge attended Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1792, he won the Browne Gold Medal for an ode that he wrote on the slave trade, afterwards, he was rumoured to have had a bout of severe depression. His brothers arranged for his discharge a few months later under the reason of insanity and he was readmitted to Jesus College, at Jesus College, Coleridge was introduced to political and theological ideas then considered radical, including those of the poet Robert Southey. Coleridge joined Southey in a plan, soon abandoned, to found a utopian society, called Pantisocracy
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
–
Coleridge in 1795
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
–
Signature
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
–
Mary Matilda Betham, Sara Coleridge (Mrs. Samuel Taylor Coleridge), Portrait miniature, 1809
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
–
Image of Coleridge, from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and The Vision of Sir Launfal (by Coleridge and
James Russell Lowell), published by
Sampson Low, 1906.
40.
T. S. Eliot
–
Thomas Stearns Eliot OM was a British essayist, publisher, playwright, literary and social critic, and one of the twentieth centurys major poets. He moved from his native United States to England in 1914 at the age of 25, settling, working and he eventually became a British subject in 1927 at the age of 39, renouncing his American citizenship. Eliot attracted widespread attention for his poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock and it was followed by some of the best-known poems in the English language, including The Waste Land, The Hollow Men, Ash Wednesday, and Four Quartets. He was also known for his seven plays, particularly Murder in the Cathedral and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948, for his outstanding, pioneer contribution to present-day poetry. The Eliots were a Boston family with roots in Old and New England, Thomas Eliots paternal grandfather, William Greenleaf Eliot, had moved to St. Louis, Missouri to establish a Unitarian Christian church there. Eliot was the last of six surviving children, his parents were both 44 years old when he was born, Eliot was born at 2635 Locust St. property owned by his grandfather, William Greenleaf Eliot. His four sisters were between 11 and 19 years older, his brother was eight years older, known to family and friends as Tom, he was the namesake of his maternal grandfather, Thomas Stearns. Eliots childhood infatuation with literature can be ascribed to several factors, firstly, he had to overcome physical limitations as a child. Struggling from a congenital double inguinal hernia, he could not participate in physical activities. As he was isolated, his love for literature developed. Once he learned to read, the boy immediately became obsessed with books and was absorbed in tales depicting savages. In his memoir of Eliot, his friend Robert Sencourt comments that the young Eliot would often curl up in the window-seat behind an enormous book, setting the drug of dreams against the pain of living. Secondly, Eliot credited his hometown with fuelling his literary vision, I feel that there is something in having passed ones childhood beside the big river, which is incommunicable to those people who have not. I consider myself fortunate to have been here, rather than in Boston, or New York. From 1898 to 1905, Eliot attended Smith Academy, where his studies included Latin, Ancient Greek, French and he began to write poetry when he was fourteen under the influence of Edward Fitzgeralds Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, a translation of the poetry of Omar Khayyam. He said the results were gloomy and despairing and he destroyed them and his first published poem, A Fable For Feasters, was written as a school exercise and was published in the Smith Academy Record in February 1905. Also published there in April 1905 was his oldest surviving poem in manuscript and he also published three short stories in 1905, Birds of Prey, A Tale of a Whale and The Man Who Was King. The last mentioned story significantly reflects his exploration of Igorot Village while visiting the 1904 Worlds Fair of St. Louis, such a link with primitive people importantly antedates his anthropological studies at Harvard
T. S. Eliot
–
T. S. Eliot in 1934
T. S. Eliot
–
Vivienne Haigh-Wood Eliot, passport photograph from 1920.
T. S. Eliot
–
A plaque at
SOAS 's Faber Building, 24
Russell Square, London
T. S. Eliot
–
The
Faber and Faber building where Eliot worked from 1925 to 1965; the commemorative plaque is under the right-hand arch.
41.
Georgics
–
The Georgics is a poem by Latin poet Virgil, likely published in 29 BC. As the name suggests the subject of the poem is agriculture, the Georgics is considered Virgils second major work, following his Eclogues and preceding the Aeneid. The poem draws on a variety of sources, and has influenced many later authors from antiquity to the present. The work consists of 2,188 hexametric verses divided into four books, the yearly timings by the rising and setting of particular stars were valid for the precession epoch of Virgils time, and so are not always valid now. Virgil begins his poem with a summary of the four books and it takes as its model the work on farming by Varro, but differs from it in important ways. Numerous technical passages fill out the first half of Book 1, of particular interest are lines 160–175, where Virgil describes the plow. In the succession of ages, whose model is ultimately Hesiod, the age of Jupiter and its relation to the golden age, of chief importance is the contribution of labor to the success or failure of mankind’s endeavors, agricultural or otherwise. The book comes to one climax with the description of a storm in lines 311–50. After detailing various weather-signs, Virgil ends with an enumeration of the associated with Caesar’s assassination and civil war. Prominent themes of the book include agriculture as mans struggle against a hostile natural world, often described in violent terms. Like the first book, it begins with a poem addressing the divinities associated with the matters about to be discussed, viticulture, trees, in the next hundred lines Virgil treats forest and fruit trees. Their propagation and growth are described in detail, with a contrast drawn between methods that are natural and those that require human intervention. Three sections on grafting are of particular interest, presented as marvels of man’s alteration of nature, also included is a catalogue of the worlds trees, set forth in rapid succession, and other products of various lands. A point of cultural interest is a reference to Ascra in line 176 and these depict the growth and beauty that accompany springs arrival. The poet then returns to didactic narrative with yet more on vines, emphasizing their fragility, a warning about animal damage provides occasion for an explanation of why goats are sacrificed to Bacchus. The olive tree is presented in contrast to the vine. The next subject, at last turning away from the vine, is other kinds of trees, those that produce fruit, then Virgil again returns to grapevines, recalling the myth of the battle of the Lapiths and Centaurs in a passage known as the Vituperation of Vines. The remainder of the book is devoted to extolling the simple country life over the corruptness of the city, the third book is chiefly and ostensibly concerned with animal husbandry
Georgics
–
Georgics Book III, Shepherd with Flocks,
Roman Virgil.
Georgics
–
1798 illustration
42.
Virgil
–
Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil /ˈvɜːrdʒᵻl/ in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He wrote three of the most famous poems in Latin literature, the Eclogues, the Georgics, a number of minor poems, collected in the Appendix Vergiliana, are sometimes attributed to him. Virgil is traditionally ranked as one of Romes greatest poets and his Aeneid has been considered the national epic of ancient Rome from the time of its composition to the present day. Virgils work has had wide and deep influence on Western literature, most notably Dantes Divine Comedy, in which Virgil appears as Dantes guide through Hell, the tradition holds that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Analysis of his name has led to beliefs that he descended from earlier Roman colonists, modern speculation ultimately is not supported by narrative evidence either from his own writings or his later biographers. Macrobius says that Virgils father was of a background, however. He attended schools in Cremona, Mediolanum, Rome and Naples, after considering briefly a career in rhetoric and law, the young Virgil turned his talents to poetry. From Virgils admiring references to the neoteric writers Pollio and Cinna, it has been inferred that he was, for a time, according to Servius, schoolmates considered Virgil extremely shy and reserved, and he was nicknamed Parthenias or maiden because of his social aloofness. Virgil also seems to have suffered bad health throughout his life, according to the Catalepton, he began to write poetry while in the Epicurean school of Siro the Epicurean at Naples. A group of works attributed to the youthful Virgil by the commentators survive collected under the title Appendix Vergiliana. One, the Catalepton, consists of fourteen poems, some of which may be Virgils, and another. The biographical tradition asserts that Virgil began the hexameter Eclogues in 42 BC and it is thought that the collection was published around 39–38 BC, the Eclogues are a group of ten poems roughly modeled on the bucolic hexameter poetry of the Hellenistic poet Theocritus. The loss of his farm and the attempt through poetic petitions to regain his property have traditionally been seen as Virgils motives in the composition of the Eclogues. This is now thought to be an unsupported inference from interpretations of the Eclogues, the ten Eclogues present traditional pastoral themes with a fresh perspective. Eclogues 1 and 9 address the land confiscations and their effects on the Italian countryside,2 and 3 are pastoral and erotic, discussing both homosexual love and attraction toward people of any gender. Eclogue 4, addressed to Asinius Pollio, the so-called Messianic Eclogue uses the imagery of the age in connection with the birth of a child. Virgil came to many of the other leading literary figures of the time, including Horace, in whose poetry he is often mentioned, and Varius Rufus. At Maecenas insistence Virgil spent the years on the long didactic hexameter poem called the Georgics which he dedicated to Maecenas
Virgil
–
Depiction of Virgil, 3rd century AD ("Monnus-Mosaic",
Rheinisches Landesmuseum,
Trier)
Virgil
–
A
bust of Virgil in
Naples
Virgil
–
Page from the Eclogues in the 5th-century Vergilius Romanus
Virgil
–
Late 17th-century illustration of a passage from the Georgics by
Jerzy Siemiginowski-Eleuter
43.
Hesiod
–
Hesiod was a Greek poet generally thought by scholars to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as Homer. He is generally regarded as the first written poet in the Western tradition to regard himself as a persona with an active role to play in his subject. Ancient authors credited Hesiod and Homer with establishing Greek religious customs, modern scholars refer to him as a major source on Greek mythology, farming techniques, early economic thought, archaic Greek astronomy and ancient time-keeping. The dating of his life is an issue in scholarly circles. Epic narrative allowed poets like Homer no opportunity for personal revelations, however, Hesiods extant work comprises didactic poems in which he went out of his way to let his audience in on a few details of his life. There are three references in Works and Days, as well as some passages in his Theogony that support inferences made by scholars. Some scholars have seen Perses as a creation, a foil for the moralizing that Hesiod develops in Works and Days. Gregory Nagy, on the hand, sees both Persēs and Hēsiodos as fictitious names for poetical personae. The family association with Cyme might explain his familiarity with eastern myths, evident in his poems, however, while his poetry features some Aeolisms there are no words that are certainly Boeotian—he composed in the main literary dialect of the time, Ionian. Pausanias asserted that Boeotians showed him an old tablet made of lead on which the Works were engraved. If he did write or dictate, it was perhaps as an aid to memory or because he lacked confidence in his ability to produce poems extempore and it certainly wasnt in a quest for immortal fame since poets in his era had no such notions. However, some suspect the presence of large-scale changes in the text. Possibly he composed his verses during idle times on the farm and he was in fact a misogynist of the same calibre as the later poet, Semonides. He resembles Solon in his preoccupation with issues of good versus evil and how a just and he resembles Aristophanes in his rejection of the idealised hero of epic literature in favour of an idealised view of the farmer. Yet the fact that he could eulogise kings in Theogony and denounce them as corrupt in Works, two different—yet early—traditions record the site of Hesiods grave. This tradition follows a familiar ironic convention, the oracle that predicts accurately after all, the other tradition, first mentioned in an epigram by Chersias of Orchomenus written in the 7th century BC claims that Hesiod lies buried at Orchomenus, a town in Boeotia. Eventually they came to regard Hesiod too as their hearth-founder, later writers attempted to harmonize these two accounts. Greeks in the fifth and early 4th centuries BC considered their oldest poets to be Orpheus, Musaeus, Hesiod
Hesiod
–
The Dance of the Muses at Mount Helicon by
Bertel Thorvaldsen (1807). Hesiod cites inspiration from the
Muses while on Mount Helicon.
Hesiod
–
Hesiod and the
Muse, by
Gustave Moreau. Here he is presented with a
lyre, which contradicts the account given by Hesiod himself, in which the gift was a laurel staff.
Hesiod
–
Modern Mount Helicon—Hesiod once described his nearby hometown,
Ascra, as "cruel in winter, hard in summer, never pleasant."
Hesiod
–
16th-century manuscript of Theogony
44.
Francis Bacon
–
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
Francis Bacon
–
Portrait of Francis Bacon, by
Frans Pourbus (1617),
Palace on the Water in
Warsaw.
Francis Bacon
–
The 18-year-old Francis Bacon. Inscription around his head reads: Si tabula daretur digna animum mallem,
Latin for "If one could but paint his mind" (see also below).
National Portrait Gallery, London
Francis Bacon
–
The
Italianate York Water Gate – the entry to York House, built about 1626, the year of Bacon's death
Francis Bacon
–
Francis Bacon's statue at
Gray's Inn, South Square, London
45.
Hero and Leander
–
Leander fell in love with Hero and would swim every night across the Hellespont to spend time with her. Hero would light a lamp at the top of her tower to guide his way, succumbing to Leanders soft words and to his argument that Aphrodite, as the goddess of love, would scorn the worship of a virgin, Hero allowed him to make love to her. Their trysts lasted through a warm summer, but one stormy winter night, the waves tossed Leander in the sea and the breezes blew out Heros light, Leander lost his way and drowned. When Hero saw his body, she threw herself over the edge of the tower to her death to be with him. Leander has been unable to swim across to Hero in her tower because of bad weather, her summons to him to make the effort will prove fatal to her lover, musaeuss poem had early translations into European languages by Bernardo Tasso, Boscán and Clément Marot. Chapmans 1616 translation has the title The divine poem of Musaeus, translated according to the original, by Geo, Chapman. Staplyton, the mid-17th century translator, had read Scaligers repudiation of this mistaken belief, renaissance poet Christopher Marlowe began an expansive version of the narrative. Sir Walter Ralegh alludes to the story, in his The Oceans Love to Cynthia, in which Hero has fallen asleep, and fails to keep alight the lamp that guides Leander on his swim. Shakespeare also mentions this story in the scene of Two Gentlemen of Verona. PROTEUS, Upon some book I love Ill pray for thee, VALENTINE, Thats on some shallow story of deep love, How young Leander crossd the Hellespont. PROTEUS, Thats a deep story of a love, For he was more than over shoes in love. VALENTINE, Tis true, for you are over boots in love, Hero and Leander are again mentioned in Two Gentlemen of Verona in Act III Scene I when Valentine is tutoring the Duke of Milan on how to woo the lady from Milan. But these are all lies, men have died from time to time and worms have eaten them, ben Jonsons play Bartholomew Fair features a puppet show of Hero and Leander in Act V, translated to London, with the Thames serving as the Hellespont between the lovers. Myths and Hymns, by Adam Guettel, contains a song titled after the pair, robert Schumann is said to have perceived his In der Nacht from Phantasiestücke as depicting the story of Hero and Leandros. Lord Byron references Leander in Written After Swimming From Sestos To Abydos, the myth of Hero and Leander inspired his own swim across the Hellespont in May,1810. Byron also alludes to his feat, with reference to Leander, in Don Juan, canto II. Franz Grillparzers 1831 tragedy Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen is based on the tale, Friedrich Schiller wrote the ballad Hero und Leander based on the tale. Georg Friedrich Handels 1707 solo cantata in Italian, Ero e Leandro, is based on the tale, alfredo Catalani composed a tone-poem, Ero e Leandro, based on the tale
Hero and Leander
–
The Last Watch of Hero by
Frederic Leighton, depicting Hero anxiously waiting for Leander during the storm.
Hero and Leander
–
Leander swimming across the Hellespont. Detail from a painting by
Bernard Picart.
46.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
–
Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the major English Romantic poets, and is regarded by some as among the finest lyric, as well as most influential, poets in the English language. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not see fame during his lifetime, but recognition for his poetry grew steadily following his death. Shelley was a key member of a circle of visionary poets and writers that included Lord Byron, Leigh Hunt, Thomas Love Peacock, and his own second wife, Mary Shelley. Shelley is perhaps best known for such poems as Ozymandias, Ode to the West Wind, To a Skylark, Music, When Soft Voices Die, The Cloud. Shelleys close circle of friends included some of the most important progressive thinkers of the day, including his father-in-law, the philosopher William Godwin and Leigh Hunt. Though Shelleys poetry and prose output remained steady throughout his life, most publishers, Shelley became a lodestone to the subsequent three or four generations of poets, including important Victorian and Pre-Raphaelite poets such as Robert Browning and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. He was admired by Oscar Wilde, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, Bertrand Russell, yeats, Upton Sinclair and Isadora Duncan. Henry David Thoreaus civil disobedience was apparently influenced by Shelleys non-violence in protest, Shelleys popularity and influence has continued to grow in contemporary poetry circles. Shelley was born on 4 August 1792 at Field Place, Broadbridge Heath, near Horsham, West Sussex, England. He was the eldest legitimate son of Sir Timothy Shelley, a Whig Member of Parliament for Horsham from 1790–92 and he had four younger sisters and one much younger brother. He received his education at home, tutored by the Reverend Evan Edwards of nearby Warnham. His cousin and lifelong friend Thomas Medwin, who lived nearby and it was a happy and contented childhood spent largely in country pursuits such as fishing and hunting. In 1802, he entered the Syon House Academy of Brentford, in 1804, Shelley entered Eton College, where he fared poorly, and was subjected to an almost daily mob torment at around noon by older boys, who aptly called these incidents Shelley-baits. Surrounded, the young Shelley would have his books torn from his hands and his clothes pulled at and this daily misery could be attributed to Shelleys refusal to take part in fagging and his indifference towards games and other youthful activities. Because of these peculiarities he acquired the nickname Mad Shelley, Shelley possessed a keen interest in science at Eton, which he would often apply to cause a surprising amount of mischief for a boy considered to be so sensible. Shelley would often use an electric machine to charge the door handle of his room. His friends were particularly amused when his tutor, Mr Bethell, in attempting to enter his room, was alarmed at the noise of the electric shocks. His mischievous side was again demonstrated by his last bit of naughtiness at school, despite these jocular incidents, a contemporary of Shelley, W. H. Merie, recalled that Shelley made no friends at Eton, although he did seek a kindred spirit without success
Percy Bysshe Shelley
–
Portrait of Shelley by
Alfred Clint (1819)
Percy Bysshe Shelley
–
Signature
Percy Bysshe Shelley
–
William Godwin in 1802, by
James Northcote.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
–
Richard Rothwell 's portrait of Mary Shelley in later life was shown at the
Royal Academy in 1840, accompanied by lines from Percy Shelley's poem
The Revolt of Islam calling her a "child of love and light".
47.
The Revolt of Islam
–
The Revolt of Islam is a poem in twelve cantos composed by Percy Bysshe Shelley in 1817. The poem was published under the title Laon and Cythna, or, The Revolution of the Golden City. Shelley composed the work in the vicinity of Bisham Wood, near Great Marlow in Buckinghamshire, northwest of London, from April to September. The plot centres on two characters named Laon and Cythna who initiate a revolution against the ruler of the fictional state of Argolis. Despite its title, the poem is not focused on Islam as a religion, though the general subject of religion is addressed. The work is a parable on liberation and revolutionary idealism following the disillusionment of the French Revolution. In The Revolt of Islam, A Poem, in Twelve Cantos, consisting of 4,818 lines, Shelley returned to the social and political themes of Queen Mab, A Philosophical Poem. The poem is in Spenserian stanzas with each containing nine lines in total. It was written in the spring and summer of 1817 and it was originally published under the title Laon and Cythna, or, The Revolution of the Golden City, A Vision of the Nineteenth Century. The publishers, Charles and James Ollier, however, refused to print the work because of its theme of incest, only a few copies were issued. They demanded changes to the text, the work was republished in 1818 under the title The Revolt of Islam. There exists in this poem a memorial of a friend of his youth, Shelley himself gave two accounts of the poem. In a letter to William Godwin,11 December 1817, he wrote, I felt the precariousness of my life, and I engaged in this task, resolved to leave some record of myself. Much of what the volume contains was written with the feeling, as real, though not so prophetic. I never presumed indeed to consider it anything approaching to faultless, I felt that it was in many respects a genuine picture of my own mind. I felt that the sentiments were true, not assumed, and in this have I long believed that my power consists, in sympathy and that part of the imagination which relates to sentiment and contemplation. Of course, I believe these faculties, which comprehend all that is sublime in man. The first canto is, indeed, in some measure a distinct poem, I say this because, if it were all written in the manner of the first canto, I could not expect that it would be interesting to any great number of people
The Revolt of Islam
–
1818 title page, C. and J. Ollier
48.
Mary Shelley
–
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was an English novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus. She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft. When Mary was four, her father married a neighbour, with whom, as her stepmother, in 1814, Mary began a romance with one of her fathers political followers, Percy Bysshe Shelley, whom she eventually married. Together with Marys stepsister Claire Clairmont, Mary and Shelley left for France, upon their return to England, Mary was pregnant with Percys child. Over the next two years, she and Percy faced ostracism, constant debt, and the death of their prematurely born daughter and they married in late 1816, after the suicide of Percy Shelleys first wife, Harriet. In 1816, the couple spent a summer with Lord Byron, John William Polidori, and Claire Clairmont near Geneva, Switzerland. The Shelleys left Britain in 1818 for Italy, where their second and third died before Mary Shelley gave birth to her last and only surviving child. In 1822, her husband drowned when his boat sank during a storm near Viareggio. A year later, Mary Shelley returned to England and from then on devoted herself to the upbringing of her son, the last decade of her life was dogged by illness, probably caused by the brain tumour that was to kill her at the age of 53. Recent scholarship has yielded a comprehensive view of Mary Shelley’s achievements. Mary Shelleys works often argue that cooperation and sympathy, particularly as practised by women in the family, were the ways to reform civil society. This view was a challenge to the individualistic Romantic ethos promoted by Percy Shelley. Mary Shelley was born as Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin in Somers Town, London and she was the second child of the feminist philosopher, educator, and writer Mary Wollstonecraft, and the first child of the philosopher, novelist, and journalist William Godwin. Wollstonecraft died of fever shortly after Mary was born. Godwin was left to bring up Mary, along with her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, a year after Wollstonecrafts death, Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which he intended as a sincere and compassionate tribute. However, because the Memoirs revealed Wollstonecrafts affairs and her illegitimate child, Mary Godwin read these memoirs and her mothers books, and was brought up to cherish her mothers memory. Marys earliest years were happy ones, judging from the letters of William Godwins housekeeper and nurse, but Godwin was often deeply in debt, feeling that he could not raise the children by himself, he cast about for a second wife. In December 1801, he married Mary Jane Clairmont, a woman with two young children of her own—Charles and Claire
Mary Shelley
–
Mary Shelley's portrait by
Richard Rothwell, shown at the
Royal Academy in 1840, accompanied by lines from
Percy Shelley 's poem
The Revolt of Islam calling her a "child of love and light".
Mary Shelley
–
Page from
William Godwin's journal recording "Birth of Mary, 20 minutes after 11 at night" (left column, four rows down)
Mary Shelley
–
The Polygon (at left) in
Somers Town, London, between
Camden Town and
St Pancras, where Mary Godwin was born and spent her earliest years
Mary Shelley
–
On 26 June 1814, Mary Godwin declared her love for Percy Shelley at
Mary Wollstonecraft's graveside in the cemetery of
St Pancras Old Church (shown here in 1815).
49.
Oscar Wilde
–
Oscar Fingal OFlahertie Wills Wilde was an Irish playwright, novelist, essayist, and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he one of Londons most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. He is remembered for his epigrams, his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, his plays, as well as the circumstances of his imprisonment, Wildes parents were successful Anglo-Irish, Dublin intellectuals. Their son became fluent in French and German early in life, at university, Wilde read Greats, he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Dublin, then at Oxford. He became known for his involvement in the philosophy of aestheticism. After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles, known for his biting wit, flamboyant dress and glittering conversation, Wilde became one of the best-known personalities of his day. The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with social themes. He wrote Salome in French in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to the prohibition of Biblical subjects on the English stage. Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, at the height of his fame and success, while The Importance of Being Earnest, was still being performed in London, Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for criminal libel. The Marquess was the father of Wildes lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, the charge carried a penalty of up to two years in prison. The trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest, after two more trials he was convicted and imprisoned for two years hard labour. Upon his release he left immediately for France, never to return to Ireland or Britain, there he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol, a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46, Oscar Wilde was born at 21 Westland Row, Dublin, the second of three children born to Sir William Wilde and Jane Wilde, two years behind William. Wildes mother was of Italian descent, and under the pseudonym Speranza and she read the Young Irelanders poetry to Oscar and Willie, inculcating a love of these poets in her sons. Lady Wildes interest in the neo-classical revival showed in the paintings and busts of ancient Greece, William Wilde was Irelands leading oto-ophthalmologic surgeon and was knighted in 1864 for his services as medical adviser and assistant commissioner to the censuses of Ireland. He also wrote books about Irish archaeology and peasant folklore, a renowned philanthropist, his dispensary for the care of the citys poor at the rear of Trinity College, Dublin, was the forerunner of the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital, now located at Adelaide Road. On his fathers side Wilde was descended from a Dutchman, Colonel de Wilde, on his mothers side Wildes ancestors included a bricklayer from County Durham who emigrated to Ireland sometime in the 1770s. Wilde was baptised as an infant in St, marks Church, Dublin, the local Church of Ireland church
Oscar Wilde
–
Photograph taken in 1882 by
Napoleon Sarony
Oscar Wilde
–
Wilde Family home on Merrion Square
Oscar Wilde
–
Statue of Oscar Wilde in
Merrion Square, Dublin. The materials are granite,
green nephrite jade, white
jadeite and
thulite.
Oscar Wilde
–
Oscar Wilde at Oxford
50.
Charles Cowden Clarke
–
Charles Cowden Clarke, English author and Shakespearian scholar, was born in Enfield, Middlesex. Clarkes father, John Clarke, was a schoolmaster in Clarkes Academy in Enfield Town, Charles Clarke taught Keats his letters and encouraged his love of poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards became acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge, Hazlitt, William Macready, Charles Dickens, Douglas Jerrold, Cowden Clarke published many useful books, and edited the text for John Nichols edition of the British poets. His most important work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856 on Shakespeare and other literary subjects, some of the more notable series were published, among them being Shakespeares Characters, chiefly those subordinate, and Molières Characters. In 1859 he published a volume of poems, Carmina Minima. 1n 1832, the cricketer John Nyren began a collaboration with Clarke, the following year, the series of articles appeared as The Cricketers of My Time as part of an instructional book entitled The Young Cricketers Tutor. It became a source for the history and personalities of Georgian cricket. For some years after their marriage the Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in London, in 1849 Vincent Novello with his wife moved to Nice, where he was joined by the Cowden Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at Genoa at the Villa Novello and they collaborated in The Shakespeare Key, unlocking the Treasures of his Style. and in an edition of Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was issued in weekly parts, and completed in 1868. It was reissued in 1886 as Cassells Illustrated Shakespeare, Charles Clarke died at Genoa, and his wife survived him until 12 January 1898. Among Mrs Cowden Clarkes other works may be mentioned The Girlhood of Shakespeares Heroines, see Recollections of Writers, a joint work by the Clarkes containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends, and Mary Cowden Clarkes autobiography, My Long Life. A charming series of letters, addressed by her to an American admirer of her work, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Clarke, Charles Cowden
Charles Cowden Clarke
–
Charles Cowden Clarke
