1.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
2.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. After at first attempting to control, causing massive uprisings. This left a republic to manage a devastated and unsatisfied populace, the German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris. German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism and he envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. The war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, the new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same
German Empire
German Empire
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Flag
German Empire
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Otto von Bismarck
German Empire
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A postage stamp from the
Carolines
3.
West Berlin
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West Berlin was an enclave which comprised the western part of the city of Berlin during the Cold War. It was formally controlled by the Western Allies and formed a de facto part of West Germany, and was entirely surrounded by the Soviet-controlled East Berlin and East Germany. West Berlin had great significance during the Cold War, as it was widely considered by westerners as an island of freedom. A wealthy city, West Berlin was noted for its liberal and cosmopolitan character. With about two million inhabitants, West Berlin had the biggest population of any city in Cold War Germany and it was 100 miles east of the Inner German border and only accessible by land from West Germany by narrow rail and highway corridors. It consisted of the American, British, and French occupation sectors established in 1945 and was de facto part of West Germany and it had a special and unique legal status because its administration was formally conducted by the Western Allies. East Berlin, de jure occupied and administered by the Soviet Union, was the de facto capital of East Germany, the Berlin Wall, built in 1961, physically divided West Berlin from its East German surroundings until it fell in 1989. The Potsdam Agreement established the framework for the occupation of Germany in the wake of World War II. The territory of Germany, as it existed in 1937, would be reduced by most of Eastern Germany thus creating the former territories of Germany. The remaining territory would be divided into four zones, each administered by one of the allied countries, according to the agreement, the occupation of Berlin would end only as a result of a quadripartite agreement. The Western Allies were guaranteed three air corridors to their sectors of Berlin, and the Soviets also informally allowed road, at first, this arrangement was intended to be only a temporary administrative structure, with all parties declaring that Germany and Berlin would soon be reunited. However, as the relations between the allies and the Soviet Union soured and the Cold War began, the joint administration of Germany. Soon, Soviet-occupied Berlin and western-occupied Berlin had separate city administrations, in 1948, the Soviets tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin by imposing a land blockade on the western sectors—the Berlin Blockade. The West responded by using its air corridors for supplying their part of the city with food, in May 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade, and West Berlin as a separate city with its own jurisdiction was maintained. Following the Berlin Blockade, normal contacts between East and West Berlin resumed, however, in cases this proved only temporary. In 1952, the East German government began sealing its borders, as a direct result the electrical grids were separated and phone lines were cut. However, the culmination of the schism did not occur until 1961 with the construction of the Berlin Wall. From the legal theory followed by the Western Allies, the occupation of most of Germany ended in 1949 with the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic
West Berlin
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West Berlin, as of 1978
West Berlin
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Flag
West Berlin
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In 1969 U.S. military vehicles pass through the residential district of
Zehlendorf, a routine reminder that West Berlin was still legally occupied by the Western Allies of World War II
West Berlin
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President
John F. Kennedy addressing from
Rathaus Schöneberg the people of West Berlin on Rudolf-Wilde-Platz (today's John-F.-Kennedy-Platz), 26 June 1963.
4.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
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The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
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Flag
Germany
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Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
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Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
6.
Dresden Academy
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The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, often abbreviated HfBK Dresden or simply HfBK, is a vocational university of visual arts located in Dresden, Germany. Apart from this magnificent building, the Academy owns the building for sculpture in Pfotenhauerstrasse, in 1764, the “Allgemeine Kunst-Academie der Malerey, Bildhauer-Kunst, Kupferstecher- und Baukunst” was founded by order of the Prince-Elector Frederick Christian. From 1768 to 1786 it was located in the Fürstenberg Palace and its first director was the Frenchmen Charles Hutin. After the death of Hutin in 1776, Johann Eleazar Zeissig, referred to as Schenau, the Academy was the successor institution of the first “Zeichen- und Malerschule” founded in 1680. It was one of the oldest academies of art in the German-speaking area, today it is one of the academies of art in Germany that are especially attractive for a degree in art due to their unmistakable profile and optimum general conditions. The students are provided with spacious studies and well equipped workshops, the reorganisation of the Academy started in 1990 offered the chance for innovative and organic development of an academy with a long and successful history and distinct traditions. Well-known artists from the world of art are teaching at the Academy. The different courses available for the study of painting and graphics as well as sculpture are very diverse, the rules for study allow for changes within and between the specialized courses and for using the courses in the best possible way for one’s own artistic ambitions and projects. The degree course of Bildende Kunst consists of 10 semesters and leads to the Diplom degree, the degree course Kunsttechnologie, Konservierung und Restaurierung von Kunst- und Kulturgut is one of the oldest and most renowned education courses on university level in Germany. The new postgraduate course Kunst-Therapie that was established just a few years ago does only exist a second time at one other art academy in Germany, after their academy studies, artists and art teachers are given attractive new chances for qualification in the artistic-social field. Currently Eberhard Bosslet teaches sculpture and concepts of space, one of its most illustrious teachers was Bernardo Bellotto, the painter of the world-famous town scapes of Dresden. At the beginning of the 19th century, painters such as Anton Graff, ernst Rietschel, Gottfried Semper and Ludwig Richter consolidated the reputation of the academy, which experienced a further zenith around the turn of the century. List of universities in Germany Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden Website of Students and Masters of the Fine Arts Department
Dresden Academy
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Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
Dresden Academy
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The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts on
Brühl's Terrace, view of the front side
Dresden Academy
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The glass dome of the main building - colloquially referred to as "Lemon Squeezer"
Dresden Academy
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Pheme or Fama on top of the dome of the main building
7.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
Painting
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The
Mona Lisa, by
Leonardo da Vinci, is one of the most recognizable paintings in the world.
Painting
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Chen Hongshou (1598–1652), Leaf album painting (
Ming Dynasty)
Painting
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Circus Sideshow (
French: Parade de cirque),
Georges Seurat, 1887–88
Painting
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Cave painting of aurochs, (
French: Bos primigenius primigenius),
Lascaux,
France,
prehistoric art
8.
Drawing
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Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. A drawing instrument releases small amount of material onto a surface, the most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard or indeed almost anything, the medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas, the wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities. In addition to its artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, Drawing is one of the major forms of expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks, dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a medium, applied with brushes or pens. Drawing is often exploratory, with emphasis on observation, problem-solving. Drawing is also used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called studies, there are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, free hand and shading. There are also many drawing methods, such as drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania. A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch, in fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called drawings even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing. Drawing as a Form of Communication Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression and these drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts. The sketches and paintings produced in prehistoric times were eventually stylised and simplified, Drawing in the Arts Drawing is used to express ones creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practise, initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings
Drawing
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Pen and wash lion by
Rembrandt in the
Louvre
Drawing
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A person drawing the
Barberini Faun in Munich
Drawing
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Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897.
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Drawing
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André Masson. Automatic Drawing. 1924. Ink on paper, 23.5 x 20.6 cm.
Museum of Modern Art, New York
9.
The Funeral (Grosz)
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The Funeral is a painting by the German Expressionist artist George Grosz, completed between 1917 and 1918. The work combines elements of Futurism and Cubism to show a procession in a modern urban city, as an infernal abyss populated by twisted. A skeleton representing the Grim Reaper sits on the coffin, drinking from a bottle, a mob of mourners gathered around him are presented as ugly, frenzied and as if ridden with alcoholism and late-stage syphilis. Tall claustrophobic buildings are lined above the procession and they seem to heave and bend backwards and forwards, as if about to topple over and collapse onto those cluddered below. Among these buildings is a small church, surrounded by bars, nightclubs. Giving a literal voice to the Dance of Death depicted by the artist, explaining his intention when creating the work, Grosz said, In a strange street by night, a hellish procession of dehumanized figures mills, their faces reflecting alcohol, syphilis, plague. I painted this protest against a humanity that had gone insane, the painting served as the cover artwork for the 1987 album I Am a Wallet by the British rock band Mccarthy
The Funeral (Grosz)
–
The Funeral (Dedicated to Oskar Panizza)
10.
Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition
Dada
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Cover of the first edition of the publication Dada by
Tristan Tzara;
Zürich, 1917
Dada
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Francis Picabia, Dame! Illustration for the cover of the periodical Dadaphone, n. 7, Paris, March 1920
Dada
–
Francis Picabia, (left) Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait, 1 July 1915; (center) Portrait d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité, 5 July 1915: (right) J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit, De Zayas! De Zayas! Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont-Euxin, New York, 1915.
Dada
–
Hannah Höch, Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany, 1919, collage of pasted papers, 90×144 cm,
Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
11.
New Objectivity
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The New Objectivity was a movement in German art that arose during the 1920s as a reaction against expressionism. Rather than some goal of objectivity, it was meant to imply a turn towards practical engagement with the world—an all-business attitude. The movement essentially ended in 1933 with the fall of the Weimar Republic, although New Objectivity has been the most common translation of Neue Sachlichkeit, other translations have included New Matter-of-factness, New Resignation, New Sobriety, and New Dispassion. Sachlich could be best understood as factual, matter-of-fact, impartial, practical, or precise, Sachlichkeit is the form of the adjective/adverb. In particular, Crockett argues against the view implied by the translation of New Resignation, leading up to World War I, much of the art world was under the influence of Futurism and Expressionism, both of which abandoned any sense of order or commitment to objectivity or tradition. In concert with this evocation of angst and unease with bourgeois life, critics of expressionism came from many circles. From the left, a strong critique began with Dadaism and they wanted to use their art in order to express political outrage and encourage political action. Expressionism, to Dadaists, expressed all of the angst and anxieties of society, bertolt Brecht, a German dramatist, launched another early critique of expressionism, referring to it as constrained and superficial. His early plays, Baal and Trommeln in der Nacht express repudations of fashionable interest in Expressionism, after the destruction of the war, more conservative critics gained force particularly in their critique of the style of expressionism. The return to order was especially pervasive in Italy, however, some of the Germans found important inspiration in the pages of the Italian magazine Valori plastici, which featured photographs of recent paintings by Italian classical realists. Hartlaub first used the term in 1923 in a letter he sent to colleagues describing an exhibition he was planning, the verists vehement form of realism emphasized the ugly and sordid. Their art was raw, provocative, and harshly satirical, george Grosz and Otto Dix are considered the most important of the verists. Use of collage in these works became a principle to blend reality and art. This later developed into portraits and scenes by artists such as Grosz, Dix, portraits would give emphasis to particular features or objects that were seen as distinctive aspects of the person depicted. Satirical scenes often depicted a madness behind what was happening, depicting the participants as cartoon-like, other verists, like Christian Schad, depicted reality with a clinical precision, which suggested both an empirical detachment and intimate knowledge of the subject. Schads paintings are characterized by an artistic perception so sharp that it seems to cut beneath the skin, often, psychological elements were introduced in his work, which suggested an underlying unconscious reality. Compared to the verists, the more clearly exemplify the return to order that arose in the arts throughout Europe. The classicists included Georg Schrimpf, Alexander Kanoldt, Carlo Mense, Heinrich Maria Davringhausen, the sources of their inspiration included 19th-century art, the Italian metaphysical painters, the artists of Novecento Italiano, and Henri Rousseau
New Objectivity
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Made in Germany (Den macht uns keiner nach), by George Grosz, drawn in pen 1919, photo-lithograph published 1920 in the portfolio God with us (Gott mit Uns). Sheet 48.3 × 39.1 cm. In the collection of the
MOMA
New Objectivity
–
Panorama of the
IG Farben Building from the south, demonstrating how the curved shape of the building's façade reduces the impact of its scale
12.
Caricature
–
A caricature is a rendered image showing the features of its subject in a simplified or exaggerated way through sketching, pencil strokes, or through other artistic drawings. In literature, a caricature is a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics, Caricatures can be insulting or complimentary and can serve a political purpose or be drawn solely for entertainment. Caricatures of politicians are commonly used in cartoons, while caricatures of movie stars are often found in entertainment magazines. The term is derived from the Italian caricare—to charge or load, an early definition occurs in the English doctor Thomas Brownes Christian Morals, published posthumously in 1716. Expose not thy self by four-footed manners unto monstrous draughts, with the footnote, When Mens faces are drawn with resemblance to some other Animals, the Italians call it, to be drawn in Caricatura Thus, the word caricature essentially means a loaded portrait. Some of the earliest caricatures are found in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, the point was to offer an impression of the original which was more striking than a portrait. Caricature took a road to its first successes in the aristocratic circles of France and Italy. These caricatures were the work of Brig. -Gen, george Townshend whose caricatures of British General James Wolfe, depicted as Deformed and crass and hideous, were drawn to amuse fellow officers. Elsewhere, two great practitioners of the art of caricature in 18th-century Britain were Thomas Rowlandson and James Gillray, Rowlandson was more of an artist and his work took its inspiration mostly from the public at large. Gillray was more concerned with the vicious visual satirisation of political life and they were, however, great friends and caroused together in the pubs of London. In a lecture titled The History and Art of Caricature, the British caricaturist Ted Harrison said that the caricaturist can choose to either mock or wound the subject with an effective caricature. Drawing caricatures can simply be a form of entertainment and amusement – in which case gentle mockery is in order – or the art can be employed to make a social or political point. A caricaturist draws on the characteristics of the subject, the acquired characteristics. Sir Max Beerbohm, created and published caricatures of the men of his own time. His style of single-figure caricatures in formalized groupings was established by 1896 and his published works include Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen, The Poets Corner, and Rossetti and His Circle. He published widely in magazines of the time, and his works were exhibited regularly in London at the Carfax Gallery. George Cruikshank created political prints that attacked the family and leading politicians. He went on to create caricatures of British life for popular publications such as The Comic Almanack
Caricature
–
Caricature of
Aubrey Beardsley by
Max Beerbohm (1896), taken from
Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen
Caricature
–
Ancient
Pompeiian graffiti caricature of a politician.
Caricature
–
James Gillray 's The Plumb-pudding in danger (1805), which caricatured
Pitt and
Napoleon, was voted the most famous of all UK political cartoons.
Caricature
–
Une discussion littéraire à la deuxième Galerie by
Honoré Daumier Lithograph published in Le Charivari newspaper, February 27, 1864
13.
Weimar Republic
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Weimar Republic is an unofficial, historical designation for the German state between 1919 and 1933. The name derives from the city of Weimar, where its constitutional assembly first took place, the official name of the state was still Deutsches Reich, it had remained unchanged since 1871. In English the country was known simply as Germany. A national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the Deutsches Reich was written, in its fourteen years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism, and contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War. The people of Germany blamed the Weimar Republic rather than their leaders for the countrys defeat. However, the Weimar Republic government successfully reformed the currency, unified tax policies, Weimar Germany eliminated most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, it never completely met its disarmament requirements, and eventually paid only a small portion of the war reparations. Under the Locarno Treaties, Germany accepted the borders of the republic. From 1930 onwards President Hindenburg used emergency powers to back Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen, the Great Depression, exacerbated by Brünings policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment. In 1933, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor with the Nazi Party being part of a coalition government, the Nazis held two out of the remaining ten cabinet seats. Von Papen as Vice Chancellor was intended to be the éminence grise who would keep Hitler under control, within months the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act of 1933 had brought about a state of emergency, it wiped out constitutional governance and civil liberties. Hitlers seizure of power was permissive of government by decree without legislative participation and these events brought the republic to an end, as democracy collapsed, a single-party state founded the Nazi era. The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar, Germany from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933. To the right of the spectrum the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model, the Catholic Centre party, Zentrum favoured the term Deutscher Volksstaat while on the moderate left the Chancellors SPD preferred Deutsche Republik. Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany, after the introduction of the republic, the flag and coat of arms of Germany were officially altered to reflect the political changes. The Weimar Republic retained the Reichsadler, but without the symbols of the former Monarchy and this left the black eagle with one head, facing to the right, with open wings but closed feathers, with a red beak, tongue and claws and white highlighting. If the Reichs Eagle is shown without a frame, the charge and colors as those of the eagle of the Reichs coat of arms are to be used. The patterns kept by the Federal Ministry of the Interior are decisive for the heraldic design, the artistic design may be varied for each special purpose. The achievements and signs of movement were mostly done away with after its downfall
Weimar Republic
–
The rebellion, November 1918.
Weimar Republic
–
Flag
Weimar Republic
–
Philipp Scheidemann addresses a crowd from a window of the
Reich Chancellery, 9 November 1918.
Weimar Republic
–
Official postcard of the
National Assembly.
14.
Art Students League of New York
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The Art Students League of New York is an art school located on West 57th Street in Manhattan, New York City, New York. Although artists may study full-time, there have never been any degree programs or grades, the League also maintains a significant permanent collection of student and faculty work, and publishes an online journal of writing on art-related topics, entitled LINEA. The breakaway group of students included women, and was originally housed in rented rooms at 16th Street. Influential board members from this period included painter Thomas Eakins. Membership continued to increase, forcing the League to relocate to larger spaces. In 1889, the League participated in the founding of the American Fine Arts Society, together with the Society of American Artists, the American Fine Arts Building at 215 West 57th Street, constructed as their joint headquarters, has continued to house the League since 1892. In the late 1890s and early 1900s an increasing number of artists came to study. Among them was a young Miss Wilhelmina Weber Furlong and eventually her husband Thomas Furlong, the avant-garde couple served the league in executive and administrative roles and as student members throughout the American modernism movement. Alice Van Vechten Brown, who would later develop some of the first art programs in American higher education, in the years after World War II, the G. I. Bill played an important role in the history of the League by enabling returning veterans to attend classes. As of 2010, the League remains an important part of New York City art life, from 1906 until 1922, and again after the end of World War II from 1947 until 1979, the League operated a summer school of painting at Woodstock, New York. In 1995, the Leagues facilities expanded to include the Vytlacil campus in Sparkill, New York, named after and based upon a gift of the property, since its inception, the Art Students League has employed notable professional artists as instructors and lecturers. Most engagements have been for a year or two, and some, like those of sculptor George Grey Barnard, were quite brief. Others have taught for decades, notably Frank DuMond and George Bridgman, bridgmans successor was Robert Beverly Hale. In 1988, Robert Cenedella took over the George Grosz Chair, luis Mora, Robert Neffson, Maxfield Parrish, Jules Pascin, Joseph Pennell, Richard C. Pionk, Larry Poons, Richard Pousette-Dart, Abraham Rattner, Peter Reginato, Frank J. Alden Weir, and William Zorach
Art Students League of New York
–
Fine Arts Building on West 57th, May, 2009
15.
Farther Pomerania
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Farther Pomerania, Further Pomerania, Transpomerania or Eastern Pomerania, is the part of Pomerania which comprised the eastern part of the Duchy and later Province of Pomerania. It stretched roughly from the Oder River in the West to Pomerelia in the East, the Polish term Pomorze Zachodnie, in modern Polish usage, is a synonym to the West Pomeranian Voivodship, in Polish historical usage it applied to all areas west of Pomerelia. After the Brandenburg-Swedish partition of Pomerania, Farther Pomerania became the Brandenburg-Prussian Province of Pomerania, after the reorganization of the Prussian Province of Pomerania in 1815, Farther Pomerania was administered as Regierungsbezirk Köslin. In 1938, Grenzmark Posen-West Prussia was merged in, in 1945, Farther Pomerania was placed first under Soviet, subsequently under Polish administration, resettled primarily with Poles after the former German population fled or was expelled. Before 1999, the Szczecin Voivodeship and its spin-offs Koszalin Voivodeship, the Szczecin and Koszalin Voivodeships were merged in 1999 and now constitute the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, while Słupsk Voivodeship was merged into the Pomeranian Voivodeship. The German prefix Hinter- denotes a more distant from the speaker. The toponym Pomerania comes from Slavic po more, which means Land at the Sea, initially, Farther Pomerania referred to the areas beyond Pomerania-Wolgast, and the name eventually became adopted for areas east of Stettin by the 16th century. As this Swedish-Prussian border shifted west several times afterwards, the Oder River was considered the edge of Farther Pomerania. In the post-1945 era, Farther Pomerania was affected by the Polish-German border shift, before, it happened to be the Eastern part of German Pomerania, yet thereafter it became the Western part of Polish Pomerania. However, this term is not being adopted by the Germans, as the German part of Pomerania is considered to be Western Pomerania, so Farther Pomerania is still in use
Farther Pomerania
–
Farther Pomerania in 1800 ("Hinterpommern", yellow)
16.
Stolp
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Słupsk is a city in the Pomeranian Voivodeship, in the northern part of Poland. Before 1 January 1999, it was the capital of the separate Słupsk Voivodeship and it is also a part of the historic region of Pomerania. The city is located in the part of present-day Poland. It is the seat of Słupsk County, although it is not part of that county. It has a population of 98,757 and occupies 43.15 square kilometres, the neighbouring administrative districts are Gmina Kobylnica and Gmina Słupsk. There is ongoing discussion regarding extension of the city boundaries to some territory belonging to those two gminas. Słupsk had its origins as a Slavic Pomeranian settlement on the Słupia river in early Middle Ages, in 1265 it was given city rights. By the 14th century, the town had become a centre of administration and trade. Between 1368 and 1478, it was the residence of the Dukes of Pomerania, in 1648, according to the peace treaty of Osnabrück, Słupsk became part of Brandenburg-Prussia. In 1815 it was incorporated into the newly formed Prussian Province of Pomerania, the city became part of the Peoples Republic of Poland in 1945. Slavic names in Pomeranian — Stolpsk, Stôłpsk, Słëpsk, Słëpskò, Stôłp — and Polish — Słupsk — may be related to the words słup. Later during German rule the town was named Stolp, to which the suffix in Pommern was attached in order to avoid confusion with other similarly named. The Germanised name comes from one of five Slavic Pomeranian names of this settlement, the city was occasionally called Stolpe (referring to the Słupia River, whose German name is also Stolpe. Stolpe is also the Latin exonym for this place, administratively, the city of Słupsk has the status of both an urban gmina and a city county. The city boundaries are artificial, with only short natural boundaries around the villages of Kobylnica. The boundaries have remained unchanged since 1949, when Ryczewo became a part of the city, in March 2008, Mayor Maciej Kobyliński put forward a proposal to expand the city limits by incorporating some territory from neighbouring districts. Słupsk shares about three-quarters of its boundaries with the district called Gmina Słupsk. The citys other neighbouring district is Gmina Kobylnica, to the south-west, the city has a fairly irregular shape, with its central point at Plac Zwycięstwa at 54°27′51″N 17°01′42″E
Stolp
–
City Hall, New Gate, view from City Hall to the park and they Waldorff St. Jack Dukes' Castle, Castle Complex (The Castle, Gate Mill, Granary Richter)
Stolp
–
Słupsk boundaries and neighbourhoods (click to enlarge).
Stolp
–
Słupia River in the city centre
Stolp
17.
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
–
The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, often abbreviated HfBK Dresden or simply HfBK, is a vocational university of visual arts located in Dresden, Germany. Apart from this magnificent building, the Academy owns the building for sculpture in Pfotenhauerstrasse, in 1764, the “Allgemeine Kunst-Academie der Malerey, Bildhauer-Kunst, Kupferstecher- und Baukunst” was founded by order of the Prince-Elector Frederick Christian. From 1768 to 1786 it was located in the Fürstenberg Palace and its first director was the Frenchmen Charles Hutin. After the death of Hutin in 1776, Johann Eleazar Zeissig, referred to as Schenau, the Academy was the successor institution of the first “Zeichen- und Malerschule” founded in 1680. It was one of the oldest academies of art in the German-speaking area, today it is one of the academies of art in Germany that are especially attractive for a degree in art due to their unmistakable profile and optimum general conditions. The students are provided with spacious studies and well equipped workshops, the reorganisation of the Academy started in 1990 offered the chance for innovative and organic development of an academy with a long and successful history and distinct traditions. Well-known artists from the world of art are teaching at the Academy. The different courses available for the study of painting and graphics as well as sculpture are very diverse, the rules for study allow for changes within and between the specialized courses and for using the courses in the best possible way for one’s own artistic ambitions and projects. The degree course of Bildende Kunst consists of 10 semesters and leads to the Diplom degree, the degree course Kunsttechnologie, Konservierung und Restaurierung von Kunst- und Kulturgut is one of the oldest and most renowned education courses on university level in Germany. The new postgraduate course Kunst-Therapie that was established just a few years ago does only exist a second time at one other art academy in Germany, after their academy studies, artists and art teachers are given attractive new chances for qualification in the artistic-social field. Currently Eberhard Bosslet teaches sculpture and concepts of space, one of its most illustrious teachers was Bernardo Bellotto, the painter of the world-famous town scapes of Dresden. At the beginning of the 19th century, painters such as Anton Graff, ernst Rietschel, Gottfried Semper and Ludwig Richter consolidated the reputation of the academy, which experienced a further zenith around the turn of the century. List of universities in Germany Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden Website of Students and Masters of the Fine Arts Department
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
–
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
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The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts on
Brühl's Terrace, view of the front side
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
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The glass dome of the main building - colloquially referred to as "Lemon Squeezer"
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
–
Pheme or Fama on top of the dome of the main building
18.
Robert Sterl
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Robert Hermann Sterl was a German painter and graphic artist. He was the son of a stonemason, from 1881 to 1888, he attended the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, where he studied under Leon Pohle and Julius Scholtz, later becoming a master student of Ferdinand Pauwels. A stay at the colony in Goppeln near Bannewitz introduced him to impressionism. After leaving Pauwels studio, he worked as a painter and portraitist and, until 1904. In 1893, he one of the founding members of the Dresden Secession. He was appointed a Professor at the Academy in 1906, where he taught until 1931, and became an associate member of the Berlin Secession in 1909. From 1913 to 1930, he was a member of the Dresdner Galeriekommission and, from 1920, had a seat on the Gallery Advisory Board, when Gotthardt Kuehl died in 1915, Sterl took over his Master Class. During World War I, he worked as a war painter, on the Western Front in 1915, after the war, he bought a house in Struppen and built a spacious studio there. In addition to the usual impressionist subject matter, he painted musicians and workers and he was sympathetic to liberal causes, producing many socially conscious works, some of which are set in Russia, where he had travelled briefly before the war. Two of his paintings were labelled degenerate art in 1937 and removed from the Galerie Neue Meister, during the GDR years, his works were praised for some of the same reasons the Nazis had condemned them. He died after an illness and was buried at his home. The Robert and Helene Sterl Foundation was created just before his death in 1931 and, since 1981, beginning in 1997, the Foundation and related organizations have awarded the Robert Sterl Prize to a master student at the Academy. The prize includes €3,000 and an exhibit at the museum, Robert Sterl und die Kinder, Gemälde, Graphiken und Zeichnungen im Robert-Sterl-Haus, Text by Horst Zimmermann. Guide book, Sammelstiftungen des Bezirkes Dresden,1998, Robert-Sterl-Haus, Naundorf/Struppen, Sächsische Museen, Vol.14, Sächsische Landesstelle für Museumswesen, Joachim Voigtmann, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-422-03103-0. Robert Sterl, Werkverzeichnis der Gemälde und Ölskizzen, edited by Kristina Popova with Birgit Dalbajewa and Gisbert Porstmann, Sandstein Verlag, Dresden 2011, Horst Zimmermann, Der Maler Robert Sterl, Leben und Werk in Briefen und Selbstzeugnissen, Sandstein Verlag, Dresden 2011, ISBN 978-3-942422-62-8. Robert-Sterl-Haus, museum website Drawings by Sterl @ Deutsche Fotothek Works by Robert Sterl, literature by and about Robert Sterl in the German National Library catalogue
Robert Sterl
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Self-portrait (1919)
Robert Sterl
–
Portrait of
Christian Georg Schmorl (1921)
Robert Sterl
–
Portrait of
Arthur Nikisch (1910)
Robert Sterl
–
The Quarrymen (1911)
19.
Osmar Schindler
–
Osmar Schindler was a German painter belonging to the Dresden Academy school of artists. His works were considered a mixture of impressionism and Art Nouveau, osmar Schindler was born on December 22,1869, in the village of Burkhardtsdorf, but grew up in the small town of Bischofswerda,33 km east of Dresden. By 1895 Schindler had travelled to Belgium, the Netherlands, France, in 1900 he was appointed professor of the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts. He led the Modellierklasse and counted George Grosz, Karl Hanusch, Bernhard Kretzschmar and he died on June 19,1927, and was buried at Loschwitz Cemetery. His works include landscapes, historical and figurative scenes as well as contributions to the interior décor of various buildings, for example, his vestry paintings Christ, the Light of the World can be found in the Church of Christ in his home of Bischofswerda. There is also a painting of an altarpiece depicting the crucifixion of Christ at Christ Church in Dresden Klotzsche in 1905. Schindler was also involved in the Internationale Kunst Ausstellung in 1897
Osmar Schindler
–
David and Goliath (1888)
20.
Emil Orlik
–
Emil Orlik was a painter, etcher and lithographer. He was born in Prague, which was at that part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Emil Orlik was the son of a tailor and he first studied art at the private art school of Heinrich Knirr, where one of his fellow pupils was Paul Klee. From 1891, he studied at the Munich Academy under Wilhelm Lindenschmit, later he learned engraving from Johann Leonhard Raab and proceeded to experiment with various printmaking processes. After performing his service in Prague, he returned to Munich. He spent most of 1898, travelling through Europe, visiting the Netherlands, Great Britain, Belgium, during this time he became aware of Japanese art, and the impact it was having in Europe, and decided to visit Japan to learn woodcut techniques. He left for Asia in March 1900, stopping off in Hong Kong, before reaching Japan, in 1905 Emil Orlik moved to Berlin and took a post at the School for Graphic and Book Art of the Museum of Decorative Arts, now part of the Berlin State Museums. He taught at the Berlin College of Arts and Crafts, where one of his students was George Grosz, Orlík Orlik Works by or about Emil Orlík at Internet Archive Emil Orlik prints, books, artwork and biography Emil Orlik - Portraits of Friends and Contemporaries. Jewish Museum in Prague Guide to the Emil Orlik Collection at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York
Emil Orlik
–
Emil Orlík
Emil Orlik
–
Self portrait
Emil Orlik
–
Wilhelm Furtwängler, conductor (1928) (etching with drypoint, printed with tone)
Emil Orlik
–
Wanda Landowska, harpsichordist (1917)
21.
Berlinische Galerie
–
The Berlinische Galerie is a museum of modern art, photography and architecture in Berlin. It is located in Kreuzberg, on Alte Jakobstraße, not far from the Jewish Museum, the Berlinische Galerie was founded in 1975 as a society devoted to exhibiting art from Berlin. For the first few years it was based in an office in Charlottenburg, and its exhibitions were displayed at the Akademie der Künste, in 1978 the Galerie moved into a former landwehr officers mess on Jebensstraße, near Zoo Station. In 1986 it moved again, into the Martin-Gropius-Bau, in 1994 the collection became a public-law foundation. In 1998 the Berlinische Galerie had to leave the Martin-Gropius-Bau due to reconstruction, after six years without a permanent home, it opened in its new location, in former industrial premises in Kreuzberg, in 2004. Built in 1965, the current building was originally a glass warehouse, the museum reopened again in 2015 following a €6 million refurbishment that mainly involved updating the museum’s security and technical equipment. The permanent and temporary exhibitions are displayed across two floors of the building, there is also an auditorium, an archive, a library, a room. The oldest works in the Galeries ownership date from 1870, the museums visual art collection includes works by the Berlin Secession, New Objectivity and Expressionism, as well as Georg Baselitz, Wolf Vostell, and the Junge Wilde. The museum also owns a graphic art collection as well as photographs and architectural models. List of art museums List of museums in Berlin List of museums in Germany Van Uffelen, contemporary Museums - Architecture, History, Collections, Braun Publishing,2010, ISBN 978-3-03768-067-4, pages 222–223. Berlinische Galerie, Landesmuseum für Moderne Kunst, Fotografie und Architektur History from Berliner Immobilienmanagement
Berlinische Galerie
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The Berlinische Galerie in Kreuzberg
Berlinische Galerie
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Central exhibition hall
22.
James Fenimore Cooper
–
James Fenimore Cooper was a prolific and popular American writer of the early 19th century. His historical romances of frontier and Indian life in the early American days created a form of American literature. He lived most of his life in Cooperstown, New York, Cooper was a lifelong member of the Episcopal Church and, in his later years, contributed generously to it. He attended Yale University for three years, where he was a member of the Linonian Society, but was expelled for misbehavior. Before embarking on his career as a writer, he served in the U. S. Navy as a Midshipman, the novel that launched his career was The Spy, a tale about counterespionage set during the Revolutionary War and published in 1821. He also wrote numerous sea stories, and his works are five historical novels of the frontier period known as the Leatherstocking Tales. Among naval historians, Coopers works on the early U. S. Navy have been well received, among his most famous works is the Romantic novel The Last of the Mohicans, often regarded as his masterpiece. James Fenimore Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey in 1789 to William Cooper and Elizabeth Cooper and he was descended from James Cooper of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England, who emigrated to the American colonies in 1679. James and his wife were Quakers who purchased plots of land in New Jersey, seventy-five years after his arrival in America, his great-grandson William was born on December 2,1754. Shortly after James first birthday, his family moved to Cooperstown, New York, later, his father was elected as a United States Congressman from Otsego County. Their town was in a area of New York that had previously been occupied by the Iroquois of the Six Nations. The Iroquois were forced to cede their territory after British defeat in the Revolutionary War, shortly after the American Revolutionary War, the state opened up these former Iroquois lands for sale and development. Coopers father purchased several acres of land in upstate New York along the head-waters of the Susquehanna River. By 1788, William Cooper had selected and surveyed the site where Cooperstown would be established and he erected a home on the shore of Otsego lake and moved his family there in the autumn of 1790. He soon began construction of the mansion that would be known as Otsego Hall and it was completed in 1799 when James was ten. At age 13, Cooper was enrolled at Yale, but he incited a dangerous prank that involved blowing up another students door — after having already locked a donkey in a recitation room, Cooper was expelled in his third year without completing his degree. Disenchanted with college, he obtained work in 1806 as a sailor and, at age 17, by 1811, he obtained the rank of midshipman in the fledgling United States Navy, conferred upon him on an officers warrant signed by Thomas Jefferson. At 20, Cooper inherited a fortune from his father and he married Susan Augusta de Lancey at Mamaroneck, Westchester County, New York on January 1,1811 at age 21
James Fenimore Cooper
–
Photograph by
Mathew Brady, 1850
James Fenimore Cooper
–
Otsego Hall, Cooper's home
James Fenimore Cooper
–
The young Cooper, in
Midshipman 's naval uniform
James Fenimore Cooper
–
The Last of the Mohicans Illustration from 1896 edition, by J.T. Merrill
23.
Bret Harte
–
Francis Bret Harte was an American short story writer and poet, best remembered for his short fiction featuring miners, gamblers, and other romantic figures of the California Gold Rush. In a career spanning more than four decades, he wrote poetry, fiction, plays, lectures, book reviews, editorials, and magazine sketches in addition to fiction. As he moved from California to the eastern U. S. to Europe, he incorporated new subjects and characters into his stories, but his Gold Rush tales have been most often reprinted, adapted, Bret Harte was born in Albany, New York. He was named Francis Brett Hart after his great-grandfather, Francis Brett, when he was young, his father, Henry, changed the spelling of the family name from Hart to Harte. Henrys father was Bernard Hart, an Orthodox Jewish immigrant who flourished as a merchant, later, Francis preferred to be known by his middle name, but he spelled it with only one t, becoming Bret Harte. An avid reader as a boy, Harte published his first work at age 11, rather than attracting praise, the poem garnered ridicule from his family. As an adult, he recalled to a friend, Such a shock was their ridicule to me that I wonder that I ever wrote another line of verse and his formal schooling ended when he was 13, in 1849. Harte moved to California in 1853, later working there in a number of capacities, including miner, teacher, messenger, and journalist. He spent part of his life in the northern California coastal town of Union, the Wells Fargo Messenger, July 1916, relates that, after an unsuccessful attempt to make a living in the gold camps, he signed on as a messenger with Wells Fargo & Co. He guarded treasure boxes on stagecoaches for a few months, then gave it up to become the schoolmaster at a school near Sonora and he created his character Yuba Bill from his memory of an old stagecoach driver. The 1860 massacre of between 80 and 200 Wiyots at the village of Tuluwat was well documented historically and was reported in San Francisco and New York by Harte. When serving as assistant editor for the Northern Californian, Harte editorialized about the slayings while his boss Stephen G. Whipple was temporarily absent, leaving Harte in charge of the paper. Harte published a detailed account condemning the event, writing, a shocking and revolting spectacle never was exhibited to the eyes of a Christian. Old women wrinkled and decrepit lay weltering in blood, their brains dashed out, infants scarcely a span long, with their faces cloven with hatchets and their bodies ghastly with wounds. After he published the editorial, his life was threatened, Harte quit his job and moved to San Francisco, where an anonymous letter published in a city paper is attributed to him, describing widespread community approval of the massacre. Harte married Anna Griswold on August 11,1862 in San Rafael, from the start, the marriage was rocky. Some suggested that she was handicapped by extreme jealousy, while early Harte biographer Henry C, merwin privately concluded that she was almost impossible to live with. Among Hartes first literary efforts, a poem was published in The Golden Era in 1857 and he was hired as editor of The Golden Era in the spring of 1860, which he attempted to make into a more literary publication
Bret Harte
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Bret Harte in 1872
Bret Harte
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Signature
Bret Harte
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Portrait of Bret Harte – oil painting by
John Pettie (1884)
Bret Harte
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Bret Harte's gravestone in the churchyard of St Peter's Church,
Frimley, Surrey, England
24.
Karl May
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Karl Friedrich May was a German writer best known for his adventure novels set in the American Old West. His main protagonists are Winnetou and Old Shatterhand, may set similar books in the Orient and Middle East in which the main protagonists were Kara Ben Nemsi and Hadschi Halef Omar, Latin America and Germany. May also wrote poetry, a play, and composed music, many of his works were adapted for film, stage, audio dramas and comics. Later in his career, May turned to philosophical and spiritual genres and he is one of the best-selling German writers of all time with about 200 million copies worldwide. May was the child of a poor family of weavers in Ernstthal. He had thirteen siblings of whom nine died in infancy, during his school years, he received tuition in music and composition. At twelve, May was making money at a skittle alley, in 1856, May commenced teacher training in Waldenburg but in 1859 was expelled for stealing six candles. After an appeal, he was allowed to continue in Plauen, shortly after graduation, when his room mate accused him of stealing a watch, May was jailed in Chemnitz for six weeks and his license to teach was permanently revoked. After this, May worked with success as a private tutor, an author of tales, a composer. For four years, from 1865 to 1869, May was jailed in the workhouse at Osterstein Castle, with good behaviour, May became an administrator of the prison library which gave him the chance to read widely. He made a list of the works he planned to write On his release, May continued his life of crime, impersonating various characters and spinning fantastic tales as a method of fraud. He was arrested, but when he was transported to a scene during a judicial investigation, he escaped and fled to Bohemia. For another four years, from 1870 to 1874, May was jailed in Waldheim, there he met a Catholic Catechist, Johannes Kochta, who assisted May. After his release in May 1874, May returned to his parents home in Ernstthal, in November 1874, Die Rose von Ernstthal was published. May then became an editor in the house of Heinrich Gotthold Münchmeyer in Dresden. May managed entertainment papers such as Schacht und Hütte and continued to publish his own such as Geographische Predigten. May resigned in 1876 and was employed by Bruno Radelli of Dresden, in 1878, May became a freelance writer. In 1880, he married Emma Pollmer, in 1882, May returned to the employ of Münchmeyer and began the first of five large colportage novels
Karl May
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Karl Friedrich May
Karl May
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The house in which May was born.
Karl May
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Karl May and
Sascha Schneider, 1904.
Karl May
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Tomb of Karl and Klara May.
25.
John Heartfield
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John Heartfield was an artist and a pioneer in the use of art as a political weapon. Some of his photomontages were anti-Nazi and anti-fascist statements, Heartfield also created book jackets for authors such as Upton Sinclair, as well as stage sets for such noted playwrights as Bertolt Brecht and Erwin Piscator. John Heartfield was born on 19 June 1891 in Berlin-Schmargendorf and his father was Franz Herzfeld, a socialist writer, and his mother was Alice, a textile worker and political activist. In 1899, Helmut, his brother Wieland Herzfelde, and his sisters Lotte, for a while, the four children resided with an uncle in the small town of Aigens. Heartfield, his brother and George Grosz launched the publishing house Malik-Verlag in 1917, in 1908, Heartfield studied art in Munich at the Royal Bavarian Arts and Crafts School. Two commercial designers, Albert Weisgerber and Ludwig Hohlwein, were early influences, on the back of a photograph which was taken in 1912, his name is written as Helmut. While living in Berlin, in 1917, he anglicised his name from Helmut Herzfeld to John Heartfield, in 1916, crowds in the street were shouting, Gott strafe England. In 1916, John Heartfield and George Grosz experimented with pasting pictures together, in January,1918, Heartfield joined the newly founded German Communist Party. In 1917, Heartfield became a member of Berlin Club Dada, Heartfield later became active in the Dada movement, helping to organise the Erste Internationale Dada-Messe in Berlin in 1920. Dadaists were the lions of the German art scene, provocateurs who disrupted public art gatherings. They labeled traditional art trivial and bourgeois, Heartfield was a member of a circle of German titans that included Erwin Piscator, Bertolt Brecht, Hannah Höch, and a host of others. Heartfield built theatre sets for Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht, using Heartfields minimal props and stark stages, Brecht interrupted his plays at key junctures to have the audience to be part of the action and not to lose themselves in it. In 1919, Heartfield was dismissed from the Reichswehr film service because of his support for the strike that followed the assassination of Karl Liebknecht, with George Grosz, he founded Die Pleite, a satirical magazine. Heartfield met Bertolt Brecht in 1924, though he was a prolific producer of stage sets and book jackets, Heartfields main form of expression was photomontage. Heartfield produced the first political photomontages and he mainly worked for two publications, the daily Die Rote Fahne and the weekly Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung, the latter of which published the works for which Heartfield is best remembered. In the Museum of Modern Art in New York hangs a George Grosz Montage entitled, during the 1920s, Heartfield produced a great number of photomontages, many of which were reproduced as dust jackets for books such as his montage for Upton Sinclairs The Millennium. Heartfield lived in Berlin until April 1933, when the National Socialists took power, on Good Friday, the SS broke into his apartment, and the 52 Heartfield escaped by jumping from his balcony and hiding in a trash bin. He left Germany by walking over the Sudeten Mountains to Czechoslovakia, in Czechoslovakia, John Heartfield rose to number-five on the Gestapos most-wanted list
John Heartfield
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1971
DDR postal stamp portraying Heartfield
John Heartfield
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Heartfield's The Hand has 5 Fingers.
John Heartfield
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One of John Heartfield's works.
John Heartfield
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Grave of John Heartfield in Berlin
26.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
Museum of Modern Art
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Museum of Modern Art
Museum of Modern Art
Museum of Modern Art
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The entrance to The Museum of Modern Art
Museum of Modern Art
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Stairs in the Museum of Modern Art
27.
Spartacist League
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The Spartacus League was a Marxist revolutionary movement organized in Germany during World War I. The League was named after Spartacus, leader of the largest slave rebellion of the Roman Republic and it was founded by Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, Clara Zetkin, and others. The League subsequently renamed itself the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands, joining the Comintern in 1919 and its period of greatest activity was during the German Revolution of 1918, when it sought to incite a revolution by circulating the newspaper Spartacus Letters. Luxemburg and Liebknecht—the son of SPD founder Wilhelm Liebknecht—became prominent members of the faction of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. They moved to found an independent organization after the SPD supported Imperial Germanys declaration of war on the Russian Empire in 1914 at the start of World War I. The two were imprisoned from 1916 until 1918 for their roles in helping to organize a demonstration in Berlin against German involvement in the war. After two years of war, opposition to the party line grew inside the SPD. More and more members of parliament refused to vote for war bonds and were expelled, the Spartacus League was part of the USPD in its formation period. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Spartacus League began agitating for a similar course, after the abdication of the Kaiser in the German Revolution of November 1918, a period of instability began, which lasted until 1923. On 9 November 1918, from a balcony of the Kaisers Berliner Stadtschloss, however, earlier on the same night, Philipp Scheidemann of the SPD had declared a republic from the Reichstag. In December 1918, the Spartakusbund formally renamed itself the Communist Party of Germany, in January 1919, the KPD, along with the Independent Socialists, launched the Spartacist uprising. This included staging massive street demonstrations intended to destabilize the Weimar government, the government accused the opposition of planning a general strike and communist revolution in Berlin. With the aid of the Freikorps, Eberts administration quickly crushed the uprising, Luxemburg and Liebknecht were taken prisoner and killed in custody. An excerpt from the Spartacist Manifesto, The question today is not democracy or dictatorship, the question that history has put on the agenda reads, bourgeois democracy or socialist democracy. For the dictatorship of the proletariat does not mean bombs, putsches, riots and anarchy, bill Pelz, The Spartakusbund and the German working class movement, 1914-1919, Lewiston, E. Mellen Press,1988. Eric D. Weitz, “’Rosa Luxemburg Belongs to Us. ’” German Communism,1, pp. 27-64 Eric D. Weitz, Creating German Communism, 1890-1990, From Popular Protests to Socialist State. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press,1997 David Priestand, Red Flag, A History of Communism, New York, Grove Press,2009 On the Spartacus Programme by Rosa Luxemburg
Spartacist League
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"Spartakus at work", propaganda poster against the Spartacus League, 1919.
28.
Communist Party of Germany
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The Communist Party of Germany was a major political party in Germany between 1918 and 1933, and a minor party in West Germany in the postwar period until it was banned in 1956. In the 1920s it was called the Spartacists, since it was formed from the Spartacus League, during the Weimar Republic period, the KPD usually polled between 10 and 15 percent of the vote and was represented in the Reichstag and in state parliaments. The party directed most of its attacks on the Social Democratic Party of Germany, banned in Nazi Germany one day after Adolf Hitler emerged triumphant in the German elections in 1933, the KPD maintained an underground organization but suffered heavy losses. In East Germany, the party was merged, by Soviet decree, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, the SED was renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism and subsequently merged into Die Linke. The KPD was banned in West Germany in 1956 by the Constitutional Court, before the First World War the Social Democratic Party was the largest party in Germany and the worlds most successful socialist party. Although still officially claiming to be a Marxist party, by 1914 it had become in practice a reformist party, in 1914 the SPD members of the Reichstag voted in favour of the war. In November 1918, revolution broke out across Germany, germanys Social Democratic government, which had come to power after the fall of the Monarchy, was vehemently opposed to the KPDs idea of socialism. The Party split a few months later into two factions, the KPD and the Communist Workers Party of Germany, following the assassination of Leo Jogiches, Paul Levi became the KPD leader. Other prominent members included Clara Zetkin, Paul Frölich, Hugo Eberlein, Franz Mehring, August Thalheimer, Levi led the party away from the policy of immediate revolution, in an effort to win over SPD and USPD voters and trade union officials. These efforts were rewarded when a section of the USPD joined the KPD. Through the 1920s the KPD was racked by internal conflict between more and less radical factions, partly reflecting the struggles between Zinoviev and Stalin in Moscow. Germany was seen as being of importance to the struggle for socialism. Eventually Levi was expelled in 1921 by the Comintern for indiscipline, further leadership changes took place in the 1920s. In 1923 a new KPD leadership more favorable to the USSR was elected and this leadership, headed by Ernst Thälmann, abandoned the goal of immediate revolution, and from 1924 onwards contested Reichstag elections, with some success. During the years of the Weimar Republic the KPD was the largest communist party in Europe and it maintained a solid electoral performance, usually polling more than 10% of the vote, and gaining 100 deputies in the November 1932 elections. In the presidential election of the year, Thälmann took 13. 2% of the vote. Critics of the KPD accused it of having pursued a sectarian policy – e. g. the Social Democratic Party criticized the KPDs thesis of social fascism and this scuttled any possibility of a united front with the SPD against the rising power of the Nazis. These allegations were repudiated by supporters of the KPD, the leadership of the SPD, it was said
Communist Party of Germany
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Karl-Liebknecht-Haus, the KPD's headquarters from 1926 to 1933. The KPD leaders were arrested by the Gestapo in this building in January 1933, when Hitler became Chancellor. The plaques on either side of the door recall the building's history. Today it is the Berlin headquarters of the
Left Party.
Communist Party of Germany
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Communist Party of Germany
Communist Party of Germany
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KPD in
Essen, 1925
Communist Party of Germany
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KPD election poster, 1932
29.
Spartakus uprising
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The Spartacist uprising, also known as the January uprising, was a general strike in Germany from 4 to 15 January 1919. Because of the unhappiness of many workers with the course of the revolution, after deliberations with the Spartacists, the Revolutionary Stewards decided to remain in the USPD. Rosa Luxemburg drew up her founding programme and presented it on 31 December 1918, in this programme, she pointed out that the communists could never take power without the clear support of the majority of the people. On 1 January she again demanded that the KPD participate in the planned elections, the majority hoped to gain power by continued agitation in the factories and by pressure from the streets. The USPD, the Revolutionary Stewards and KPD took up Eichhorns call for a demonstration to take place on the following day, to the surprise of the organizers, the demonstration turned into a huge, mass demonstration which also attracted the support of many Socialist Party members. On Sunday 5 January, as on 9 November 1918, hundreds of thousands of people poured into the centre of Berlin, some of the middle-class papers in the previous days had called not only for the raising of more Freikorps but also for the murder of the Spartacists. Liebknecht demanded the overthrow of the government, rosa Luxemburg, as well as the majority of KPD leaders, considered a revolt at this moment to be a catastrophe and explicitly spoke out against it. The leaders of the USPD and KPD called for a strike in Berlin on 7 January. Within the strike, some of the organized a plan to oust the more moderate social democrat government. Insurgents seized key buildings, which led to a standoff with the government, meanwhile, the strikers in the occupied quarter obtained weapons. The navy unit was not willing to support the revolt and declared themselves neutral. On 8 January, the KPD resigned from the Revolutionary Committee after USPD representatives invited Ebert for talks, while these talks were taking place, the workers discovered a flyer published by Vorwärts entitled Die Stunde der Abrechnung naht. and about the Freikorps being hired to suppress the workers. Ebert had ordered his minister, Gustav Noske, to do so on 6 January. When the talks broke off, the Spartacist League then called on its members to engage in armed combat, on the same day, Ebert ordered the Freikorps to attack the workers. These former soldiers still had weapons and military equipment from World War I and they quickly re-conquered the blocked streets and buildings and many of the insurgents surrendered. 156 insurgents and 17 Freikorps soldiers died during the fighting and their commander, Captain Waldemar Pabst, had them questioned. That same night, both prisoners were beaten unconscious with rifle butts and shot in the head, rosa Luxemburgs body was thrown into the Landwehr Canal, where it was found on 1 July. Karl Liebknechts body was delivered anonymously to a morgue, bavarian Council Republic German Revolution of 1918–19 Hungarian Soviet Republic Slovak Soviet Republic Bassler, Gerhard P
Spartakus uprising
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January 1919: Barricade in Berlin during the uprising
30.
Reichswehr
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The Reichswehr formed the military organisation of Germany from 1919 until 1935, when it was united with the new Wehrmacht. At the end of World War I, the forces of the German Empire had mostly split up, many of them joined the Freikorps, a collection of volunteer paramilitary units that were involved in suppressing the German Revolution and border clashes between 1918 and 1923. The Vorläufige Reichswehr was made up of 43 brigades, on 30 September 1919, the army was reorganised as the Übergangsheer, and the force size was reduced to 20 brigades. About 400,000 men served in the armed forces, in May 1920 it was downsized to 200,000 men and restructured again, forming three cavalry divisions and seven infantry divisions. On 1 October 1920 the brigades were replaced by regiments and the manpower was now only 100,000 men as stipulated by the Treaty of Versailles and this lasted until 1 January 1921, when the Reichswehr was officially established according to the limitations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. The Reichswehr was an organisation composed of the following, The Reichsheer, an army consisting of, seven infantry divisions. General Command 1 at Berlin supervised 1st Division, 2nd Division, 3rd Division, general Command 2 at Kassel supervised 5,6,7 and 3rd Cavalry divisions. The Reichsmarine, a navy with a number of certain types of ships. The Reichswehr was limited to an army of 100,000 men. The establishment of a staff was prohibited. Heavy weapons such as artillery above the calibre of 105 mm, armoured vehicles, submarines and capital ships were forbidden, compliance with these restrictions was monitored until 1927 by the Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control. Despite the limitations on its size, their analysis of the loss of World War I, research and development, secret testing abroad and planning for better times went on. In addition, although forbidden to have a staff, the army continued to conduct the typical functions of a general staff under the disguised name of Truppenamt. During this time, many of the leaders of the Wehrmacht — such as Heinz Guderian — first formulated the ideas that they were to use so effectively a few years later. Reflecting this position as a “state within the state”, the Reichswehr created the Ministeramt or Office of the Ministerial Affairs in 1928 under Kurt von Schleicher to lobby the politicians. The biggest influence on the development of the Reichswehr was Hans von Seeckt, after the Kapp Putsch, Hans von Seeckt took over this post. After Seeckt was forced to resign in 1926, Wilhelm Heye took the post, Heye was in 1930 succeeded by Kurt Freiherr von Hammerstein-Equord, who submitted his resignation on December 27,1933. The reduction of the strength of the German army from 780,000 in 1913 to 100,000 enhanced the quality of the Reichsheer because only the best were permitted to join the army
Reichswehr
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General
Hans von Seeckt, Chief of the Reichswehr together with infantry men at a Reichswehr maneuver in
Thuringia, 1926
Reichswehr
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War Ensign of the Reichswehr
Reichswehr
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Reichswehr army structure 1920-21 to 1934
Reichswehr
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Reichswehr soldiers in a military exercise, September 1930
