1.
Newburgh, New York (town)
–
Newburgh /ˈnjuːbərɡ/ is a town in Orange County, New York, United States. The town of Newburgh is in the northeast corner of the county, the city of Newburgh is a totally and completely separate municipality which was a part of the town of Newburgh prior to 1865. The town of Newburgh sits on the west bank of the Hudson River, Stewart International Airport is partially located in the town, and is hoped will someday decongest the major airports of New York City. Other through routes which traverse the town are U. S. Route 9W and New York State Route 32 as well as New York State Route 17K and New York State Route 52. A small portion of New York State Route 207 skirts a southern corner of the town for a short distance after it leaves the town of New Windsor. The training center of Local 17 of the Laborers International Union of North America is located on this stretch of Route 207. The newest New York state highway, New York State Route 747, is in the extreme southwest corner of town and it begins at Route 207 in the town of New Windsor and terminates only 3.4 miles to the northwest at Route 17K in the town of Montgomery. However, its central portion is in the town of Newburgh and this new Exit 5A from Interstate 84 is the westernmost of five Interstate 84 interchanges within the town. Route 747 provides an access to Stewart International Airport. This new access road, called International Boulevard, intersects with Route 747 just south of the I-84 interchange, Exit 17 from the New York Thruway is in the town of Newburgh. The western terminus of the Newburgh-Beacon Bridge, which carries Interstate 84, the Orange Mill Historic District is located in the town. It is the historic district within the town. The National Purple Heart Hall of Honor is located on Route 300 in the town of New Windsor, less than two miles south of the town of Newburgh line. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 47.0 square miles. The north town line and about one third of the west town line is the border of Ulster County, New York, the town of Newburgh is bordered on the north by the town of Plattekill and the town of Marlborough, which includes the hamlet of Marlboro. It is bordered on the west by the town of Shawangunk which includes the hamlet of Wallkill and by the town of Montgomery, which includes the villages of Walden, Montgomery and Maybrook. The entire southern boundary is with the town of New Windsor with the exception of a 4. 8-square-mile quadrant, nearly a perfect quadrilateral in shape and this is the city of Newburgh. The eastern boundary of the town of Newburgh is the Hudson River, which separates it from the Dutchess County towns of Poughkeepsie, Wappinger, the town of Newburgh has a hilly terrain
2.
Bridge of Allan
–
Bridge of Allan is a town in the Stirling council area in Scotland, just north of the city of Stirling. It was formerly administered by firstly Stirlingshire County Council and then Central Regional Council. Most of the town is to the east of the river, the bridge is part of the A9, Scotlands longest road, while the railway line, Bridge of Allan railway station is on the Edinburgh to Dunblane Line. During the Iron Age the local people of the area were known as the Maeatae, the early village consisted of seven small clachans, Bridge End, Kierfield, Old Lecropt, Pathfoot, Logie, Corntown and the Milne of Airthrey. The villages were separate and the villagers lived in the small world of their own communities. The site occupied by modern Bridge of Allan stretches from the clachan of Logie across the Allan Water to the University of Stirling and it was first mentioned in a charter granted by King David I. The charter was written in connection with a dispute between the nuns of North Berwick and the monks at Dunfermline Abbey over the tithes of Airthrey and it is undated, but had been granted by 1146. A hogs back, narrow, stone bridge was built to replace the old ford across the River Allan in 1520 and it rose sharply from the riverbank and dipped steeply at the other side. Soon after a few began to appear around the ends of the bridge. In the woods above the bridge a mine opened and this was worked from around 1550, and quantities of copper, silver and gold were extracted. By the middle of the century the Airthrey Estate had passed to relatives of the Marquess of Montrose. The Jacobites were in Bridge of Allan in 1745, where three hundred highlanders set up a roadblock on the bridge and charged a toll for its passage. Major Alexander Henderson, the Laird of Westerton, drew up plans of how he wanted the village to be out in 1850. The plan envisaged spacious streets with pleasure grounds in the woods and he also erected a fountain in Market Street. Among the visitors was Robert Louis Stevenson who visited annually during his youth, the Museum Hall was built by the trustees of John Macfarlane in 1887, originally as the Macfarlane Museum and Art Gallery. In its use as a venue it once played host to the Beatles but was subsequently allowed to fall into disuse. It has now been redeveloped for residential use, the Sunday following the first Saturday in August is usually the date for the Strathallan Games. Founded in 1852 by Major Henderson, the games attract hundreds of athletes, pipe bands, there are two churches in the village, which face one another at the junction of Keir Street and Fountain Road
3.
Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
4.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Barbizon school
–
The Barbizon school of painters were part of an art movement towards Realism in art, which arose in the context of the dominant Romantic Movement of the time. The Barbizon school was active roughly from 1830 through 1870 and it takes its name from the village of Barbizon, France, near the Forest of Fontainebleau, where many of the artists gathered. Some of the most prominent features of school are its tonal qualities, color, loose brushwork. In 1824 the Salon de Paris exhibited works of John Constable and his rural scenes influenced some of the younger artists of the time, moving them to abandon formalism and to draw inspiration directly from nature. Natural scenes became the subjects of their paintings rather than mere backdrops to dramatic events, during the Revolutions of 1848 artists gathered at Barbizon to follow Constables ideas, making nature the subject of their paintings. The French landscape became a theme of the Barbizon painters. Millet extended the idea from landscape to figures — peasant figures, scenes of peasant life, in The Gleaners, for example, Millet portrays three peasant women working at the harvest. Gleaners are poor people who are permitted to gather the remains after the owners of the complete the main harvest. The owners and their laborers are seen in the back of the painting, Millet shifted the focus and the subject matter from the rich and prominent to those at the bottom of the social ladders. To emphasize their anonymity and marginalized position, he hid their faces, the womens bowed bodies represent their everyday hard work. In the spring of 1829, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot came to Barbizon to paint in the Forest of Fontainebleau, while there he met the members of the Barbizon school, Théodore Rousseau, Paul Huet, Constant Troyon, Jean-François Millet, and the young Charles-François Daubigny. During the late 1860s, the Barbizon painters attracted the attention of a generation of French artists studying in Paris. Several of those artists visited Fontainebleau Forest to paint the landscape, including Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, in the 1870s those artists, among others, developed the art movement called Impressionism and practiced plein air painting. Both Théodore Rousseau and Jean-François Millet died at Barbizon, painters in other countries were also influenced by this art. Beginning in the nineteenth century, many artists came to Paris from Austria-Hungary to study the new movements. For instance, the Hungarian painter János Thorma studied in Paris as a young man, in 1896 he was one of the founders of the Nagybánya artists colony in what is now Baia Mare, Romania, which brought impressionism to Hungary. Marlatt Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli Eugène Boudin Antonio Fontanesi American Barbizon school Art colony Naturalism landscape art Macchiaioli Catalogues des Collections des Musees de France, media related to Barbizon School at Wikimedia Commons Hecht Museum Cambridge Art Gallery
6.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
7.
Landscape painting
–
In other works, landscape backgrounds for figures can still form an important part of the work. Sky is almost always included in the view, and weather is often an element of the composition, detailed landscapes as a distinct subject are not found in all artistic traditions, and develop when there is already a sophisticated tradition of representing other subjects. The two main traditions spring from Western painting and Chinese art, going well over a thousand years in both cases. Landscape views in art may be imaginary, or copied from reality with varying degrees of accuracy. If the primary purpose of a picture is to depict an actual, specific place, especially including buildings prominently, within a few decades it was used to describe vistas in poetry, and eventually as a term for real views. However the cognate term landscaef or landskipe for a patch of land had existed in Old English. The earliest pure landscapes with no figures are frescos from Minoan Greece of around 1500 BCE. The frescos from the Tomb of Nebamun, now in the British Museum, are a famous example. These were frequently used, as in the illustrated, to bridge the gap between a foreground scene with figures and a distant panoramic vista, a persistent problem for landscape artists. The Chinese style generally showed only a distant view, or used dead ground or mist to avoid that difficulty, aesthetic theories in both regions gave the highest status to the works seen to require the most imagination from the artist. They were often also poets whose lines and images illustrated each other, a revival in interest in nature initially mainly manifested itself in depictions of small gardens such as the Hortus Conclusus or those in millefleur tapestries. The frescos of figures at work or play in front of a background of trees in the Palace of the Popes. Several frescos of gardens have survived from Roman houses like the Villa of Livia, a particular advance is shown in the less well-known Turin-Milan Hours, now largely destroyed by fire, whose developments were reflected in Early Netherlandish painting for the rest of the century. Landscape backgrounds for various types of painting became prominent and skilful during the 15th century. The Italian development of a system of graphical perspective was now known all over Europe. Indeed, certain styles were so popular that they became formulas that could be copied again and again, after the publication of the Small Landscapes, landscape artists in the Low Countries either continued with the world landscape or followed the new mode presented by the Small Landscapes. The popularity of landscape scenes can be seen in the success of the painter Frans Post. Salvator Rosa gave picturesque excitement to his landscapes by showing wilder Southern Italian country, there are different styles and periods, and subgenres of marine and animal painting, as well as a distinct style of Italianate landscape
8.
Painting
–
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
9.
Hudson River School
–
The Hudson River School was a mid-19th century American art movement embodied by a group of landscape painters whose aesthetic vision was influenced by romanticism. Neither the originator of the term Hudson River School nor its first published use has been fixed with certainty, the term is thought to have originated with the New York Tribune art critic Clarence Cook or the landscape painter Homer Dodge Martin. As originally used, the term was meant disparagingly, as the work so labeled had gone out of favor after the plein-air Barbizon School had come into vogue among American patrons and collectors. Hudson River School paintings reflect three themes of America in the 19th century, discovery, exploration, and settlement, the paintings also depict the American landscape as a pastoral setting, where human beings and nature coexist peacefully. They took as their inspiration such European masters as Claude Lorrain, John Constable and their reverence for Americas natural beauty was shared with contemporary American writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Several painters were members of the Düsseldorf school of painting, others were educated by the German Paul Weber, while the elements of the paintings were rendered realistically, many of the scenes were composed as a synthesis of multiple scenes or natural images observed by the artists. During these expeditions, the artists recorded sketches and memories, returning to their studios to paint the works later. The artist Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School, Cole took a steamship up the Hudson in the autumn of 1825, the same year the Erie Canal opened, stopping first at West Point, then at Catskill landing. He hiked west high up into the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York State to paint the first landscapes of the area, the first review of his work appeared in the New York Evening Post on November 22,1825. At that time, only the English native Cole, born in a landscape where autumnal tints were of browns and yellows, coles close friend, Asher Durand, became a prominent figure in the school as well. An important part of the popularity of the Hudson River School was its celebration of its themes of nationalism, nature, however, its leading artists, such as Thomas Cole, were also suspicious of the economic and technological development of the age. Works by artists of this generation are often described as examples of Luminism. In addition to pursuing their art, many of the artists, including Kensett, Gifford, most of the finest works of the Hudson River school were painted between 1855 and 1875. During that time, artists such as Frederic Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt were celebrities and they were both influenced by the Düsseldorf school of painting, and Bierstadt had studied in that city for several years. When Church exhibited paintings such as Niagara or Icebergs of the North, thousands of people lined up around the block and paid fifty cents a head to view the solitary works. The epic size of the landscapes in these paintings, unexampled in earlier American painting, reminded Americans of the vast, untamed, such works were being painted during the period of settlement of the American West, preservation of national parks, and establishment of green city parks. One of the largest collections of paintings by artists of the Hudson River School is at the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Johnsbury Athenaeum, in St. Johnsbury, VT Westervelt Warner Museum of American Art, in Tuscaloosa, AL Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, in Madrid, Spain. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, avery, Kevin J. & Kelly, Frank
10.
Old Master
–
In art history, Old Master refers to any painter of skill who worked in Europe before about 1800, or a painting by such an artist. An old master print is a print made by an artist in the same period. The term old master drawing is used in the same way, therefore, beyond a certain level of competence, date rather than quality is the criterion for using the term. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term as A pre-eminent artist of the period before the modern, a pre-eminent western European painter of the 13th to 18th centuries. The term is used to refer to a painting or sculpture made by an Old Master. Les Maitres dautrefois of 1876 by Eugene Fromentin may have helped to popularize the concept, the collection in the Dresden museum essentially stops at the Baroque period. The end date is necessarily vague – for example, Goya is certainly an Old Master, the term might also be used for John Constable or Eugène Delacroix, but usually is not. The term tends to be avoided by art historians as too vague, especially when discussing paintings, although the terms Old Master Prints and it remains current in the art trade. Auction houses still usually divide their sales between, for example, Old Master Paintings, Nineteenth-century paintings and Modern paintings, christies defines the term as ranging from the 14th to the early 19th century. S. Master of Flémalle, Master of Mary of Burgundy, Master of Latin 757, Master of the Brunswick Diptych or Master of Schloss Lichtenstein
11.
Emanuel Swedenborg
–
Emanuel Swedenborg was a Swedish scientist, philosopher, theologian, revelator, and mystic. He is best known for his book on the afterlife, Heaven, Swedenborg had a prolific career as an inventor and scientist. In 1741, at age 53, he entered into a phase in which he began to experience dreams and visions. This culminated in a spiritual awakening, in which he received revelation that he was appointed by the Lord Jesus Christ to write The Heavenly Doctrine to reform Christianity. For the remaining 28 years of his life, Swedenborg wrote eighteen published theological works and he termed himself a Servant of the Lord Jesus Christ in True Christian Religion, a work he published himself. Some followers of The Heavenly Doctrine believe that, of his theological works, Swedenborgs father, Jesper Swedberg, descended from a wealthy mining family. He travelled abroad and studied theology, and on returning home he was eloquent enough to impress the Swedish king, Charles XI, through the Kings influence he would later become professor of theology at Uppsala University and Bishop of Skara. Jesper took an interest in the beliefs of the dissenting Lutheran Pietist movement, sola fide is a tenet of the Lutheran Church, and Jesper was charged with being a pietist heretic. While controversial, the beliefs were to have a impact on his son Emanuels spirituality. Jesper furthermore held the belief that angels and spirits were present in everyday life. This also came to have a impact on Emanuel. In 1703–1709 Swedenborg lived in Erik Benzelius the youngers house and it was also a flourishing center of scientific ideas and discoveries. Swedenborg studied physics, mechanics and philosophy and read and wrote poetry, in 1715 Swedenborg returned to Sweden, where he devoted himself to natural science and engineering projects for the next two decades. A first step was his meeting with King Charles XII of Sweden in the city of Lund, the Swedish inventor Christopher Polhem, who became a close friend of Swedenborg, was also present. Swedenborgs purpose was to persuade the king to fund an observatory in northern Sweden, however, the warlike king did not consider this project important enough, but did appoint Swedenborg assessor-extraordinary on the Swedish Board of Mines in Stockholm. From 1716 to 1718, Swedenborg published a periodical entitled Daedalus Hyperboreus. One notable description was that of a machine, the same he had been sketching a few years earlier. In 1718 Swedenborg published an article that attempted to explain spiritual and mental events in terms of minute vibrations or tremulations, upon the death of Charles XII, Queen Ulrika Eleonora ennobled Swedenborg and his siblings
12.
Realism (arts)
–
Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in part a matter of technique and training. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the depiction of lifeforms, perspective. Realist works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid, such as works of realism, regionalism. There have been various movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, the realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes. Realism in this sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism, realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan van Eyck, however such realism is often used to depict, for example, angels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever seen in real life. It is the choice and treatment of matter that defines Realism as a movement in painting. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions. However these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance, pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life
13.
Impressionism
–
Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the art community in France. The development of Impressionism in the arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music. Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting and they constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes were painted in a studio. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air, the Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris, the Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued, landscape, the Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artists hand in the work. Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish, the Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and they discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were led by Édouard Manet. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, during the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style. In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manets The Luncheon on the Grass primarily because it depicted a woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, the jurys severely worded rejection of Manets painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists
14.
Tonalism
–
Tonalism was an artistic style that emerged in the 1880s when American artists began to paint landscape forms with an overall tone of colored atmosphere or mist. Between 1880 and 1915, dark, neutral hues such as gray, brown or blue, during the late 1890s, American art critics began to use the term tonal to describe these works. Two of the leading associated painters were George Inness and James McNeill Whistler, australian Tonalism emerged as an art movement in Melbourne during the 1910s. Tonalism is sometimes used to describe American landscapes derived from the French Barbizon style, Tonalism was eventually eclipsed by Impressionism and European modernism. American Paintings in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, a fully digitized 3 volume exhibition catalog American Tonalism - Montclair Art Museum askart. com Leon Dabo
15.
Newark, New Jersey
–
Newark is the most populous city in the U. S. state of New Jersey and the seat of Essex County. For 2015, the Census Bureaus Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 281,944, Newark is the second largest city in the New York metropolitan area, located approximately 8 miles west of lower Manhattan. Settled in 1666 by Puritans from New Haven Colony, Newark is one of the oldest European cities in the United States and its location at the mouth of the Passaic River, has made the citys waterfront an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey. Today, Port Newark-Elizabeth is the container shipping terminal of the busiest seaport on the American East Coast. In addition, Newark Liberty International Airport was the first municipal airport in the United States. Several leading companies have their headquarters in Newark, including Prudential, PSEG, Panasonic Corporation of North America, Audible. com, IDT Corporation, the U. S. District Court for the District of New Jersey sits in the city as well. Local cultural venues include the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, Newark Symphony Hall, The Prudential Center and the Newark Museum. Newark is divided into five wards, the East, West, South, North and Central wards. Newarks Branch Brook Park is the oldest county park in the United States and is home to the nations largest collection of cherry blossom trees, Newark was settled in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony. It was conceived as an assembly of the faithful, though this did not last for long as new settlers came with different ideas. On October 31,1693 it was organized as a New Jersey township based on the Newark Tract, Newark was granted a Royal charter on April 27,1713. It was incorporated on February 21,1798 by the New Jersey Legislatures Township Act of 1798, during its time as a township, portions were taken to form Springfield Township, Caldwell Township, Orange Township, Bloomfield Township and Clinton Township. Newark was reincorporated as a city on April 11,1836, replacing Newark Township, the previously independent Vailsburg borough was annexed by Newark on January 1,1905. In 1926, South Orange Township changed its name to Maplewood, as a result of this, a portion of Maplewood known as Ivy Hill was re-annexed to Newarks Vailsburg. During the American Revolutionary War British troops made several raids into the town, the city has experienced revitalization since the 1990s. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 26.107 square miles. It has the third-smallest land area among the 100 most populous cities in the U. S. behind neighboring Jersey City and Hialeah, the citys altitude ranges from 0 in the east to approximately 230 feet above sea level in the western section of the city. Newark is essentially a large basin sloping towards the Passaic River, historically, Newarks high places have been its wealthier neighborhoods
16.
National Academy Museum and School
–
Durand, Thomas Cole, Martin E. Thompson, and others to promote the fine arts in America through instruction and exhibition. The Academy is an honorary organization, a school. The school offers instruction, master classes, intensive critiques, various workshops. The museum houses a collection of over 7,000 works of American art from the 19th, 20th. The Academy has been located at several locations over the years, notable among them was a building built during 1863-1865, designed by architect P. B. Wight in Venetian Gothic style, which was modeled on the Doges Palace in Venice, another locale was at West 109th Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Manhattan. Since 1942 the academy has occupied a mansion that was the home of sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington and Archer Milton Huntington at Fifth Avenue. The original founders of the National Academy of Design were students of the American Academy of the Fine Arts, samuel F. B. Morse and other students set about forming the drawing association to meet several times each week for the study the art of design. Still, the association was viewed as a dependent organization of the American Academy, an attempt was made to reconcile the difference and maintain a single academy by appointing six of the artists from the association as directors of the American Academy. When four of the nominees were not elected, however, the frustrated artists resolved to form a new academy, among the teaching staff were numerous artists, including Will Hicok Low, who taught from 1889 to 1892. The famous American poet William Cullen Bryant also gave lectures, architect Alexander Jackson Davis taught at the Academy. Painter Lemuel Wilmarth was the first full-time instructor Gulian C, verplanck, a Congressman and a man of letters, gave an address at the school in 1824. and Silas Dustin was a curator
17.
Thomas Cole
–
Thomas Cole was an English-born American artist known for his landscape and history paintings. He is regarded as the founder of the Hudson River School, Coles work is known for its romantic portrayal of the American wilderness. Born in Bolton le Moors, Lancashire, in 1801, Coles family emigrated to the United States in 1818, settling in Steubenville, at the age of twenty-two Cole moved to Philadelphia, and later, in 1825, to New York City with his family. Cole found work early on as an engraver and he was largely self-taught as a painter, relying on books and by studying the work of other artists. In 1822 Cole started working as a painter, and later on gradually shifted his focus to landscape. This garnered Cole the attention of John Trumbull, Asher B, among the paintings was a landscape called View of Fort Ticonderoga from Gelyna. Cole was primarily a painter of landscapes, but he also painted allegorical works, there are two versions of the latter, one at the National Gallery in Washington, D. C. the other at the Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute in Utica, New York. Among Coles other famous works are the Oxbow, the Notch of the White Mountains, Daniel Boone at his cabin at the Great Osage Lake and he also painted The Garden of Eden, with lavish detail of Adam and Eve living amid waterfalls, vivid plants, and deer. In 2014, friezes painted by Cole on the walls of his home, Cole influenced his artistic peers, especially Asher B. Durand and Frederic Edwin Church, who studied with Cole from 1844 to 1846, Cole spent the years 1829 to 1832 and 1841 to 1842 abroad, mainly in England and Italy. Thomas Cole is best known for his work as an American landscape artist, however, he also produced thousands of sketches of varying subject matter. Over 2,500 of these sketches can be seen at The Detroit Institute of Arts, in 1842, Cole embarked on a Grand Tour of Europe in an effort to study in the style of the Old Masters and to paint its scenery. Most striking to Cole was Europes tallest active volcano, Mount Etna, Cole was so moved by the volcanos beauty that he produced several sketches and at least six paintings of it. The most famous of these works is A View from Mount Etna from Taormina which is a 78-by-120-inch oil on canvas. Cole also produced a detailed sketch View of Mount Etna which shows a panoramic view of the volcano with the crumbling walls of the ancient Greek theatre of Taormina on the far right. After 1827 Cole maintained a studio at the farm called Cedar Grove in the town of Catskill and he painted a significant portion of his work in this studio. In 1836 he married Maria Bartow of Catskill, a niece of the owner, Thomas Cole had a sister, Sarah, who was also a landscape painter. Additionally, Thomas Cole held many friendships with important figures in the art world including Daniel Wadsworth, with whom he shared a close friendship, proof of this friendship can be seen in the letters that were unearthed in the 1980s by the Trinity College, Watkinson Library
18.
Asher Brown Durand
–
Asher Brown Durand was an American painter of the Hudson River School. Durand was born in and eventually died in Maplewood, New Jersey, the eighth of eleven children, his father was a watchmaker and a silversmith. Durand was apprenticed to an engraver from 1812 to 1817 and later entered into a partnership with the owner of the company and he engraved Declaration of Independence for John Trumbull during 1823, which established Durands reputation as one of the countrys finest engravers. Durand helped organize the New York Drawing Association during 1825, which would become the National Academy of Design, ashers engravings on bank notes were used as the portraits for Americas first postage stamps, the 1847 series. Along with his brother Cyrus he also engraved some of the succeeding 1851 issues and his main interest changed from engraving to oil painting about 1830 with the encouragement of his patron, Luman Reed. During 1837, he accompanied his friend Thomas Cole on an expedition to Schroon Lake in the Adirondacks Mountains. Durand is remembered particularly for his portrayals of trees, rocks. He was an advocate for drawing directly from nature with as much realism as possible. Durand wrote, Let scrupulously accept whatever presents him until he shall, like other Hudson River School artists, Durand also believed that nature was an ineffable manifestation of God. He expressed this sentiment and his opinions on art in his essay Letters on Landscape Painting in The Crayon. Wrote Durand, he true province of Landscape Art is the representation of the work of God in the visible creation, Durand is noted for his 1849 painting Kindred Spirits which shows fellow Hudson River School artist Thomas Cole and poet William Cullen Bryant in a Catskills Mountains landscape. This was painted as a tribute to Cole upon Coles death during 1848, at $35 million, however, it would be a record price paid for an American painting at the time. Another of Durands painting is his Progress, commissioned by a railroad executive, the landscape depicts Americas progress, from a state of nature, towards the right, where there are roads, telegraph wires, a canal, warehouses, railroads, and steamboats. During 2007, the Brooklyn Museum exhibited nearly sixty of Durands works in the first monographic exhibition devoted to the painter in more than thirty-five years, the show, entitled Kindred Spirits, Asher B. Durand and the American Landscape, was exhibited from March 30 to July 29,2007, Durand is interred in Brooklyn, New York, in Green-Wood Cemetery. List of Hudson River School artists Books Howat, John K, American Paradise, The World of the Hudson River School. New York, NY, Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Anatomy of Nature, Geology & American Landscape Painting, 1825-1875. The Life and Times of Asher B, hensonville, NY, Black Dome Press Corp
19.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
20.
Claude Lorrain
–
Claude Lorrain was a French painter, draughtsman and engraver of the Baroque era. He spent most of his life in Italy, and is one of the earliest important artists, apart from his contemporaries in Dutch Golden Age painting, to concentrate on landscape painting. His landscapes are usually turned into the more prestigious genre of paintings by the addition of a few small figures. By the end of the 1630s he was established as the leading landscapist in Italy and these gradually became larger, but with fewer figures, more carefully painted, and produced at a lower rate. He was not generally an innovator in painting, except in introducing the sun into many paintings. His patrons were also mostly Italian, but after his death he became popular with English collectors. He was a creator of drawings in pen and very often monochrome watercolour wash, usually brown. Chalk is sometimes used for under-drawing, and white highlighting in various media may be employed and these fall into three fairly distinct groups. Firstly there are numbers of sketches, mostly of landscapes, and apparently very often done at the scene, these have been greatly admired. Then there are studies for paintings, of various degrees of finish, many clearly done before or during the process of painting and this was certainly the case for the last group, the 195 drawings recording finished paintings collected in his Liber Veritatis. He produced over 40 etchings, often simplified versions of paintings and these served various purposes for him, but are now regarded as much less important than his drawings. He painted frescoes in his career, which played an important part in making his reputation. The earliest biographies of Claude are in Joachim von Sandrarts Teutsche Academie, both Sandrart and Baldinucci knew the painter personally, but at periods some 50 years apart, respectively at the start of his career and shortly before his death. Sandrart knew him well and lived with him for a while, while Baldinucci was probably not intimate with him, and derived much of his information from Claudes nephew, who lived with the artist. Claudes tombstone gives 1600 as his year of birth, but contemporary sources indicate a later date and he was born in the small village of Chamagne, Vosges, then part of the Duchy of Lorraine. He was the third of five sons of Jean Gellée and Anne Padose, according to Baldinucci, Claudes parents both died when he was twelve years old, and he then lived at Freiburg with an elder brother. Jean was an artist in inlay and taught Claude the rudiments of drawing, Claude then travelled to Italy, first working for Goffredo Wals in Naples, then joining the workshop of Agostino Tassi in Rome. Sandrarts account of Claudes early years, however, is quite different, according to Sandrart, Claude did not do well at the village school and was apprenticed to a pastry baker
21.
Nicolas Poussin
–
Nicolas Poussin was the leading painter of the classical French Baroque style, although he spent most of his working life in Rome. His work is characterized by clarity, logic, and order, until the 20th century he remained a major inspiration for such classically oriented artists as Jacques-Louis David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Paul Cézanne. He worked in Rome for a circle of leading collectors from there and elsewhere, most of his works are history paintings of religious or mythological subjects that very often have a large landscape element. Early sketches attracted the notice of Quentin Varin, a painter, whose pupil Poussin became. There he entered the studios of the Flemish painter Ferdinand Elle and then of Georges Lallemand and he found French art in a stage of transition, the old apprenticeship system was disturbed, and the academic training destined to supplant it was not yet established by Simon Vouet. In Paris, Poussin was impressed by Italian art he viewed in the royal collection and he attempted to travel to Rome, but after reaching Florence he was forced, perhaps by ill health, to return to Paris. In 1622 he met Giambattista Marino, the poet to Marie de Medici. Marino employed him on illustrations for an edition of Ovids Metamorphoses. These Marino drawings preserved at Windsor Castle are among the few identifiable works of Poussin executed before his arrival in Rome. Marino took him into his household, and in 1624 enabled Poussin to rejoin him at Rome, Poussin was thirty when he arrived in Rome in 1624. At first he lodged with Simon Vouet, through Marino, he had been introduced to Marcello Sacchetti who in turn introduced him to another of his early patrons, Cardinal Francesco Barberini. However, their return from Spain in 1626 stabilized Poussin’s position, with renewed patronage by the Barberini and their circle. He fell ill at this time and was taken into the house of his compatriot Jacques Dughet, where he was nursed by Dughet’s daughter, Anna Maria and his two brothers-in-law were artists and Gaspard Dughet later took Poussin’s surname. During the late 1620s and 1630s, he experimented and formulated his own style and he studied the Antique as well as works such as Titian’s Bacchanals at the Casino Ludovisi and the paintings of Domenichino and Guido Reni. Peter’s, and an ingenious architectural imagination was emerging in works by Borromini, at the time the papacy was Rome’s foremost patron of the arts. Poussin’s Martyrdom of St. Erasmus for St and his subsequent career depended on private patronage. Louis XIII conferred on him the title of First Painter in Ordinary, in 1642, disgusted by the intrigues of Simon Vouet, Fouquières and the architect Jacques Lemercier, Poussin withdrew to Rome. There, in 1648, he finished for de Chantelou the second series of the Seven Sacraments and this painting shows the philosopher discarding his last worldly possession, his cup, after watching a man drink water by cupping his hands
22.
William Page (painter)
–
William Page was an American painter and portrait artist. He came to New York City with his parents at the age of nine, morse, through whom he also enrolled at the National Academy of Design. His drawings in the class at the National Academy won him the silver medal. For two years, he studied theology at Andover and Amherst, at the end of time he returned to art. After painting portraits in Albany for a year, he went to New York, in 1836, he was elected a National Academician, and he was president of the National Academy from 1871 until 1873. About 1844 he moved to Boston, but in 1847 he returned to New York for a stay of two years, Page then went to Italy, where he resided for eleven years in Florence and Rome, coming back to New York in 1860. While he was in Italy, he painted the portraits of Robert and Elizabeth Browning and other well-known Englishmen and he also took occasion to study the works of the great masters, notably Titian, whom he admired and emulated, and whose method of painting he strove to discover. The copies that he executed of Titians paintings were so remarkable that one of them was seized by the Florentine authorities under the belief that it was the original. He was also a friend of William Wetmore Story and of James Russell Lowell and he died in 1885, aged 74 on Staten Island. In Italy, he produced his “Venus, ” “Moses and Aaron on Mount Horeb, ” “Infant Bacchus, ” and “Flight into Egypt. ”His work also includes a portrait of Admiral David Farragut at the Battle of Mobile Bay. In 1870, Page exhibited a portrait head of Jesus Christ which attracted great attention, other paintings include, “The Last Interview”, “Ruth and Naomi, ” and “Cupid”. He wrote A New Geometrical Method of Measuring the Human Figure, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds. Smithsonian Institution, Collections Search Center, Josiah Quincy
23.
The New Church (Swedenborgian)
–
Swedenborg claimed to have received a new revelation from Jesus Christ through continuous heavenly visions which he experienced over a period of at least twenty-five years. In his writings, he predicted that God would replace the traditional Christian Church, establishing a New Church, the New Church doctrine is that each person must actively cooperate in repentance, reformation, and regeneration of ones life. The movement was founded on the belief that God explained the meaning of the Scriptures to Swedenborg as a means of revealing the truth of the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. Swedenborg claimed divine inspiration for his writings and followers believe that Swedenborg witnessed the Last Judgment in the spiritual world, therefore, it is thought that any Christian holding these beliefs is part of this New Church movement. Other names for the movement include Swedenborgian, New Christians, Neo-Christians, Church of the New Jerusalem, Swedenborg spoke of a New Church that would be founded on the theology in his works, but he himself never tried to establish an organization. In 1768, a trial was initiated in Sweden against Swedenborgs writings. It essentially concerned whether Swedenborgs theological writings were consistent with the Christian doctrines, a royal ordinance in 1770 declared that Swedenborgs writings were clearly mistaken and should not be taught even though his system of theological thought was never examined. Swedenborg then begged the King for grace and protection in a letter from Amsterdam, a new investigation against Swedenborg stalled and was eventually dropped in 1778. At the time of Swedenborgs death, few efforts had made to establish an organized church, but on May 7,1787,15 years after Swedenborgs death. It was a country Swedenborg had often visited and where he died, by 1789 a number of Churches had sprung up around England, and in April of that year the first General Conference of the New Church was held in Great Eastcheap, London. New Church ideas were carried to United States by missionaries, one famous missionary was John Chapman, also known as Johnny Appleseed. Early missionaries also traveled to parts of Africa, at the time these concepts of African enlightenment were judged highly liberal, Swedenborgians accepted freed African converts to their homes as early as 1790. Several of them were involved in abolitionism. In the 19th century, occultism became increasingly popular especially in France, some followers blended Swedenborgs writings with theosophy, alchemy and divination. What fascinated these followers most was Swedenborgs mystical side and they concentrated on his work Heaven and Hell which tells of Swedenborgs visit to Heaven and Hell to experience and report the conditions there. In structure, it was related to Dantes The Divine Comedy, some continue to combine the theology of the New Church with ideas from other systems, including Jungian psychology and Spiritualism. In the U. S. the church was organized in 1817 with the founding of the General Convention of the New Church now also known as the Swedenborgian Church of North America, the movement in the United States grew stronger until the late 19th century. There was a New-Church Theology School in Cambridge, a controversy about doctrinal issues and the authority of Swedenborgs writings caused a faction to split off to form the Academy of the New Church
24.
Barbizon
–
Barbizon is a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department in north-central France. It is located near the Fontainebleau Forest, the Barbizon school of painters is named after the village, Théodore Rousseau and Jean-François Millet, leaders of the school, made their homes and died in the village
25.
Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad
–
The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad Company was a U. S. Class 1 railroad that connected Buffalo, New York, and Hoboken, New Jersey, incorporated in 1853, the DL&W was profitable during the first two decades of the twentieth century, but its margins were gradually hurt by declining traffic in coal and competition from trucks. In 1960, the DL&W merged with rival Erie Railroad to form the Erie Lackawanna Railroad, the Liggetts Gap Railroad was incorporated on April 7,1832, but stayed dormant for many years. It was chartered on March 14,1849, and organized January 2,1850, on April 14,1851, its name was changed to the Lackawanna and Western Railroad. The line, running north from Scranton, Pennsylvania, to Great Bend, just south of the New York state line, opened on December 20,1851. From Great Bend the L&W obtained trackage rights north and west over the New York and Erie Rail Road to Owego, New York, where it leased the Cayuga and Susquehanna Railroad to Ithaca on Cayuga Lake. The C&S was a re-organized and partially re-built Ithaca and Owego Railroad, which had opened on April 1,1834, and was the oldest part of the DL&W system. The whole system was built to 6 ft broad gauge, the same as the New York and Erie, although the original I&O was built to standard gauge and converted to wide gauge when re-built as the C&S. The Delaware and Cobbs Gap Railroad was chartered December 4,1850 and that section got its name from Warren County, the county through which it would primarily run. The rest of the line, now known as the Southern Division, opened on May 27,1856, a third rail was added to the standard gauge Central Railroad of New Jersey east of Hampton to allow the DL&W to run east to Elizabeth via trackage rights. On December 10,1868, the DL&W bought the Morris and this line ran east-west across northern New Jersey, crossing the Warren Railroad at Washington and providing access to Jersey City without depending on the CNJ. The M&E tunnel under Bergen Hill opened in 1876, also relieving it of its use of the New York, Lake Erie, along with the M&E lease came several branch lines in New Jersey, including the Boonton Line, which bypassed Newark for through freight. The DL&W bought the Syracuse, Binghamton and New York Railroad in 1869 and leased the Oswego and this gave it a branch from Binghamton north and northwest via Syracuse to Oswego, a port on Lake Ontario. The Greene Railroad was organized in 1869, opened in 1870, also in 1870 the DL&W leased the Utica, Chenango and Susquehanna Valley Railway, continuing this branch north to Utica, with a branch from Richfield Junction to Richfield Springs. The Valley Railroad was organized March 3,1869, to connect the end of the line at Great Bend, Pennsylvania to Binghamton, New York. The new line opened October 1,1871, by 1873, the DL&W controlled the Lackawanna and Bloomsburg Railroad, a branch from Scranton southwest to Northumberland. On March 15,1876, the system was re-gauged to standard gauge in one day. The New York, Lackawanna and Western Railroad was chartered August 26,1880, the main line ran to the International Bridge to Ontario, and a branch served downtown Buffalo
26.
Scranton, Pennsylvania
–
Scranton is the sixth-largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania behind Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie and Reading. It is the county seat of Lackawanna County in Northeastern Pennsylvanias Wyoming Valley, with a population of 77,118, it is the largest city in the Scranton–Wilkes-Barre–Hazleton, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of about 570,000. Scranton was incorporated on February 14,1856, as a borough in Luzerne County and it became a major industrial city, a center of mining and railroads, and attracted thousands of new immigrants. It was the site of the Scranton General Strike in 1877, people in northern Luzerne County began to seek a new county in 1839 but the Wilkes-Barre area resisted losing its assets. Lackawanna County did not gain independent status until 1878, under legislation allowing the issue to be voted by residents of the proposed territory, voters favored the new county by a proportion of 6 to 1, with Scranton residents providing the major support. The city was designated as the county seat when Lackawanna County was established in 1878, the city took its first step toward earning its reputation as the Electric City when electric lights were introduced in 1880 at Dickson Locomotive Works. Six years later, the nations first streetcars powered exclusively by electricity began operating in the city, rev. David Spencer, a local Baptist minister, later proclaimed Scranton as the Electric City. Present-day Scranton and its area had been long inhabited by the native Lenape tribe. In 1778, Isaac Tripp, the areas first known European-American settler, built his home here, it stands in North Scranton. More settlers from Connecticut came to the area in the late 18th and early 19th centuries after the American Revolutionary War and they gradually established mills and other small businesses in a village that became known as Slocum Hollow. People in the village during this time carried the traits and the accent of their New England settlers, though anthracite coal was being mined in Carbondale to the north and Wilkes-Barre to the south, the industries that precipitated the citys early rapid growth were iron and steel. It initially started producing nails, but that venture failed due to low-quality iron. The Erie Railroads construction in New York State was delayed by its having to iron rails as imports from England. The Scrantons firm decided to focus to producing T-rails for the Erie. In 1851, the Scrantons built the Lackawanna and Western Railroad northward, with recent Irish immigrants supplying most of the labor, to meet the Erie Railroad in Great Bend, thus they could transport manufactured rails from the Lackawanna Valley to New York and the Midwest. They also invested in mining operations in the city to fuel their steel operations. In 1856, they expanded the railroad eastward as the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad and this railroad, with its hub in Scranton, would be Scrantons largest employer for almost one hundred years. The Pennsylvania Coal Company built a gravity railroad in the 1850s through the city for the purpose of transporting coal, the gravity railroad was replaced by a steam railroad built in 1886 by the Erie and Wyoming Valley Railroad
27.
Pennsylvania
–
Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
28.
The Phillips Collection
–
Duncan Phillips played a seminal role in introducing America to modern art. Born in Pittsburgh—the grandson of James H. Laughlin, a banker and co-founder of the Jones and Laughlin Steel Company—Phillips and his moved to Washington. Beginning with a small collection of paintings, Phillips, a published art critic. A specially built room over the wing of the family home provided a public gallery space. With the collection exceeding 600 works and facing public demand, the Phillips family moved to a new home in 1930, Duncan Phillips married painter Marjorie Acker in 1921. His focus on the tradition of art was revolutionary at a time when America was largely critical of modernism. Moreover, she helped launch its national fundraising campaign, the Phillips Collection, opened in 1921, is America’s first museum of modern art. Featuring a permanent collection of nearly 3,000 works by American and European impressionist and modern artists and it is housed in founder Duncan Phillips’1897 Georgian Revival home and two similarly scaled additions in Washington, D. C. ’s Dupont Circle neighborhood. In 1923, Phillips purchased Pierre-Auguste Renoirs impressionist painting, Luncheon of the Boating Party and he presented visual connections—between past and present, between classical form and romantic expression—as dialogues on the walls of the museum. He exhibited watercolors by John Marin with paintings by Cézanne, Phillips’ vision brought together congenial spirits among the artists, and his ideas still guide the museum today. The Phillips Collection is also known for its groups of works by artists who Phillips particularly favored, for example, he was overwhelmed by Bonnard’s expressive use of color, acquiring 17 paintings by the artist. Cubist pioneer Braque is represented by 13 paintings, including the monumental still-life The Round Table, the collection has an equal number of works by Klee, such as Arab Song and Picture Album, as well as seven pieces by abstract expressionist artist Mark Rothko. The Rothko Room is the existing installation for the artists work in collaboration with the artist himself. Phillips was initially attracted to Rothkos work because he saw the use of color as similar to Bonards, by purchasing works by such promising but unknown artists, Phillips provided them with the means to continue painting. The museum also served as a haven for artists such as Richard Diebenkorn, Gene Davis. In a 1982 tribute to the museum, Noland acknowledged, I’ve spent many hours of many days in this home of art and you can be with art in the Phillips as in no other place I know. In 2013, the museum opened its second permanent installation, a room covered in wax by artist Wolfgang Laib. Though Laibs work is interpreted as evocative of nature, the piece
29.
Medfield, Massachusetts
–
Medfield is a town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 12,024 according to the 2010 Census, Medfield is an affluent community about 17 miles southwest of Boston, Massachusetts, which is a 45-minute drive to Bostons financial district. Attractions include the Lowell Mason house, Hinkley Pond and the Peak House, the territory that Medfield now occupies was, at the time of colonization, Neponset land. It was apparently sold by the Neponset leader Chickatabot to William Pynchon in the late 1620s, in 1633, however, Chickatabot died in a smallpox epidemic that decimated nearby Neponset, Narragansett and Pequot communities. Of those lands, Dedham was the first town formed, Dedham was incorporated in 1636, and Medfield was first settled in 1649, principally by people who relocated from the former town. The first 13 house lots were laid out on June 19,1650, in May 1651, the town was incorporated by an act of the General Court as the 43rd town in Massachusetts. The Rev. Ralph Wheelock is credited with the founding of Medfield and he was the first schoolmaster of the towns school established in 1655, and now has an elementary school named after him. Half the town was destroyed by Native Americans during King Philips War in 1675, one house, known as the Peak House, was burnt in the war but was rebuilt shortly thereafter near downtown Medfield. The towns boundaries originally extended into present-day Medway and Millis, in 1713 the town was divided, with the section west of the Charles River becoming the new town of Medway. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 14.6 square miles. The Charles River borders almost one-third of Medfield, Medfield is surrounded by the towns Dover, Norfolk, Walpole, Millis, and Sherborn. The Charles River marks the Millis border,12,024 people,5,284 households, and 5,462 families Population density =326.6 people/km²5,048 housing units Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 90% of the population. For every 100 females there were 96.6 males, and for every 100 females age 18 and over, Medfield Public Schools consistently ranks among the top ten school systems in Massachusetts by the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System. As recently as 2014, Medfield has been ranked by the U. S. News & World Report as the number nine ranked school system in Massachusetts. As of 2013, Medfield High School Seniors scored an average of 591 on the SAT Critical Reading Section,618 on the SAT Math Section, and 598 on the SAT Writing Section. In 2005, Medfield High School and T. A. Blake Middle School switched buildings as a result of a construction project updating the current Medfield High School. School Medfields Free Public Library began in 1873, the public library is located on Main Street. In the late 18th century some of the residents of Medfield and surrounding towns formed a subscription library, on the third Saturday of September, Medfield Employers & Merchants Organization hosts Medfield Day in Medfield Center, which is an annual celebration of the town
30.
Inness-Fitts House and Studio/Barn
–
The Inness-Fitts House and Studio/Barn is a historic house at 406 Main Street in Medfield, Massachusetts. Built in 1836, it is a modest transitional Federal-Greek Revival structure, southeast of the house stands a barn, probably built in the mid-18th century, which was adapted c.1860 by artist George Inness for use as a studio. Inness lived here from 1860 to 1864, the property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. The Inness-Fitts property stands on the side of Main Street in the Medfields village center. It is a 2-1/2 story wood structure, five bays wide, with a side gable roof clapboard siding, granite foundation. The front facade is arranged, with a recessed central entrance flanked by sidelight windows. The sides of the recess are framed by pilasters. Sash windows fill the remaining bays, with slightly gabled lintels, behind the house stands a small barn, 1-1/2 stories in height, with a gable roof. The north facade is finished in clapboards, with the gable decorated by vergeboard, based on architectural analysis, it was built in about 1850. The house was built about 1830, during a period of industrial development in what was then an otherwise agrarian community. Its first notable owner was Daniel Clark Sanders, who lived in the next door. Sanders, a minister, is notable as the first president of the University of Vermont, and was active locally in politics, serving as town selectman and in the state legislature. In 1860 the property was purchased by George Inness, an artist who became known for his landscape paintings, based in part on his work done at is Medfield studio. Inness made a number of alterations to the barn for this purpose, plastering walls, the house was owned from 1874 to 1944 by Julius Fitts, owner of the local general store. National Register of Historic Places listings in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
31.
Eagleswood, New Jersey
–
Eagleswood Township is a township in Ocean County, New Jersey, United States. The 2010 population was the highest recorded in any decennial census, Eagleswood Township was incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 17,1874, from portions of Stafford Township. Portions of the township were taken to form Beach Haven and Long Beach Township. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had an area of 18.858 square miles. The township borders the Ocean County municipalities of Little Egg Harbor Township, Long Beach Township, as of the census of 2010, there were 1,603 people,621 households, and 454 families residing in the township. The population density was 99.8 per square mile, there were 760 housing units at an average density of 47.3 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 37% of the population,22. 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the family size was 3.00. In the township, the population was out with 21. 7% under the age of 18,8. 3% from 18 to 24,23. 1% from 25 to 44,33. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 43.1 years, for every 100 females there were 107.6 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 102.4 males, the Census Bureaus 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $60,221 and the median family income was $70,313. Males had an income of $49,875 versus $38,036 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $28,135, about 4. 8% of families and 6. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5. 5% of those under age 18 and 1. 4% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2000 United States Census there were 1,441 people,546 households, the population density was 88.0 people per square mile. There were 693 housing units at a density of 42.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the township was 98. 96% White,0. 07% African American,0. 28% Native American,0. 21% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 11% of the population. 22. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.11. In the township the population was out with 24. 7% under the age of 18,6. 7% from 18 to 24,29. 5% from 25 to 44,24. 7% from 45 to 64
32.
George Inness House
–
The Eagleswood Military Academy was a private military academy in Perth Amboy, in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States, which served antebellum educational needs. The Eagleswood Military Academy was started by Rebecca Spring and Marcus Spring in 1861 in the vicinity of the Route 35/Smith Street intersection, the Springs initially started the Raritan Bay Union, as a utopian community in 1853, but the Union closed in 1860. Rebecca had the bodies of A. D. Stevens and A. E. Hazlett, from John Browns raid on Harpers Ferry, the grounds, approximately 260 acres, were recorded in the largest survey conducted by Henry David Thoreau. The Eagleswood Mansion was located on the grounds, the house was listed on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places as the George Inness House and was demolished in 1993. George Inness, the American painter, stayed at the home in the 1860s, edward L. Kemeys was another artist who spent time in residence at Eagleswood. The start of the American Civil War caused many of the Academys teachers to join the war effort, several years later, the site became the Eagleswood Park Hotel until 1888, when the Eagleswood estate was sold by the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company to Calvin Pardee. He built a ceramic tile company on the site
33.
Tivoli, Lazio
–
Tivoli is a town and comune in Lazio, central Italy, about 30 kilometres east-north-east of Rome, at the falls of the Aniene river where it issues from the Sabine hills. The city offers a view over the Roman Campagna. Catillus and his three sons Tiburtus, Coras, and Catillus drove out the Siculi from the Aniene plateau, according to a more historical account, Tibur was instead a colony of Alba Longa. Historical traces of settlement in the date back to the 13th century BC. The citys name may share a root with the river Tiber. Virgil in his Aeneid makes Coras and the younger Catillus twin brothers, from Etruscan times Tibur, a Sabine city, was the seat of the Tiburtine Sibyl. In the nearby woods, Faunus had a sacred grove, at first an independent ally of Rome, Tibur allied itself with the Gauls in 361 BC. Vestiges remain of its walls of this period, in opus quadratum. In 338 BC, however, Tibur was defeated and absorbed by the Romans, the city acquired Roman citizenship in 90 BC and became a resort area famed for its beauty and its good water, and was enriched by many Roman villas. The most famous one, of which the ruins remain, is the Villa Adriana, maecenas and Augustus also had villas at Tibur, and the poet Horace had a modest villa, he and Catullus and Statius all mention Tibur in their poems. In 273, Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, was assigned a residence here by the Emperor Aurelian. The 2nd-century temple of Hercules Victor is being excavated, the present Piazza del Duomo occupies the Roman forum. The name of the city came to be used in form as Tiburi instead of Tibur and so transformed through Tibori to Tiboli. But its inhabitants are still called Tiburtini and not Tivolesi, in 547, in the course of the Gothic War, the city was fortified by the Byzantine general Belisarius, but was later destroyed by Totilas army. After the end of the war it became a Byzantine duchy, after Italy was conquered by Charlemagne, Tivoli was under the authority of a count, representing the emperor. From the 10th century onwards Tivoli, as an independent commune governed by its elected consuls, was the fiercest rival of Rome in the struggle for the control over the impoverished central Lazio, Emperor Otto III conquered it in 1001, and Tivoli fell under the papal control. Reminders of the turbulence of communal life are the tower houses that may be seen in Vicolo dei Ferri, Via di Postera, Via del Seminario. In the 13th century Rome imposed a tribute on the city, in the 14th century Tivoli sided with the Guelphs and strongly supported Urban VI against Antipope Clement VII
34.
Lake Albano
–
Lake Albano is a small volcanic crater lake in the Alban Hills of Lazio, at the foot of Monte Cavo,20 kilometres southeast of Rome. Castel Gandolfo, overlooking the lake, is the site of the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo, in Roman times it was known as Albanus Lacus and lay not far from the ancient city of Alba Longa. With a depth of about 170 m, Lake Albano is the deepest in Lazio. The lake is 3.5 km long by 2.3 km wide, plutarch reports that in 406 BC the lake surged over the surrounding hills, despite there being no rain nor tributaries flowing into the lake to account for the rise in water level. The ensuing flood destroyed fields and vineyards before eventually pouring into the sea and it is thought to have been caused by volcanic gases, trapped in sediment at the bottom of the lake and gradually building up until suddenly releasing, causing the water to overflow. Around 395 BC, during the wars between Rome and Veii, a tunnel was built crossing the crater walls. It served as an emissary whenever the water level overflowed its mouth, the emissary is at 293 meters over the sea level. The tunnel ends at a spot called Le Mole, below Castel Gandolfo and it hosted the canoeing and rowing events of the 1960 Summer Olympic Games that were held in Rome. The lane marking system developed for these events is referred to as the Albano buoy system. Lakes of Italy Britannica. com Italian Tourism - Lakes The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition | Date,2008 | The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press
35.
Venice
–
Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
36.
World's fair
–
A worlds fair, world fair, world exposition, or universal exposition is a large international exhibition designed to showcase achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in varying parts of the world, the next world Expo is Expo 2020 and is to be held in Dubai, UAE. Since the 1928 Convention Relating to International Exhibitions came into force, bIE-approved fairs are of three types, universal, specialized and horticultural. They usually last from three weeks to six months, Worlds fairs originated in the French tradition of national exhibitions, a tradition that culminated with the French Industrial Exposition of 1844 held in Paris. This fair was followed by other exhibitions in continental Europe. The best-known first World Expo was held in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, United Kingdom, in 1851, under the title Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations. The Great Exhibition, as it is called, was an idea of Prince Albert, Queen Victorias husband. It influenced the development of aspects of society, including art-and-design education, international trade and relations. This expo was the most obvious precedent for the international exhibitions, later called worlds fairs. Since their inception in 1851, the character of world expositions has evolved, three eras can be distinguished, the era of industrialization, the era of cultural exchange, and the era of nation branding. The first era could be called the era of industrialization and covered, roughly, in these days, world expositions were especially focused on trade, and were famous for the display of technological inventions and advancements. World expositions were the platforms where the state-of-the-art in science and technology from around the world were brought together, inventions such as the telephone were first presented during this era. An important part of the image of worlds fairs stems from this first era, the 1939–40 New York Worlds Fair diverged from the original focus of the worlds fair expositions. From then on, worlds fairs adopted specific cultural themes, they forecasted a future for society. Technological innovations were no longer the primary exhibits at fairs, the fairs encouraged effective intercultural communication for the exchange of innovation. The 1967 International and Universal Exposition in Montreal was promoted under the name Expo 67, event organizers retired the term worlds fair in favor of expo. From Expo 88 in Brisbane onwards, countries started to use world expositions more widely, finland, Japan, Canada, France and Spain are cases in point. A large study by Tjaco Walvis called Expo 2000 Hanover in Numbers showed that improving national image was the primary goal for 73% of the countries at Expo 2000
37.
New York Post
–
New York Post is an American daily newspaper, primarily distributed in New York City and its surrounding area. It is the 13th-oldest and seventh-most-widely circulated newspaper in the United States, established in 1801 by federalist and Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, it became a respected broadsheet in the 19th century, under the name New York Evening Post. The modern version of the paper is published in tabloid format, in 1976, Rupert Murdoch bought Post for US$30.5 million. Since 1993, Post has been owned by News Corporation and its successor, News Corp and its editorial offices are located at 1211 Avenue of the Americas. New York Post, established on November 16,1801 as New-York Evening Post, the Hartford Courant, believed to be the oldest continuously published newspaper, was founded in 1764 as a semi-weekly paper, it did not begin publishing daily until 1836. The New Hampshire Gazette, which has trademarked its claim of being The Nations Oldest Newspaper, was founded in 1756, moreover, since the 1890s it has been published only for weekends. Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton with about US$10,000 from a group of investors in the autumn of 1801 as New-York Evening Post, the meeting at which Hamilton first recruited investors for the new paper took place in the then-country weekend villa that is now Gracie Mansion. Hamilton chose William Coleman as his first editor, the most famous 19th-century New-York Evening Post editor was the poet and abolitionist William Cullen Bryant. So well respected was New-York Evening Post under Bryants editorship, it received praise from the English philosopher John Stuart Mill, in the summer of 1829, Bryant invited William Leggett, the Locofoco Democrat, to write for the paper. There, in addition to literary and drama reviews, Leggett began to write political editorials, leggetts classical liberal philosophy entailed a fierce opposition to central banking, a support for voluntary labor unions, and a dedication to laissez-faire economics. He was a member of the Equal Rights Party, Leggett became a co-owner and editor at Post in 1831, eventually working as sole editor of the newspaper while Bryant traveled in Europe in 1834 through 1835. Another co-owner of the paper was John Bigelow, from 1849 to 1861, he was one of the editors and co-owners of New York Evening Post. In 1881 Henry Villard took control of New-York Evening Post, as well as The Nation, with this acquisition, the paper was managed by the triumvirate of Carl Schurz, Horace White, and Edwin L. Godkin. When Schurz left the paper in 1883, Godkin became editor-in-chief, White became editor-in-chief in 1899, and remained in that role until his retirement in 1903. Villard sold the paper in 1918, after allegations of pro-German sympathies during World War I hurt its circulation. The new owner was Thomas Lamont, a partner in the Wall Street firm of J. P. Morgan & Co. Conservative Cyrus H. K. Curtis—publisher of the Ladies Home Journal—purchased New-York Evening Post in 1924, in 1934, J. David Stern purchased the paper, changed its name to New York Post, and restored its broadsheet size and liberal perspective. In 1939, Dorothy Schiff purchased the paper and her husband, George Backer, was named editor and publisher
38.
Harper's Magazine
–
Harpers Magazine is a monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts. Launched in June 1850, it is the second-oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the U. S, the current editor is James Marcus, who replaced Christopher Cox in March 2016. Harpers Magazine has won twenty National Magazine Awards, Harpers Magazine was launched as Harpers New Monthly Magazine in June 1850, by the New York City publisher Harper & Brothers. The company also founded the magazines Harpers Weekly and Harpers Bazaar, the first press run of Harpers Magazine—7,500 copies—sold out almost immediately. Circulation was some 50,000 issues six months later, the early issues reprinted material pirated from English authors such as Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontë sisters. The magazine soon was publishing the work of American artists and writers, portions of Herman Melvilles novel Moby Dick were first published in the October 1851 issue of Harpers under the title, The Town-Hos Story. In 1962, Harper & Brothers merged with Row, Peterson & Company, in 1965, the magazine was separately incorporated, and became a division of the Minneapolis Star and Tribune Company, owned by the Cowles Media Company. In the 1970s, Harpers Magazine published Seymour Hershs reporting of the My Lai Massacre by United States forces in Vietnam, robert Shnayerson, a senior editor at Time magazine, was hired to replace Morris as Harpers ninth editor, serving in that position from 1971 until 1976. Lewis H. Lapham served as managing editor from 1976 until 1981, on June 17,1980, the Star Tribune announced it would cease publishing Harpers Magazine after the August 1980 issue. As of the March 2011 issue, contributing editor Zadie Smith, under the Lapham-MacArthur leadership, Harpers Magazine continued publishing literary fiction by John Updike, George Saunders, and others. Politically, Harpers was a vocal critic of U. S. domestic. Editor Laphams monthly Notebook columns have lambasted the Clinton and the George W. Bush administrations. Since 2003, the magazine has concentrated on reportage about U. S. war in Iraq, with articles about the battle for Fallujah. Other reporting has covered abortion issues, cloning, and global warming, in 2007, Harpers added the No Comment blog, by attorney Scott Horton, about legal controversies, Central Asian politics, and German studies. Since that time these two blogs have ceased publication, Lapham left shortly thereafter and launched Laphams Quarterly. The August 2004 issue contained an essay by noted photojournalist Peter Turnley. The eight-page spread in August 2004 showed images of death, grieving, on the U. S. side, Turnley visited the funeral of an Oklahoma National Guard member, Spc. Kyle Brinlee,21, who was killed when his vehicle ran over an improvised explosive device in Afghanistan, during his funeral, Turnley shot the open casket as it lay in the back of the auditorium and this photo was used in the photo essay
39.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
40.
Art Institute of Chicago
–
The Art Institute of Chicago, founded in 1879 and located in Chicagos Grant Park, is one of the oldest and largest art museums in the United States. Recognized for its efforts and popularity among visitors, the museum hosts approximately 1.5 million guests annually. The growth of the collection has warranted several additions to the museums original 1893 building, the Art Institute is connected to the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, a leading art school, making it one of the few remaining unified arts institutions in the United States. In 1866, a group of 35 artists founded the Chicago Academy of Design in a studio on Dearborn Street, the organization was modeled after European art academies, such as the Royal Academy, with Academicians and Associate Academicians. The Academys charter was granted in March 1867, classes started in 1868, meeting every day at a cost of $10 per month. The Academys success enabled it to build a new home for the school, a stone building on 66 West Adams Street. When the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the building in 1871 the Academy was thrown into debt, attempts to continue despite the loss by using rented facilities failed. By 1878 the Academy was $10,000 in debt, members tried to rescue the ailing institution by making deals with local businessmen, before some finally abandoned it in 1879 to found a new organization, named the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. When the Chicago Academy of Design went bankrupt the same year, in 1882, the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts changed its name to the current Art Institute of Chicago and elected as its first president the banker and philanthropist Charles L. Also in 1882, the purchased a lot on the southwest corner of Michigan Avenue. By January 1885 the trustees recognized the need to provide space for the organizations growing collection. The city agreed, and the building was completed in time for the year of the fair. Construction costs were met by selling the Michigan/Van Buren property, on October 31,1893 the Institute moved into the new building. For the opening reception on December 8,1893, Theodore Thomas, from the 1900s to the 1960s the school offered with the Logan Family the Logan Medal of the Arts, an award which became one of the most distinguished awards presented to artists in the US. Between 1959 and 1970 the Institute was a key site in the battle to gain art and documentary photography a place in galleries, under curator Hugh Edwards and his assistants. As Director of the museum starting in the early 1980s, James N. Wood conducted an expansion of its collection. He retired from the museum in 2004, in 2006, the Art Institute began construction of The Modern Wing, an addition situated on the southwest corner of Columbus and Monroe. The project, designed by Pritzker Prize winning architect Renzo Piano, was completed, the 264, 000-square-foot building makes the Art Institute the second-largest art museum in the United States
41.
Addison Gallery of American Art
–
The Addison Gallery of American Art, as a department of Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, is an academic museum dedicated to collecting American art. Phillips Academy alumnus Thomas Cochran created the Addison Gallery of American Art at Phillips Academy in 1931 as the most extraordinary of his gifts to the school. Guided by Cochrans goal to enrich permanently the lives of the students, the museum is a teaching resource for Phillips Academy students and faculty as well as an art center for the greater Boston area and the nation at large. In recent years, the Gallery has acquired significant contemporary works by Emery Bopp, Carroll Dunham, Kerry James Marshall, Joel Shapiro, another strength is in decorative arts, with silver and furniture dating back to pre-colonial America, and a collection of American Colonial model ships. A rotating schedule of exhibitions is open to students and the public alike, the Addison Gallery has long served as a proving ground for new approaches to learning about art and as a national model for arts education. The Addisons education outreach program combines the experience of art with its practice, tours, classroom instruction, gallery talks, lectures, teacher workshops, and a film series are offered to area public schools and the general public. More than 6,000 students participate in the outreach program annually. The Addison was also one of the first American museums to actively exhibit photography, presenting images by such as Berenice Abbott, Walker Evans. In the spring of 2006, the Phillips Academy Board of Trustees approved a $30 million campaign to renovate, construction on the Addison began in the middle of 2008 and was completed in 2010. Council on Museums and Education in the Visual Arts, Addison Gallery of American Art, Video for Special Audiences. The Art Museum as Educator, A Collection of Studies as Guides to Practice, Addison Gallery of American Art - official site Addison Gallery of American Art sound recordings, 1970-1991, Smithsonian Institution, Archives of American Art
42.
Wadsworth Atheneum
–
The Wadsworth Atheneum is an art museum located in Hartford, Connecticut. Founded in 1842 and opened in 1844, it is the oldest continually operating art museum in the United States. The museum is located at 600 Main Street in a distinctive building in downtown Hartford, Connecticut. With 75,000 square feet of space, the museum is the largest art museum in the state of Connecticut. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970, the museum is a member of the North American Reciprocal Museums program. The Wadsworth, as it is most commonly known, was constructed on the site of the home of Daniel Wadsworth in the heart of downtown Hartford. Its architects were Alexander Jackson Davis and Ithiel Town, who designed the castle that is the Atheneums oldest building, construction began in 1842 after the museum was incorporated on June 1 of that year. The museum opened on July 31,1844 and has operated continuously since then, the Wadsworth family, being one of the oldest and most affluent in the city, contributed numerous valuable pieces of art to be displayed at the time the museum opened. The first collection consisted of 78 paintings, two busts, one portrait miniature, and one bronze sculpture. Building on the Wadsworth familys largess, generations of more recent donors have added to the museums collections, foremost among them are Elizabeth Jarvis Colt, widow of firearms magnate Samuel Colt, and financier and Hartford native John Pierpont Morgan. In 1927, the received a million-dollar bequest from banker Frank Sumner. The design required demolishing the Goodwin Building, put up in 1969, however, the proposal was scrapped in 2003 due to fundraising difficulties and changes in the museums leadership. A later plan to expand into the former Hartford Times building was abandoned due to cost concerns. The $33 million renovation, designed by the Hartford-based architecture firm Smith Edwards McCoy, was completed in 2015, the collections span more than 5,000 years of world history. Just outside the castle is a statue of Nathan Hale, dated 1899, a short distance away, within the Connecticut State Capitol is another, better-known sculpture of Hale by Bela Pratt, a copy of his original at Yale University. The Atheneum also owns the A. Everett Austin House, a National Historic Landmark, the house, located in Hartfords historic West End, is open to the public as a museum. Since its beginning, the Wadsworth has had a tradition of firsts. In 1933, the Wadsworth sponsored George Balanchines immigration to the United States from the Soviet Union, shortly after his immigration, Balanchine founded the School of American Ballet, which led to the formation of the New York City Ballet
43.
Tarpon Springs, Florida
–
Tarpon Springs is a city in Pinellas County, Florida, United States. The population was 23,484 at the 2010 census, Tarpon Springs has the highest percentage of Greek Americans of any city in the US. Downtown Tarpon has long been a point and is currently undergoing beautification. The region, with a series of bayous feeding into the Gulf of Mexico, was first settled by white and black farmers, some of the newly arrived visitors spotted tarpon jumping out of the waters and so named the location Tarpon Springs. In 1882, Hamilton Disston, who in the year had purchased the land where the city of Tarpon Springs now stands. On February 12,1887, Tarpon Springs became the first incorporated city in what is now Pinellas County. Less than a year later on January 13,1888, the Orange Belt Railway, during this time the area was developed as a wintering spot for wealthy northerners. In the 1880s, John Cheyney founded the first local sponge business, the industry continued to grow in the 1890s, and many blacks and whites from Key West and the Bahamas settled in Tarpon Springs to harvest and process sponges. A few Greek immigrants arrived in city during the 1890s to work in the sponge industry. In 1905, John Cocoris introduced the technique of sponge diving to Tarpon Springs and recruited divers, the first divers came from the Saronic Gulf islands of Aegina and Hydra, but they were soon outnumbered by those from the Dodecanese islands of Kalymnos, Symi and Halki. The sponge industry soon became one of the maritime industries in Florida. The 1953 film Beneath the 12-Mile Reef, depicting the sponge industry, eventually, the sponges recovered, allowing for a smaller but consistent sponge industry today. In the 1980s, the business experienced a boom due to a sponge disease that killed the Mediterranean sponges. Today there is still a small active sponge industry, visitors can often view sponge fishermen working at the Sponge Docks on Dodecanese Boulevard. In addition, visitors can enjoy shops, restaurants, and museum exhibits that detail Tarpon Springs Greek heritage, Tarpon Springs climate borders on humid subtropical and tropical savanna, with warm temperatures year-round, although winters nights are cool. Annual precipitation is around 50 inches, winters are warm, with daytime highs of 72 °F to 80 °F, and nightly lows of 45 °F to 60 °F. The record low temperature of 19 °F was observed on four different dates, December 1,1962, December 13,1962, December 14,1962, and January 13,1985. Summers are hot and very humid, causing frequent afternoon thunderstorms that can produce hail
44.
William James
–
William James was an American philosopher and psychologist who was also trained as a physician. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked James as the 14th most cited psychologist of the 20th century and he also developed the philosophical perspective known as radical empiricism. James work has influenced intellectuals such as Émile Durkheim, W. E. B, du Bois, Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Hilary Putnam, and Richard Rorty, and has even influenced Presidents, such as Jimmy Carter. Born into a family, James was the son of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James Sr. James wrote widely on topics, including epistemology, education, metaphysics, psychology, religion. William James was born at the Astor House in New York City and he was the son of Henry James Sr. a noted and independently wealthy Swedenborgian theologian well acquainted with the literary and intellectual elites of his day. William James received an eclectic trans-Atlantic education, developing fluency in both German and French, education in the James household encouraged cosmopolitanism. The family made two trips to Europe while William James was still a child, setting a pattern that resulted in thirteen more European journeys during his life. In his early adulthood, James suffered from a variety of ailments, including those of the eyes, back, stomach. Two younger brothers, Garth Wilkinson and Robertson, fought in the Civil War, the other three siblings all suffered from periods of invalidism. He took up studies at Harvard Medical School in 1864. His studies were interrupted once again due to illness in April 1867 and he traveled to Germany in search of a cure and remained there until November 1868, at that time he was 26 years old. During this period, he began to publish, reviews of his works appeared in periodicals such as the North American Review. James finally earned his M. D. degree in June 1869, what he called his soul-sickness would only be resolved in 1872, after an extended period of philosophical searching. He married Alice Gibbens in 1878, in 1882 he joined the Theosophical Society. Jamess time in Germany proved intellectually fertile, helping him find that his interests lay not in medicine but in philosophy. Later, in 1902 he would write, I originally studied medicine in order to be a physiologist, I never had any philosophic instruction, the first lecture on psychology I ever heard being the first I ever gave. In 1875–1876, James, Henry Pickering Bowditch, Charles Pickering Putnam, G. Stanley Hall, Henri Bergson and Sigmund Freud
45.
American Art Association
–
The American Art Association was an art gallery and auction house with sales galleries, established in 1883. It was first located at 6 East 23rd Street in Manhattan, New York City and moved to Madison Ave, the galleries and auctions were devoted to paintings by American artists and also had an Oriental Art Department. The aim of the association was to promote American art through a highly visible, the American Art Association was founded by James F. Sutton, R. Austin Robertson, and Thomas Kirby in 1883. Thomas Kirby had grown up in Philadelphia and moved his family to New York in 1876, in the prior to starting the AAA, he worked at various auction firms. In 1882, Sutton proposed a partnership that would result in the formation of the American Art Association, during AAAs operation, Sutton, Kirby, Robertson and their staff supervised the sales of hundreds of collections and works of art. R. Austin Robertson traveled to China and Japan to make selections for the Oriental Department, in its first year, AAA exhibited Thomas B. Clarkes collection of American paintings that was a benefit for the National Academy of Design, the AAA held its first auction in 1885. In 1964, Sothebys purchased Parke-Bernet, then the largest auctioneer of fine art in the United States, the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution maintains the bulk of the American Art Association records. Additional records are found at the Frick Art Reference Library maintains much of the American Art Association records, a plan and interesting information concerning the American Art Association and the American Art Galleries, New York. New York City, American Art Association, the Frick Collection/Frick Art Reference Library Archives, American Art Association Records. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution American Art Association Records
46.
Exposition Universelle (1889)
–
The Exposition Universelle of 1889 was a worlds fair held in Paris, France, from 6 May to 31 October 1889. It was held during the year of the 100th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, an event considered symbolic of the beginning of the French Revolution. The 1889 Exposition covered an area of 0.96 km2, including the Champ de Mars, the Trocadéro, the quai dOrsay, a part of the Seine. Transport around the Exposition was partly provided by a 3 kilometre 600 millimetre gauge railway by Decauville and it was claimed that the railway carried 6,342,446 visitors in just six months of operation. Some of the used on this line later saw service on the Chemins de Fer du Calvados. The main symbol of the Fair was the Eiffel Tower, which served as the arch to the Fair. The 1889 fair was held on the Champ de Mars in Paris, which had been the site of the earlier Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867, since the lifts had not been completed when the Exposition opened, the first visitors had to walk up to the second floor platform. Workers had worked through the night the day before the exhibition opened to complete the construction needed to safely allow patrons to set foot upon the structure. No one other than construction personnel were allowed higher than the second floor platform, an equally significant building constructed for the fair was the Galerie des machines, designed by architect Ferdinand Dutert and engineer Victor Contamin. It was reused at the exposition of 1900 and then destroyed in 1910, at 111 meters, the Galerie spanned the longest interior space in the world at the time, using a system of hinged arches made of steel or iron. Although often described as being constructed of steel, it was made of iron. There is a description, with illustrations, of the Expositions two famous buildings in the British journal Engineering. A follow-up report appears a late issue with this summation, the exhibition will be famous for four distinctive features, the 28 June issue of Engineering also mentions a remarkable Great Model of the Earth created by Theodore Villard and Charles Cotard. There were unseasonal thunderstorms in Paris during that summer of 1889, causing distress to the canopies and decoration of the exposition. The Exhibition included a building by the Paris architect Pierre-Henri Picq and this was an elaborate iron and glass structure decorated with ceramic tiles in a Byzantine-Egyptian-Romanesque style. After the Exposition the building was shipped to Fort de France and reassembled there, known as the Schoelcher Library, initially it contained the 10,000 books that Victor Schoelcher had donated to the island. Today it houses over 250,000 books and an ethnographic museum, a Negro village where 400 people were displayed constituted the major attraction. At the Exposition, the French composer Claude Debussy first heard Javanese gamelan music and this influenced some of his later compositions
.jpg)
