1.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
2.
Alien (law)
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In law, an alien is a person who resides within the borders of a country and is not a national of that country, though definitions and terminology differ to some degree. The term Alien is derived from the Latin alienus, meaning stranger, foreign and it is a non-citizen who has entered a country through irregular migration, for example entered illegally, or an alien who entered a country legally but who has fallen out of status. A legal alien is a non-citizen who is permitted to remain in a country. This is a broad category which includes tourists, guest workers, legal permanent residents. A nonresident alien is a non-citizen who is visiting a country, for example as a tourist, on business, entertainers, a resident alien is a non-citizen who has permanent resident status in a country. An enemy alien is a non-citizen who is a national of an enemy country, an alien in English law was someone who was born outside of the monarchs dominions and who did not have allegiance to the monarch. Aliens were not allowed to own land and were subject to different taxes to subjects and this idea was passed on in the Commonwealth to other common law jurisdictions. In Australia, citizenship is defined in the Australian nationality law, non-citizens living in Australia are either permanent residents, temporary residents, or illegal residents. Most non-citizens travelling to Australia must obtain a prior to travel. In Canada, the alien is not used in federal laws. Instead, the foreign national serves as its equivalent and is found in legal documents. The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act defines foreign national as a person who is not a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident, permanent residents and Canadian citizens are not considered as foreign. The British Nationality Act 1772 regulated who was to be called a British national, the Aliens Act 1905, the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 and the Aliens Restriction Act 1919 were all products of the turbulence in the early part of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, the British Nationality Act 1981 defines an alien as a person who is not a British citizen, a citizen of Ireland, in the United States, an alien is any person not a citizen or national of the United States. Governments use of alien dates back to 1798, when it was used in the Alien, U. S. law makes a clear distinction between aliens and immigrants by defining immigrants as a subset of aliens. Although U. S. law provides no overarching explicit definition of the term illegal alien, U. S. law also uses the term unauthorized alien. U. S. immigration laws do not refer to illegal immigrants, because at law, a corporation is a person, the term alien is not limited to natural humans because what are colloquially called foreign corporations are technically called alien corporations. Because corporations are creations of local law, a foreign corporation is an out of state corporation
3.
Judaism
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Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
4.
Land of Israel
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The Land of Israel is the traditional Jewish name for an area of indefinite geographical extension in the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definitions of the limits of this territory vary between passages in the Hebrew Bible, with mentions in Genesis 15, Exodus 23, Numbers 34. Nine times elsewhere in the Bible, the land is referred as from Dan to Beersheba. According to the Book of Genesis, the land was first promised by God to the descendants of Abram, abrams name was later changed to Abraham, with the promise refined to pass through his son Isaac and to the Israelites, descendants of Jacob, Abrahams grandson. During the mandatory period the term Eretz Yisrael or the Land of Israel was part of the official Hebrew name of Mandatory Palestine, official Hebrew documents used the Hebrew transliteration of the word “Palestine” פלשתינה followed always by the two initial letters of Eretz Yisrael, א״י Aleph-Yod. The Land of Israel concept has been evoked by the founders of the State of Israel. It often surfaces in political debates on the status of the West Bank, Ezekiel, though generally preferring the phrase soil of Israel, employs eretz israel twice, respectively at Ezekiel 40,2 and Ezekiel 47,18. According to Anita Shapira, the term Eretz Yisrael was a term, vague as far as the exact boundaries of the territories are concerned. The Hebrew Bible provides three specific sets of borders for the Promised Land, each with a different purpose. And to their descendants after them, whilst Numbers 34, 1–15 describes the Land of Canaan which is allocated to nine, the expression Land of Israel is first used in a later book,1 Samuel 13,19. It is defined in detail in the exilic Book of Ezekiel as a land where both the tribes and the strangers in midst, can claim inheritance. The name Israel first appears in the Hebrew Bible as the name given by God to the patriarch Jacob, deriving from the name Israel, other designations that came to be associated with the Jewish people have included the Children of Israel or Israelite. The term Land of Israel occurs in one episode in the New Testament, the section in which it appears was written as a parallel to the earlier Book of Exodus. The passage describes the area as the land of the ten named ancient peoples living there. Genesis gives the border with Egypt as Nahar Mitzrayim – nahar in Hebrew denotes a river, never a wadi. Only the Red Sea and the Euphrates are mentioned to define the southern and eastern borders of the land promised to the Israelites. The Red Sea corresponding to Hebrew Yam Suf was understood in ancient times to be the Erythraean Sea, thus the entire Arabian peninsula lies within the borders described
5.
Seven Laws of Noah
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The seven Noahide laws as traditionally enumerated are the following, Do not deny God. Do not engage in sexual relations. Do not eat from a live animal, establish courts/legal system to ensure obedience to said laws. According to the Talmud, the rabbis agree that the seven laws were given to the sons of Noah, However, they disagree on precisely which laws were given to Adam and Eve. Six of the seven laws are derived from passages in Genesis. According to this, all humans are descendants of Noah. After the flood, God sealed a covenant with Noah with the following admonitions, Flesh of an animal, However, flesh with its life-blood. Murder and courts, Furthermore, I will demand your blood, for your lives, from man too, I will demand of each persons brother the blood of man. He who spills the blood of man, by man his blood shall be spilt, for owing to these three things came the flood upon the earth. For whoso sheddeth mans blood, and whoso eateth the blood of any flesh, the earliest complete rabbinic version of the seven laws can be found in the Tosefta where they are listed as follows. In Judaism, בני נח Bnei Noah refers to all of humankind, the Talmud also states, Righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come. Any non-Jew who lives according to these laws is regarded as one of the righteous among the gentiles, the rabbis agree that the seven laws were given to the sons of Noah. However, they disagree on precisely which laws were given to Adam, six of the seven laws are exegetically derived from passages in Genesis. The Talmud expands the scope of the seven laws to cover about 100 of the 613 mitzvoth, in practice Jewish law makes it very difficult to apply the death penalty. No record exists of a gentile having been put to death for violating the seven laws, some of the categories of capital punishment recorded in the Talmud are recorded as having never have been carried out. It is thought that the rabbis included discussion of them in anticipation of the messianic age. The Talmud lists the punishment for blaspheming the Ineffable Name of God as death, in Jewish law the only form of blasphemy which is punishable by death is blaspheming the Ineffable Name Leviticus 24,16. Some Talmudic rabbis held that only those offences for which a Jew would be executed, are forbidden to gentiles, the Talmudic rabbis discuss which offences and sub-offences are capital offences and which are merely forbidden
6.
613 commandments
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The tradition that 613 commandments is the number of mitzvot in the Torah, began in the 3rd century CE, when Rabbi Simlai mentioned it in a sermon that is recorded in Talmud Makkot 23b. These principles of Biblical law are sometimes called connections or commandments and referred to collectively as the Law of Moses, Mosaic Law, Sinaitic Law, the word mitzvot is plural, singular is mitzvah. Although there have been attempts to codify and enumerate the commandments contained in the Torah. The 613 commandments include positive commandments, to perform an act, though the number 613 is mentioned in the Talmud, its real significance increased in later medieval rabbinic literature, including many works listing or arranged by the mitzvot. Three types of negative commandments fall under the self-sacrificial principle yehareg veal yaavor and these are murder, idolatry, and forbidden sexual relations. The 613 mitzvot have been divided also into three categories, mishpatim, edot, and chukim. Mishpatim include commandments that are deemed to be self-evident, such as not to murder, edot commemorate important events in Jewish history. For example, the Shabbat is said to testify to the story that Hashem created the world in six days and rested on the seventh day, chukim are commandments with no known rationale, and are perceived as pure manifestations of the Divine will. Many of the mitzvot cannot be observed now, following the destruction of the Second Temple, According to one standard reckoning, there are 77 positive and 194 negative commandments that can be observed today, of which there are 26 commands that apply only within the Land of Israel. Furthermore, there are some time-related commandments from which women are exempt, some depend on the special status of a person in Judaism, while others apply only to men or only to women. 33,04 is to be interpreted to mean that Moses transmitted the Torah from God to the Israelites, Moses commanded us the Torah as an inheritance for the community of Jacob. The Talmud attributes the number 613 to Rabbi Simlai, but other classical sages who hold this view include Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai and it is quoted in Midrash Shemot Rabbah 33,7, Bamidbar Rabbah 13, 15–16,18,21 and Talmud Yevamot 47b. Many Jewish philosophical and mystical works find allusions and inspirational calculations relating to the number of commandments. The tzitzit of the tallit are connected to the 613 commandments by interpretation, principal Torah commentator Rashi bases the number of knots on a gematria, Each tassel has eight threads and five sets of knots, totalling 13. The sum of all numbers is 613 and this reflects the concept that donning a garment with tzitzit reminds its wearer of all Torah commandments. Rabbinic support for the number of commandments being 613 is not without dissent and, even as the number gained acceptance, some rabbis declared that this count was not an authentic tradition, or that it was not logically possible to come up with a systematic count. No early work of Jewish law or Biblical commentary depended on the 613 system, the classical Biblical commentator and grammarian Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra denied that this was an authentic rabbinic tradition. Nahmanides held that this particular counting was a matter of controversy
7.
Torah
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The Torah is the central reference of Judaism. It has a range of meanings and it can most specifically mean the first five books of the twenty-four books of the Tanakh, and it usually includes the rabbinic commentaries. In rabbinic literature the word Torah denotes both the five books and the Oral Torah, the Oral Torah consists of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash. According to the Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a scribe in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every three days in the presence of a congregation, reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases for Jewish communal life. The word Torah in Hebrew is derived from the root ירה, the meaning of the word is therefore teaching, doctrine, or instruction, the commonly accepted law gives a wrong impression. Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance, the earliest name for the first part of the Bible seems to have been The Torah of Moses. This title, however, is neither in the Torah itself. It appears in Joshua and Kings, but it cannot be said to refer there to the entire corpus, in contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were The Book of Moses and The Book of the Torah, Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the Pentateuch, a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria, meaning five books, or as the Law. The Torah starts from the beginning of Gods creating the world, through the beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and it ends with the death of Moses, just before the people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the narrative are the teachings given explicitly or implicitly embedded in the narrative. This is followed by the story of the three patriarchs, Joseph and the four matriarchs, God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They had heard there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt. Exodus begins the story of Gods revelation to his people of Israel through Moses, Moses receives the Torah from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant to the people of Israel. It also talks about the first violation of the covenant when the Golden Calf was constructed, Exodus includes the instructions on building the Tabernacle and concludes with its actual construction. Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards for following Gods commandments and a detailed list of punishments for not following them. Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai, set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan, even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land
8.
Beth din
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A beth din is a rabbinical court of Judaism. In ancient times, it was the block of the legal system in the Biblical Land of Israel. Commentators point out that the first suggestion in the Torah that the ruler divest his legal powers and this situation was formalised later when God gave the explicit command to establish judges and officers in your gates. There were three types of courts, The Sanhedrin, the central court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, numbering 71 Smaller courts of 23. These courts could pass the death verdict, any smaller court could not pass binding verdicts and only dealt with monetary matters. Participation in these required the classical semicha, the transmission of judicial authority in an unbroken line down from Moses. Since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE, or at the latest the abolition of the position of Nasi in 425 CE, attempts in the 16th century to reinstate the semicha were unsuccessful, Rabbi Yosef Karo was one of the recipients of this semicha. Courts ruled in both kinds of cases, any question that could not be resolved by a smaller court was passed up to a higher court. If the Sanhedrin was still uncertain, divine opinion was sought through the Urim ve-Tumim, given the suspension of semicha, any beth din existing in medieval or modern times is in theory a court of laymen, acting as arbitrators. In practice they are given greater powers than this by the local takkanot ha-kahal, modern training institutes, especially in Israel, confer a qualification of dayan which is superior to the normal rabbinical qualification. In progressive communities, women may serve on the beth din as well, in practice, a permanent beth din will consist of three rabbis, while a beth din for an occasional matter need not consist of rabbis. A beth din is required or preferred for the following matters, kosher certification of restaurants and food manufacturers. Examination of shochetim and the control of the shechita inspectors Conversions to Judaism with at least one member of the court being a rabbi who is an expert on the laws of conversion, supervising the building and maintenance of a mikvah. The authorization and supervision of mohelim, questions relating to burial practices and mourning. A beth din is sometimes used within the Orthodox Jewish community to civil disputes. By this device, the rules, procedures, and judgment of the beth din are accepted, however, the decisions of religious courts cannot be binding without the prior agreement of both parties, and will otherwise act only as mediation. A large beth din may have the officers, Av Beth Din is the most senior jurist who may join in the adjudication of cases or advise the presiding dayanim. The av beth din will usually be a respected rabbi and posek
9.
Talmud
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The Talmud is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It is also referred to as Shas, a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the six orders. Talmud translates literally as instruction in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah, the entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works, though some may have made private notes, for example of court decisions. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing, the earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, the Oral Torah was far from monolithic, rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel, in general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud. The oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the Munich Talmud, each tractate is divided into chapters,517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several pages, each perek will contain several mishnayot with their accompanying exchanges that form the building-blocks of the Gemara, the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya. A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah, in a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim, and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed, in instances, the final word determines the practical law. There is a literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist, see under #Logic. The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates, statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject, or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim, the Mishnahs topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara, also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah. In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the time or shortly thereafter
10.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
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Chabad
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Chabad, also known as Lubavitch, Habad and Chabad-Lubavitch, is an Orthodox Jewish, Hasidic movement. Chabad is today one of the worlds best known Hasidic movements and is known for its outreach. It is the largest Hasidic group and Jewish religious organization in the world, the name Lubavitch is the Yiddish name for the originally Belorussian village Lyubavichi, now in Russia, where the movements leaders lived for over 100 years. He established a network of more than 3,600 institutions that provide religious, social and humanitarian needs in over 1,000 cities, spanning more than 80 countries and all 50 American states. Studies conducted between 1993 and 1996 stated the movement is thought to number between 40,000 and 200,000 adherents, in 2005 the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs reported that up to one million Jews attend Chabad services at least once a year. In 2013, Chabad forecast that their Chanukah activities would reach up to 8,000,000 Jews in 80 countries worldwide, the movement was based in Lyubavichi for over a century, then briefly centered in the cities of Rostov-on-Don, Riga, and Warsaw. Since 1940, the center has been in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn. While the movement has spawned a number of groups, the Chabad-Lubavitch branch appears to be the only one still active. Sarna has characterized Chabad as having enjoyed the fastest rate of growth of any Jewish religious movement for the period 1946-2015, in the early 1900s, Chabad-Lubavitch legally incorporated itself under Agudas Chasidei Chabad. The Chabad movement has been led by a succession of Hasidic rebbes, the main line of the movement, Chabad-Lubavitch, has had seven rebbes in total, Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, founded the Chabad movement in the town of Liozna. He later moved the center to the town of Liadi. Rabbi Shneur Zalman was the youngest disciple of Rabbi Dovber of Mezritch, the Chabad movement began as a separate school of thought within the Hasidic movement, focusing of the spread of Hasidic mystical teachings using logical reasoning. Shneur Zalmans main work is the Tanya, the Tanya is the central book of Chabad thought and is studied daily by followers of the Chabad movement. Shneur Zalmans successors went by last names such as Schneuri and Schneersohn and he is commonly referred to as the Alter Rebbe or Admur Hazoken. Rabbi Dovber Schneuri, son of Rabbi Shneur Zalman, led the Chabad movement in the town of Lyubavichi and his leadership was initially disputed by Rabbi Aaron Halevi of Stroselye, however, Rabbi Dovber was generally recognized as his fathers rightful successor, and the movements leader. Rabbi Dovber published a number of his writings on Hasidic thought and he also published some of his fathers writings. Many of Rabbi Dovbers works have been republished by the Chabad movement. He is commonly referred to as the Mitteler Rebbe, or Admur Haemtzoei, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn, a grandson of Rabbi Shneur Zalman and son-in-law of Rabbi Dovber
12.
Noahidism
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Noahidism or Noachidism is a monotheistic ideology based on the Seven Laws of Noah, and on their traditional interpretations within Rabbinic Judaism. Those who subscribe to the observance of these commandments are referred to as Bene Noach, Children of Noah, Noahides, supporting organizations have been established around the world over the past decades, by either Noahides or observant Jews. Historically, the Hebrew term Bene Noach has applied to all non-Jews as descendants of Noah, however, nowadays it is also used to refer specifically to those non-Jews who observe the Noahide Laws. According to the Book of Genesis, Noah and his three sons Shem, Ham, and Japheth survived the Flood aboard the Ark, along with their wives, therefore, the Bnei Noah – all humans, as descendants of Noah – are subject to the Noahide laws. Some details of these laws are found in the Midrashic literature. The Sebomenoi or God-fearers are an example of non-Jews being included within the Jewish community. Some consider that the Apostolic Decree originating from the Council of Jerusalem endorses something similar to the laws of Noah, some Jewish religious groups have been particularly active in promoting the Seven Laws, notably the Chabad-Lubavitch movement, groups affiliated with Dor Daim. Small groups calling themselves the Bnei Noah have recently organised themselves to form communities to abide by these laws, a High Council of B’nei Noah, set up to represent Bnei Noah communities around the world, was endorsed by a group that claimed to be the new Sanhedrin. Rabbi Meir Kahane organized one of the first Noahide conferences in the 1980s, in 1990, Kahane was the keynote speaker at the First International Conference of the Descendants of Noah in Fort Worth, Texas. In 1991, they had a reference to these laws enshrined in a Congressional proclamation, Presidential Proclamation 5956, subsequently, Public Law 102-14 formally designated the Lubavitcher Rebbes 90th birthday as Education Day, U. S. A. The mayor of the Galilean city of Shefa-Amr — where Muslim, Christian and they represented Poland, Latvia, Mexico, Panama, Ghana, and Japan. They were part of a program organized by Harav Boaz Kali. In April, Abu Gosh mayor Salim Jaber accepted the seven Noahide laws as part of a rally by Chabad at the Bloomfield Stadium in Tel Aviv. In May, the elected president of France, Nicolas Sarkozy, met with a Chabad-Lubavitch rabbi, Dovid Zaoui, who presented him with literature on the universal teachings of the Noahide Laws. ”The Anti-Defamation League issued a strong denunciation of Yosef’s comments. Judaism does not require non-Jews to keep all of the Ten Commandments, some within Orthodox Judaism view the keeping of certain of the Ten Commandments as being forbidden to non-Jews. The Ten Commandments are actually only 10 from among the number of 613 Jewish commandments in the Torah. Some of this disagreement arises from the English translation of the Hebrew term for the Ten Commandments, the rest of the 613 Mitzvot were taught to Moses by God, and Moses taught them to the rest of the Jewish people. Mitzvot is the Hebrew term for commandment. org 7for70. com The Laws of Bnei Noach at Yeshiva
13.
Maimonides
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In his time, he was also a preeminent astronomer and physician. Born in Cordova, Almoravid Empire on Passover Eve,1135 or 1138, he worked as a rabbi, physician and he died in Egypt on December 12,1204, whence his body was taken to the lower Galilee and buried in Tiberias. Nonetheless, he was acknowledged as among the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in Jewish history. His fourteen-volume Mishneh Torah still carries significant canonical authority as a codification of Talmudic law and he is sometimes known as ha Nesher ha Gadol in recognition of his outstanding status as a bona fide exponent of the Oral Torah. Aside from being revered by Jewish historians, Maimonides also figures prominently in the history of Islamic. Influenced by Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and his contemporary Averroes, he in his turn influenced other prominent Arab and Muslim philosophers and he became a prominent philosopher and polymath in both the Jewish and Islamic worlds. His full Hebrew name is Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, whose acronym forms Rambam and his full Arabic name is Abū ʿImrān Mūsā bin Maimūn bin ʿUbaidallāh al-Qurtabī or Mūsā bin Maymūn for short. In Latin, the Hebrew ben becomes the Greek−style suffix -ides to form Moses Maimonides, Maimonides was born in Córdoba during what some scholars consider to be the end of the golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula, after the first centuries of the Moorish rule. At an early age, he developed an interest in sciences and he read those Greek philosophers accessible in Arabic translations, and was deeply immersed in the sciences and learning of Islamic culture. Maimonides was not known as a supporter of mysticism, although a strong type of mysticism has been discerned in his philosophy. He expressed disapproval of poetry, the best of which he declared to be false and this sage, who was revered for his personality as well as for his writings, led a busy life, and wrote many of his works while travelling or in temporary accommodation. Maimonides studied Torah under his father Maimon, who had in turn studied under Rabbi Joseph ibn Migash, a Berber dynasty, the Almohads, conquered Córdoba in 1148, and abolished dhimmi status in some of their territories. The loss of protected status threatened the Jewish and Christian communities with conversion to Islam, death. The historical records of abuses against Jews in the immediate post-1148 period are subject to different interpretations, Maimonidess family, along with most other Jews, chose exile. Some say, though, that it is likely that Maimonides feigned a conversion to Islam before escaping and this forced conversion was ruled legally invalid under Islamic law when brought up by a rival in Egypt. For the next ten years, Maimonides moved about in southern Spain, during this time, he composed his acclaimed commentary on the Mishnah in the years 1166–1168. Following this sojourn in Morocco, together with two sons, he sojourned in the Holy Land, before settling in Fustat, Egypt around 1168, while in Cairo, he studied in a yeshiva attached to a small synagogue. In the Holy Land, he prayed at the Temple Mount and he wrote that this day of visiting the Temple Mount was a day of holiness for him and his descendants
14.
Shulchan Aruch
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The Shulchan Aruch, also known by various Jewish communities but not all as the Code of Jewish Law, is the most widely consulted of the various legal codes in Judaism. It was authored in Safed by Yosef Karo in 1563 and published in Venice two years later, together with its commentaries, it is the most widely accepted compilation of Jewish law ever written. These glosses are referred to as the mappah to the Shulchan Aruchs Set Table. The Shulchan Aruch follow the structure as Arbaah Turim by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher. These books were written from the standpoint of Sephardi Minhag, other works entitled Shulchan Aruch or Kitzur Shulcan Aruch cited below are written from the standpoint of Ashkenazi Minhag, there are four sections, each subdivided into many chapters and paragraphs. There is disagreement on the authorship of the references to Isserles remarks, since the 17th century, the Shulchan Aruch has been printed with Isserles annotations in small Rashi print interspersed with Karos text. As commentaries on the work proliferated, more sophisticated printing styles became required, the Shulchan Aruch is largely based on an earlier work by Karo, titled Beth Yosef. The latter is a vast and comprehensive commentary on Jacob ben Ashers Arbaah Turim, citing and analyzing the Talmudic, Geonic and this work analyzes the theories and conclusions of those authorities cited by the Tur, and also examines the opinions of authorities not mentioned by the latter. Karo began the Beth Yosef in 1522 at Adrianople, finished it in 1542 at Safed in the Land of Israel, thirty-two authorities, beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of Rabbi Israel Isserlein, are summarized and critically discussed in Beth Yosef. No other rabbinical work compares with it in wealth of material, Karo evidences not only an astonishing range of reading, covering almost the entire rabbinic literature up to his time, but also remarkable powers of critical investigation. He evidences no inclination to accept the opinions of ancient authorities. In the introduction to his compilation, Karo clearly states the necessity of. The expulsion of the Jews from the Iberian peninsula and the invention of printing had endangered the stability of religious observances on their legal and ritual sides, Jews then living in the different kingdoms of Spain had their standard authorities to which they appealed. Karo undertook his Beth Yosef to remedy this problem, quoting, Karo initially intended to rely on his own judgment relating to differences of opinion between the various authorities, especially where he could support his own view based on the Talmud. But he abandoned this idea because, as he wrote, Who has the courage to rear his head aloft among mountains, the heights of God. And also because he may have thought, though he does not mention his conclusion, Karo very often decides disputed cases without necessarily considering the age and importance of the authority in question, expressing simply his own views. He follows Maimonides example, as seen in Mishneh Torah, rather than that of Jacob ben Asher, several reasons induced Karo to connect his work with the Tur, instead of Maimonides code. Secondly, it was not Karos intention to write a similar in form to Maimonides work, he intended to give not merely the results of his investigations
15.
Conversion to Judaism
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The procedure and requirements for conversion depend on the sponsoring denomination. A conversion in accordance with the process of a denomination is not a guarantee of recognition by another denomination, in some cases, a person may forgo a formal conversion to Judaism and adopt some or all beliefs and practices of Judaism. However, without a conversion, many highly observant Jews will reject a converts Jewish status. There are some groups that have adopted Jewish customs and practices, for example, in Russia the Subbotniks have adopted most aspects of Judaism without formal conversion to Judaism. However, if Subbotniks, or anyone without a conversion, wish to marry into a traditional Jewish community or immigrate to Israel. A male convert to Judaism is referred to by the Hebrew word ger, the word is rendered by the Greek proselyte as used in the Septuagint to denote a stranger. In Karaite Judaism a Ger is a non-Jew who has yet to convert to Judaism. After a Ger converts to Judaism, they are no longer considered a Ger, the word ger comes from the Hebrew verb lagur meaning to reside or to sojourn. In the Hebrew Bible ger is defined as a foreigner, or sojourner, Rabbi Marc Angel writes, The Hebrew ger literally means resident and refers to a non-Israelite who lived among the Israelite community. When the Torah commands compassion and equal justice for the ger, Rabbinic tradition interpreted the word ger as referring to proselytes. The Jews were not converts in Egypt, but rather foreigners, another passage which may be relevant to a process of conversion involves non-Jewish women captured in war who could be adopted forcibly as wives. Another verse which has interpreted as referring to non-Jews converting to Judaism is Esther 8,17. In Modern Hebrew, ger refers to a convert to Judaism, according to Maimonides, converts were accepted since the beginning of Jewish history, and the foreign wives of Jewish leaders - such as Samson and Solomon - were converts. For Rabbinic Judaism, the laws governing conversion are based on codes of law and texts, including discussions in the Talmud, through the Shulkhan Arukh and these rules are held as authoritative by Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism. Jewish law is interpreted as somewhat discouraging proselytizing, and religious gerut is also somewhat discouraged. In the past, rabbis often rejected potential converts three times, and if they remained adamant in their desire to convert, they would allow them to begin the process. However, a rabbi convinced of the prospective converts sincerity may allow him or her to follow the process of conversion and this requires the person to appear before an established three-judge Jewish religious court known as a beth din to be tested and formally accepted. Conservative Judaism takes a lenient approach in application of the halakhic rules than Modern Orthodox Judaism
16.
Menachem Mendel Schneersohn
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Menachem Mendel Schneersohn also known as the Tzemach Tzedek was an Orthodox rabbi, leading 19th century posek, and the third Rebbe of the Chabad Lubavitch chasidic movement. The Tzemach Tzedek was born in Liozna, on 29 Elul 5549 and his mother Devorah Leah died just three years later, and her father Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi raised him as his own son. He married his first cousin Chaya Mushka Schneersohn, daughter of Rabbi Dovber Schneuri and he was known as the Tzemach Tzedek, after the title of a voluminous compendium of halakha that he authored. He also authored Derech Mitzvotecha, an exposition of the Mitzvos. He compiled major works of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi for publication, including the Siddur LKol HaShanah and he also authored a philosophical text entitled Sefer Chakira, Derech Emuna. The Tzemach Tzedek enjoyed close ties with other Jewish leaders, according to Baruch Epstein, his father Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein spent six months under the Tzemach Tzedeks tutelage, and learned most of his mystical knowledge during that time. This story is disputed by hassidic historian Yehoshua Mondshein and his close friendship with professor J Berstenson, the Czars court physician often helped the delicate negotiations relating to the welfare of the community. He set up an organisation called Hevras Techiyas Hameisim to assist Jewish boy-soldiers who were being recruited and converted to Christianity by the Russian army and these soldiers known as Cantonists were taken away from the Jewish community to other villages. Schneersohn arranged for his students to pay regular visits to keep up their spirits. In 1844-45 he took steps to increase the enrollment and viability of the Lubavitch Yeshivas in Dubroŭna, Pasana, Lyozno and Kalisz, repeated attempts by the authorities to entrap him using informers such as Hershel Hodesh, Benjamin the Apostate and Lipman Feldman failed. He died in Lubavitch on 13 Nissan 5626 at the age of 77, leaving behind him seven sons and these movements saw themselves as part of Chabad. Several of his sons established Chasidic dynasties, see #Sons, a famous saying of the Tzemach Tzedek is Think good and it will be good. This expresses the Chabad view that simply by virtue of a persons trust in God, the Tzemach Tzedek had seven sons,1. Rabbi Baruch Shalom did not become a rebbe in his own right, he chose to remain in Lubavitch, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the seventh Rebbe of Chabad-Lubavitch, was his great-great-grandson. Rabbi Yehuda Leib Schneersohn settled in Kopys a few months after the death of his father and he had three sons, Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Schneersohn, oldest son of Rabbi Yehuda Leib, assumed his father’s position in Kopust. He is the author of a work on Hasidism titled Magen Avot, Rabbi Shalom Dovber Schneersohn of Rechitsa, known as the Rashab of Rechitsa. Succeeding his brother, Rabbi Shlomo Zalman, Rabbi Shalom Dovber served as the Kopuster movements rebbe in the town of Rechitsa, Rabbi Shalom Dovber seems to have died without a successor. Rabbi Shmaryahu Noah Schneersohn, known as Shmaryahu Noah of Babruysk, succeeding his brother, Rabbi Shlomo Zalman, Rabbi Shmaryahu Noah served as the Kopuster movements rebbe in the town of Babruysk
17.
Righteous Among the Nations
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Righteous Among the Nations is an honorific used by the State of Israel to describe non-Jews who risked their lives during the Holocaust to save Jews from extermination by the Nazis. The term originates with the concept of righteous gentiles, a used in rabbinic Judaism to refer to non-Jews, called ger toshav. When Yad Vashem, the Shoah Martyrs and Heroes Remembrance Authority, was established in 1953 by the Knesset, the Righteous were defined as non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust. Since 1963, a commission headed by a justice of the Supreme Court of Israel has been charged with the duty of awarding the honorary title Righteous among the Nations, the award has been given without regard to the social rank of the helper. The awards are distributed to the rescuers or their next-of-kin during ceremonies in Israel and these ceremonies are attended by local government representatives and are given wide media coverage. Anyone who has recognized as Righteous is entitled to apply to Yad Vashem for the certificate. If the person is no longer alive, their next of kin is entitled to request that commemorative citizenship be conferred on the Righteous who has died. In total,26,513 men and women from 51 countries have been recognized, Yad Vashems policy is to pursue the program for as long as petitions for this title are received and are supported by evidence that meets the criteria. Recipients who choose to live in the state of Israel are entitled to an equal to the average national wage and free health care. At least 130 Righteous Gentiles have settled in Israel and they were welcomed by Israeli authorities, and were granted citizenship. In the mid-1980s, they entitled to special pensions. Some of them settled in British Mandatory Palestine before Israels establishment shortly after World War II, or in the years of the new state of Israel. Those who came earlier often spoke fluent Hebrew and have now integrated into Israeli society, the Righteous are honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the US on 16 July. A Righteous from Italy, Edward Focherini, was beatified by the Catholic Church on 15 June 2013, in 2015, Lithuanias first street sign honoring a Righteous Among the Nations was unveiled in Vilnius. The street is named Simaites Street, after Ona Šimaitė, she was a Vilnius University librarian who helped and rescued Jewish people in the Vilna Ghetto, as of January 1,2016, the award has been made to 26,120 people. Righteous Gentiles of the Holocaust, Genocide and Moral Obligation, David P. Gushee, ISBN 1-55778-821-9, the Lexicon of the Righteous Among the Nations, Yad Vashem, Jerusalem. To Save a Life, Stories of Holocaust Rescue, Land-Weber, Ellen, ISBN 0-252-02515-6, the Seven Laws of Noah, Lichtenstein, Aaron, New York, The Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press,1981, ASIN B00071QH6S. The Image of the Non-Jew in Judaism, Novak, David, ISBN 0-88946-975-X, New York and Toronto, the Path of the Righteous, Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust, Paldiel, Mordecai, ISBN 0-88125-376-6, KTAV Publishing House, Inc
18.
Virtuous pagan
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Virtuous pagan is a concept in Christian theology analogous to that of the righteous gentile in Judaism and Hanifs in Islam. Prominent examples are Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Trajan, virtuous paganism became relevant to Romanticism with its interest in North European mythology or enthusiasm for the rediscovered pagan ethos of the Icelandic sagas. Tom Shippey argues that the fiction of J. R. R, nevertheless it did provide an image of heroic virtue which could exist, and could be admired, outside the Christian framework. A modern Catholic rendering of this is known as Anonymous Christianity in the theology of Karl Rahner
19.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
20.
Law of Moses
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The text continues, And afterward he read all the words of the teachings, the blessings and cursings, according to all that is written in the book of the Torah. The term occurs 15 times in the Hebrew Bible, a further 7 times in the New Testament, the Hebrew word for the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, Torah refers to the same five books termed in English Pentateuch. According to some scholars, use of the name Torah to designate the Five Books of Moses of the Hebrew Bible, is documented only from the 2nd Century BCE. The adjective Mosaic means of Moses, the Law of Moses in ancient Israel is different from other legal codes in the ancient Near East because transgressions are seen as offenses against God rather than solely as offenses against society. This contrasts with the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu, and the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, however the influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the Law of ancient Israel is recognised and well documented. For example the Israelite Sabbatical Year has antecedents in the Akkadian mesharum edicts granting periodic relief to the poor. Another important distinction is that in ancient Near East legal codes, as in more recently unearthed Ugaritic texts, an important, ancient Israel was set up as a theocracy, rather than a monarchy. The Book of Deuteronomy records Moses saying, Take this book of the law, the Book of Kings relates how a law of Moses was discovered in the Temple during the reign of king Josiah. This book is identified as an early version of the Book of Deuteronomy, perhaps chapters 5-26. This text contains a number of laws, dated to the 8th century BC kingdom of Judah, another mention of the Book of the Law of Moses is found in Joshua 8, 30-31. The content of the Law is spread among the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers and this includes, the Ten Commandments Moral laws - on murder, theft, honesty, adultery, etc. Social laws - on property, inheritance, marriage and divorce, Food laws - on what is clean and unclean, purity laws - on menstruation, seminal emissions, skin disease and mildew, etc. Feasts - the Day of Atonement, Passover, Feast of Tabernacles, Feast of Unleavened Bread, instructions for the priesthood and the high priest including tithes. Instructions regarding the Tabernacle, and which were applied to the Temple in Jerusalem. Instructions and for the construction of various altars, forward looking instructions for time when Israel would demand a king. The content of the instructions and its interpretations, the Oral Torah, was passed orally, excerpted and codified in Rabbinical Judaism. The Law given to Moses at Sinai is a halakhic distinction, christian views on the Old Covenant Matthew 5#Antitheses Moses in Islam Jewish Encyclopedia, Torah, Laws of the Torah
21.
1986
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The year 1986 was designated as the International Year of Peace by the United Nations. January 1 Spain and Portugal enter the European Community, which becomes the European Union. Aruba gains increased autonomy from the Netherlands and is separated from the Netherlands Antilles, the Province of Flevoland is established in the Netherlands. UNIDO becomes an agency of the United Nations. January 9 – After losing a patent battle with Polaroid, Kodak leaves the instant camera business, January 11 – The Gateway Bridge in Brisbane, Australia, at this time the worlds longest prestressed concrete free-cantilever bridge, is opened. January 12 – STS-61-C, Space Shuttle Columbia is launched with the first Hispanic American astronaut, January 13–24 – South Yemen Civil War. January 19 – The first PC virus, Brain, starts to spread, January 20 – The United Kingdom and France announce plans to construct the Channel Tunnel. January 24 – The Voyager 2 space probe makes its first encounter with Uranus, January 25 – Yoweri Musevenis National Resistance Army Rebel group takes over Uganda after leading a 5-year guerrilla war in which up to half a million people are believed to have been killed. They will later use January 26 as the date to avoid a coincidence of dates with Dictator Idi Amins 1971 coup. January 26 – Super Bowl XX, The Bears defeated the Patriots by the score of 46–10, January 29 – Yoweri Museveni is sworn in as President of Uganda. February 3 – Pixar Animation Studios are opened in California, february 7 President Jean-Claude Duvalier flees Haiti, ending 28 years of family rule. February 8 – The Hinton train collision happened, which a Canadian National train heading westbound collided with a Via Rail train in Hinton,23 people were killed in the accident, and injured 71 people. February 9 – Halleys Comet reaches its perihelion, the closest point to the Sun, february 11 – Human rights activist Natan Sharansky is released by the Soviet Union and leaves the country. February 15 – The Beechcraft Starship makes its maiden flight, february 16 The Soviet liner MS Mikhail Lermontov sinks in the Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand. Ouadi Doum air raid, The French Air Force raids the Libyan Ouadi Doum airbase in northern Chad, february 17 – The Single European Act is signed. February 19 The Soviet Union launches the Mir space station, the United States Senate approves a treaty outlawing genocide. February 21 – Nintendo releases the first game in the Zelda series, The Legend of Zelda, february 22 – The People Power Revolution begins in the Philippines to remove President Ferdinand Marcos from office. February 25 The 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union opens in Moscow, the General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev introduces the keywords of his mandate to the audience, Glasnost and Perestroika
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
Rabbi
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In Judaism, a rabbi /ˈræbaɪ/ is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רַבִּי rabi, meaning My Master, the word master רב rav literally means great one. The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic and Talmudic era, the first sage for whom the Mishnah uses the title of rabbi was Yohanan ben Zakkai, active in the early to mid first century CE. Within the various Jewish denominations there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination, for example, Orthodox Judaism does not ordain women as rabbis, but other movements have chosen to do so for halakhic reasons as well as ethical reasons. Although the usage rabbim many the majority, the multitude occurs for the assembly of the community in the Dead Sea scrolls there is no evidence to support an association with the later title Rabbi, the root is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb, meaning lord. As a sign of respect, some great rabbis are simply called The Rav. The titles Rabban and Rabbi are first mentioned in the Mishnah, the term was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the elder, Rabban Simeon his son, and Rabban Johanan ben Zakkai, all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of the Sanhedrin. The title Rabbi occurs in the books of Matthew, Mark, and John in the New Testament, other variants are rəvī and, in Yiddish, rebbə. The word could be compared to the Syriac word ܪܒܝ rabi, in ancient Hebrew, rabbi was a proper term of address while speaking to a superior, in the second person, similar to a vocative case. While speaking about a superior, in the person one could say ha-rav or rabbo. Later, the term evolved into a title for members of the Patriarchate. Thus, the title gained an irregular form, רַבָּנִים rabbanim. Rabbi as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible. All of the above personalities would have expected to be steeped in the wisdom of the Torah and the commandments. And honor is due only for Torah, as it is said, The wise shall inherit honor, and only Torah is truly good, as it is said, I have given you a good teaching, do not forsake My Torah. This was eventually encoded and codified within the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinical scholarship, the title Rabbi was borne by the sages of ancient Israel, who were ordained by the Sanhedrin in accordance with the custom handed down by the elders. They were titled Ribbi and received authority to judge penal cases, Rab was the title of the Babylonian sages who taught in the Babylonian academies. After the suppression of the Patriarchate and Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, a recognised scholar could be called Rab or Hacham, like the Babylonian sages
24.
Canaan
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Canaan was a Semitic-speaking region in the Ancient Near East during the late 2nd millennium BC. The name Canaan occurs commonly in the Hebrew Bible, in particular, the references in Genesis 10 and Numbers 34 define the Land of Canaan as extending from Lebanon southward to the Brook of Egypt and eastward to the Jordan River Valley. References to Canaan in the Bible are usually backward-looking, referring to a region that had something else. The term Canaanites serves as an ethnic catch-all term covering various indigenous populations—both settled, the Amarna Letters and other cuneiform documents use Kinaḫḫu, while other sources of the Egyptian New Kingdom mention numerous military campaigns conducted in Ka-na-na. Canaan had significant geopolitical importance in the Late Bronze Age Amarna period as the area where the spheres of interest of the Egyptian, Hittite, Mitanni and Assyrian Empires converged. Much of the knowledge about Canaan stems from archaeological excavation in this area at sites such as Tel Hazor, Tel Megiddo. The English term Canaan comes from the Hebrew כנען, via Greek Χαναάν Khanaan and it appears as KUR ki-na-ah-na in the Amarna letters, and knʿn is found on coins from Phoenicia in the last half of the 1st millennium. It first occurs in Greek in the writings of Hecataeus as Khna, scholars connect the name Canaan with knʿn, Kanaan, the general Northwest Semitic name for this region. An early explanation derives the term from the Semitic root knʿ to be low, humble, purple cloth became a renowned Canaanite export commodity which is mentioned in Exodus. The dyes may have named after their place of origin. The purple cloth of Tyre in Phoenicia was well known far, however, according to Robert Drews, Speisers proposal has generally been abandoned. The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically, Jonathan Tubb states that the term ga-na-na may provide a third millennium reference to Canaanite while at the same time stating that the first certain reference is in the 18th century BC. See Ebla-Biblical controversy for further details, Mari letters A letter from Mutu-bisir to Shamshi-Adad I of the Old Assyrian Empire has been translated, It is in Rahisum that the brigands and the Canaanites are situated. It was found in 1973 in the ruins of Mari, an Assyrian outpost at that time in Syria, additional unpublished references to Kinahnum in the Mari letters refer to the same episode. Alalakh texts A reference to Ammiya being in the land of Canaan is found on the Statue of Idrimi from Alalakh in modern Syria. After a popular uprising against his rule, Idrimi was forced into exile with his mothers relatives to seek refuge in the land of Canaan, the other references in the Alalakh texts are, AT154 AT181, A list of Apiru people with their origins. All are towns, except for Canaan AT188, A list of Muskenu people with their origins, the letters are written in the official and diplomatic East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia, though Canaanitish words and idioms are also in evidence. May the king ask Yanhamu about these matters, may the king ask his commissioner, who is familiar with Canaan EA151, Letter from Abimilku to the Pharaoh, The king, my lord wrote to me, write to me what you have heard from Canaan
25.
Shabbat
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Shabbat observance entails refraining from work activities, often with great rigor, and engaging in restful activities to honor the day. Judaisms traditional position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution, variations upon Shabbat are widespread in Judaism and, with adaptations, throughout the Abrahamic and many other religions. According to halakha, Shabbat is observed from a few minutes before sunset on Friday evening until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night, Shabbat is ushered in by lighting candles and reciting a blessing. Traditionally, three meals are eaten, in the evening, in the early afternoon, and late in the afternoon. The evening meal begins with a blessing called kiddush and another blessing recited over two loaves of challah. Shabbat is closed the evening with a havdalah blessing. Shabbat is a day when Jews exercise their freedom from the regular labors of everyday life. It offers an opportunity to contemplate the spiritual aspects of life, the word Shabbat derives from the Hebrew verb shavat. Although frequently translated as rest, another translation of these words is ceasing. The related modern Hebrew word shevita, has the implication of active rather than passive abstinence from work. The notion of active cessation from labor is also regarded as consistent with an omnipotent Gods activity on the seventh day of Creation according to Genesis. Sabbath is given status as a holy day at the very beginning of the Torah in Genesis 2. It is first commanded after the Exodus from Egypt, in Exodus 16,26 and in Exodus 20, Sabbath is commanded and commended many more times in the Torah and Tanakh, double the normal number of animal sacrifices are to be offered on the day. Sabbath is also described by the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, the longstanding traditional Jewish position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution. The Mosaic tradition quotes an origin from the Bible of special creation, though some suggest a later, naturalistic origin. Seventh-day Shabbat did not originate with the Egyptians, to whom it was unknown, the first non-Biblical reference to Sabbath is in an ostracon found in excavations at Mesad Hashavyahu, which is dated 630 BCE. The prohibitions on these days, spaced seven days apart, include abstaining from chariot riding, on these days officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to make a wish, and at least the 28th was known as a rest-day. The difficulties of this theory include reconciling the differences between a week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as Sabbath in any language
26.
Jewish Encyclopedia
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The Jewish Encyclopedia is an English encyclopedia containing over 15,000 articles on the history, culture, and state of Judaism and the Jews up to the early 20th century. It was originally published in 12 volumes by Funk and Wagnalls of New York City between 1901 and 1906 and reprinted in the 1960s by KTAV Publishing House and it is now in the public domain and hosted at various sites around the internet. The encyclopedias managing editor was Isidore Singer, the editorial board was chaired by Isaac K. Funk and Frank H. Vizetelly. William Popper served as the assistant revision editor and chief of translation for Vols, in the 20th century, the movements members dispersed to Jewish Studies departments in the United States and Israel. L. Rapoport, David Zvi Hoffman, Heinrich Graetz, etc, of the works cited which are not German—usually the more classical works—the large part are either Hebrew or Arabic. The only heavily cited English-language source of scholarship is Solomon Schechters publications in the Jewish Quarterly Review. Wolfson continues that if a Jewish Encyclopedia in a language were planned for the first time. The Jewish Encyclopedia was heavily used as a source by the 16-volume Jewish Encyclopedia in Russian, published by Brockhaus, the unedited text of the original can be found at the Jewish Encyclopedia website. The site offers both JPEG facsimiles of the articles and Unicode transcriptions of all texts. Thus, for example, to search for Halizah, one would have to know that they have transliterated this as Ḥaliẓah. The alphabetic index ignores diacriticals so it can be useful when searching for an article whose title is known. The scholarly apparatus of citation is thorough, but can be a bit daunting to contemporary users, a list of abbreviations used in the encyclopedia is provided on the Jewish Encyclopedia website. I, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, the Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. II, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. III, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, the Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. V, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, VI & VII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, IX, X, & XI, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. XII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, schwarz, Leo W. com, maintained by the Kopelman Foundation. Multiple copies at the Internet Archive Hathi Trust
27.
1906
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As of the start of 1906, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 16–April 7 – Algeciras Conference to resolve the First Moroccan Crisis between France and Germany, january 22 – The SS Valencia strikes a reef off Vancouver Island, Canada, killing over 100 in the ensuing disaster. January 31 – Ecuador–Colombia earthquake and associated tsunami, february 10 – HMS Dreadnought is launched and sparks the naval race between Britain and Germany. February 11 – Pope Pius X publishes the encyclical Vehementer Nos denouncing the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches, february 11 – Two British £1-per-head tax collectors are killed near Richmond, Natal, sparking the Bambatha Rebellion. March 10 – Courrières mine disaster, an explosion in a mine in France kills 1,060. March 18 – In France, Romanian inventor Traian Vuia becomes the first person to achieve an unassisted takeoff in a powered monoplane. April 7 – Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples, april 14 – The Azusa Street Revival, the primary catalyst for the revival of Pentecostalism this century, opens in Los Angeles. April 18 – San Francisco earthquake on the San Andreas Fault destroys much of San Francisco, California, USA, killing at least 3,000, with 225, 000–300,000 left homeless, and $350 million in damages. April 23 – In Tsarist Russia, the Fundamental Laws are announced at the first state Duma, may – Jack Londons novel White Fang begins serialization in the American magazine Outing. May 29 – Karl Staaff steps down as Prime Minister of Sweden over the issue of expanded voting rights and he is replaced by the right-wing naval officer and public official, Arvid Lindman. June 7 – Cunard liner RMS Lusitania is launched in Glasgow as the worlds largest ship, July 1 – Sporting Lisbon, a well known football club in Portugal, founded. July 6 – The Second Geneva Convention meets, July 12 – Alfred Dreyfus is exonerated. He is reinstalled in the French Army on July 21, thus ending the Dreyfus affair, august 4 – The first Imperial German Navy submarine, U-1, is launched. August 16 – A magnitude 8.2 earthquake in Valparaíso, august 22 – The first Victor Victrola, a phonographic record player, is manufactured. August 23 – Unable to control a rebellion Cuban President Tomás Estrada Palma requests United States intervention, the subsequent provisional occupation administration lasts until 1909. September 11 – Mahatma Gandhi coins the term Satyagraha to characterize the Non-Violence movement in South Africa, september 18 – A typhoon and tsunami kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong. September 30 – The first Gordon Bennett Cup in ballooning is held, the winning team, piloting the balloon United States, lands in Fylingdales, Yorkshire, England. October 1 – The Grand Duchy of Finland becomes the first nation to include the right of women to stand as candidates when it adopts universal suffrage, october 6 – The Majlis of Iran convenes for the first time
28.
Mishneh Torah
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The Mishneh Torah, subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka, is a code of Jewish religious law authored by Maimonides, one of historys foremost rabbis. The Mishneh Torah was compiled between 1170 and 1180, while Maimonides was living in Egypt, and is regarded as Maimonides magnum opus, accordingly, later sources simply refer to the work as Maimon, Maimonides or RaMBaM, although Maimonides composed other works. Mishneh Torah consists of fourteen books, subdivided into sections, chapters and it is the only Medieval-era work that details all of Jewish observance, including those laws that are only applicable when the Holy Temple is in existence, and remains an important work in Judaism. Maimonides intended to provide a statement of the Oral Law, so that a person who mastered first the Written Torah. Contemporary reaction was mixed, with strong and immediate opposition focusing on the absence of sources, Maimonides responded to these criticisms, and the Mishneh Torah endures as an influential work in Jewish religious thought. Likewise, One must follow Maimonides even when the latter opposed his teachers, since he knew their views. He drew upon the Torah and the rest of Tanakh, both Talmuds, Tosefta, and the halachic Midrashim, principally Sifra and Sifre. Some believe that he preferred rulings in certain Midrash collections to rulings in the Talmud, later sources include the responsa of the Geonim. According to Maimonides, the Geonim were considered unintelligible in our days, there were even times when Maimonides disagreed with what was being taught in the name of the Geonim. Maimonides himself states a few times in his work that he possessed what he considered to be more accurate texts of the Talmud than what most people possessed at his time. The latter has confirmed to a certain extent by versions of the Talmud preserved by the Yemenite Jews as to the reason for what previously were thought to be rulings without any source. The Mishneh Torah is written in Hebrew in the style of the Mishnah, as he states in the preface, Maimonides was reluctant to write in Talmudic Aramaic, since it was not widely known. His previous works had been written in Arabic, the Mishneh Torah never cites sources or arguments, and confines itself to stating the final decision on the law to be followed in each situation. There is no discussion of Talmudic interpretation or methodology, and the sequence of chapters follows the subject matter of the laws rather than the intellectual principle involved. Since intermarriage with non-Jews is forbidden, the laws of conversion to Judaism are also included, major sources of contention were the absence of sources and the belief that the work appeared to be intended to supersede study of the Talmud. Some criticisms appear to have been less rational in nature, indeed, Maimonides quotes the Talmud in stating that one should study the Talmud for a third of ones study time. The most sincere but influential opponent, whose comments are printed parallel to all editions of the Mishneh Torah, was Rabbi Abraham ben David of Posquières. Yet despite all this, Maimonides remained certain that in the future the Mishneh Torah would find great influence and acceptance
29.
Edwin Mellen Press
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The Edwin Mellen Press is a scholarly publishing house with offices in Lewiston, NY and Lampeter, Wales. It was founded in 1972 by religious scholar Herbert Richardson, Richardson originally ran the press from the basement of his home, which he shared with his wife and four children. The business was named after Edwin Mellen, Richardsons grandfather who was a lover of books, Richardsons great-grandfather was Isaac Adams, a Massachusetts State Senator and the inventor of the Adams Power Press. The Press soon expanded and began to publish dissertations by scholars outside the University of Toronto, by 1977, The Press had grown large enough to warrant its own space. In 1987, the Edwin Mellen Press founded an office in Lampeter, the Edwin Mellen Press publishes books written at the doctoral reading level, and founder Herbert Richardson has written that The Press values scholar-for-scholar research more than anything. In fact, The Press states that the criterion for publication is that the manuscript must make a contribution to scholarship. This has led to The Press often publishing very detailed research that would otherwise be rejected by larger university presses, the Press has published books on topics as varied as the health problems of migrants living on the border of Thailand and Burma to the role of parrots in fiction. Edwin Mellen books are included in library collections all over the world, including the University of London, which has 4,926 of its books, and Harvard. Since 1993, the Press has attracted publicity for taking action against critics. In 1993, The Press brought a suit against the magazine Lingua Franca. Martha Reineke, a professor of religion at the University of Northern Iowa, initiated a petition demanding The Press drop its lawsuits, on that date, The Press announced that it had discontinued the court case against McMaster and Askey, but it continued a lawsuit against Askey personally. On February 5,2015, Askey stated that The Press had settled its lawsuit against him. On March 21,2013, The Press threatened legal action against The Society for Scholarly Publishing for hosting allegedly libelous blog posts and comments on The Scholarly Kitchen, the Scholarly Kitchen removed the content in question from its website on March 29,2013. It restored the blog post, though not the specific comment alleged to be libellous, a few days later, and published a blog post explaining its actions. In April 2013, The Press threatened to take action against the interim library dean of the University of Utah. The matter was settled, without payment, in February 2015, sociologist Kenneth Westhues studied aspects of this litigation in his book The Envy of Excellence, Administrative Mobbing of High Achieving Professors, a work published by the Edwin Mellen Press. Cameron, Averil, Puttick, Elizabeth, Clarke, Bernard, Desert Mothers, Women Ascetics in Early Christian Egypt, Edwin Mellen Press Current Issues on Theology and Religion in Latin America and Africa. Lewiston, N. Y. and Lampeter, U. K. Edwin Mellen Press,280 + xv pp.2002, a Social History of the Catholic Church in Chile Vol. I, The First Period of the Pinochet Government 1973-1980
