1.
Francesco Solimena
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Francesco Solimena was a prolific Italian painter of the Baroque era, one of an established family of painters and draughtsmen. Francesco Solimena was born in Canale di Serino, near Avellino and he settled in Naples in 1674, there he worked in the studio of Francesco di Maria and later Giacomo del Po. He apparently had taken the clerical orders, but was patronized early on, by the 1680s, he had independent fresco commissions, and his active studio came to dominate Neapolitan painting from the 1690s through the first four decades of the 18th century. Solimena painted many frescoes in Naples, altarpieces, celebrations of weddings and courtly occasions, mythological subjects, characteristically chosen for their theatrical drama, and portraits. His settings are suggested with a few details—steps, archways, balustrades, columns—concentrating attention on figures and their draperies, caught in pools, art historians take pleasure in identifying the models he imitated or adapted in his compositions. His numerous preparatory drawings often mix media, combining pen-and-ink, chalk and he apparently hoped to see his son Orazio follow a career in the law, for which he received a doctorate, but also became a painter. His large, efficiently structured atelier became an academy, at the heart of cultural life in Naples. Paolo Gamba, Evangelista Schiano, Gaspare Traversi, Eugenio Vegliante, the Scottish portraitist Allan Ramsay spent three years in Solimenas studio. Solimena amassed a fortune, was made a baron and lived in sumptuous style founded on his success, Francesco Solimena died at Barra, near Naples, in 1747. Francesco Solimena Francesco Solimena on-line J. Paul Getty Museum, Francesco Solimena Scuola Media F. Solimena, ralph Nicholson Wornum, ed. Biographical catalogue of the principal Italian painters, by a lady. Woodfall & Kinder, Angel Court, Skinner Street, London, art and Architecture in Italy, 1600-1750
2.
Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
3.
Kingdom of Naples
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It continued to be officially known as the Kingdom of Sicily, although it no longer included the island of Sicily. For much of its existence, the realm was contested between French and Spanish dynasties, in 1816, it was reunified with the island kingdom of Sicily once again to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Following the rebellion in 1282, King Charles I of Sicily was forced to leave the island of Sicily by Peter III of Aragons troops, Charles, however, maintained his possessions on the mainland, customarily known as the Kingdom of Naples, after its capital city. Charles and his Angevin successors maintained a claim to Sicily, warring against the Aragonese until 1373, joans reign was contested by Louis the Great, the Angevin King of Hungary, who captured the kingdom several times. Queen Joan I also played a part in the demise of the first Kingdom of Naples. This led to Joan Is murder at the hands of the Prince of Durazzo in 1382, the two competing Angevin lines contested each other for the possession of the Kingdom of Naples over the following decades. René of Anjou temporarily united the claims of junior and senior Angevin lines, in 1442, however, Alfonso V conquered the Kingdom of Naples and unified Sicily and Naples once again as dependencies of Aragon. At his death in 1458, the kingdom was again separated and Naples was inherited by Ferrante, Alfonsos illegitimate son. Charles VIII expelled Alfonso II of Naples from Naples in 1495, Ferrantino was restored to the throne, but died in 1496, and was succeeded by his uncle, Frederick IV. Charles VIIIs successor, Louis XII reiterated the French claim, in 1501, he occupied Naples and partitioned the kingdom with Ferdinand of Aragon, who abandoned his cousin King Frederick. The deal soon fell through, however, and Aragon and France resumed their war over the kingdom, the Spanish troops occupying Calabria and Apulia, led by Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordova did not respect the new agreement, and expelled all Frenchmen from the area. The peace treaties that continued were never definitive, but they established at least that the title of King of Naples was reserved for Ferdinands grandson, the future Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand nevertheless continued in possession of the kingdom, being considered as the heir of his uncle Alfonso I of Naples. The French finally abandoned their claims to Naples by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559, in the Treaty of London, five cities on coast of Tuscany were designated the Stato dei Presidi, and part of the Kingdom of Naples. After the War of the Spanish Succession in the early 18th century, under the terms of the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, Naples was given to Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor. He also gained control of Sicily in 1720, but Austrian rule did not last long, when Charles inherited the Spanish throne from his older half-brother in 1759, he left Naples and Sicily to his younger son, Ferdinand IV. Despite the two Kingdoms being in a union under the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasts, they remained constitutionally separate. Being a member of the House of Bourbon, Ferdinand IV was an opponent of the French Revolution and Napoleon
4.
University of Naples Federico II
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The University of Naples Federico II is a university located in Naples, Italy. Founded in 1224 it is the oldest public university in the world. It was Europes first university dedicated to training secular administrative staff, in 2016 its the only generalist Italian university in the Times higher education reputation, which considers the best 200 best universities in the world. The university is named after its founder Frederick II, from October 2016 the University hosts the first ever Apple IOS Developer Academy. The University of Naples Federico II was founded by emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II on 5 June 1224 and it is the most ancient state-supported institution of higher education and research in the world. One of the most famous students of university was Roman Catholic theologian. Secondly, he wanted to facilitate the development of promising young students and scholars, avoiding any unnecessary. The University of Naples was arguably the first to be formed from scratch by a higher authority, although its claim to be the first state-sponsored university can be challenged by Palencia, Naples certainly was the first chartered one. The artificiality of its creation posed great difficulties in attracting students, the universitys early years were further complicated by the long existence, in nearby Salerno, of Europes most prestigious medical faculty, the Schola Medica Salernitana. The fledgling faculty of medicine at Naples had little hope to compete with it, and in 1231, the establishment of new faculties of theology and law under papal sponsorship in Rome in 1245 further drained Naples of students, as Rome was a more attractive location. In an effort to revitalize the dwindling university, in 1253, all the schools of the university of Naples moved to Salerno. But that experiment failed and the university moved back to Naples in 1258, the Angevin reforms after 1266 and the subsequent decline of Salerno gave the University of Naples a new lease on life and put it on a stable, sustainable track. Several professors from various disciplines are among the top Italian Scientists by H-index
5.
18th-century philosophy
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
6.
Historicism
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Historicism is a mode of thinking that assigns major significance to a specific context, such as historical period, geographical place, and local culture. As such it varies in emphasis from individualist theories of such as empiricism and rationalism. The term historicism was coined by German philosopher Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, over time it has developed different and somewhat divergent meanings. Elements of historicism appear in the writings of French essayist Michel de Montaigne, vico, and became more fully developed with the dialectic of Georg Hegel, influential in 19th-century Europe. The writings of Karl Marx, influenced by Hegel, also include historicism, the term is also associated with the empirical social sciences and with the work of Franz Boas. The Austrian-English philosopher Karl Popper condemned historicism along with the determinism and holism which he argued formed its basis, in his Poverty of Historicism, he identified historicism with the opinion that there are inexorable laws of historical destiny, which opinion he warned against. This contrasts with the contextually relative interpretation of historicism for which its proponents argue, talcott Parsons criticized historicism as a case of idealistic fallacy in The Structure of Social Action. Post-structuralism uses the term New Historicism, which has some associations with both anthropology and Hegelianism, the theological use of the word denotes the interpretation of biblical prophecy as being related to church history. Hegel viewed the realization of human freedom as the purpose of history. However, because humans are not aware of the goal of both humanity and history, the process of achieving freedom is necessarily one of self-discovery. Hegel also saw the progress toward freedom being conducted by the spirit, yet Hegel makes clear that the spirit is a mere abstraction, and only comes into existence through the activity of finite agents. For example, Karl Popper in his book The Poverty of Historicism interpreted Hegels philosophy of history as metaphysical, Popper referred to this Hegelian philosophy of history as Historicism. Hegels historicism also suggests that any society and all human activities such as science, art. Consequently, their essence can be only by understanding said history. Hegels famous aphorism, Philosophy is the history of philosophy, describes it bluntly, yet another contrasting model is the persistent metaphor of a social contract. It thus preserves the culture of the past in thousands of half-forgotten metaphors. To understand why a person is the way he is, you must examine that person in his society, and to understand that society, you must understand its history, and the forces that influenced it. The Zeitgeist, the Spirit of the Age, is the embodiment of the most important factors that are acting in human history at any given time
7.
Rhetoric
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Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or speaker strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of study and a productive civic practice. Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it the faculty of observing in any case the available means of persuasion. The five canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in designing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome, invention, arrangement, style, memory, along with grammar and logic, rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, it was a part of Western education. Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times, although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, many modern scholars liberate it to encompass every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. Many contemporary approaches treat rhetoric as human communication that includes purposeful, Public relations, lobbying, law, marketing, professional and technical writing, and advertising are modern professions that employ rhetorical practitioners. Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as a tool to influence politics. Consequently, rhetoric remains associated with its political origins, however, even the original instructors of Western speech—the Sophists—disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to the Sophists, such as Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on any topic and this method suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking for his own pleasure to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War. Looking to another key rhetorical theorist, Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth, in Gorgias, one of his Socratic Dialogues, Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies. Rhetoric, in Platos opinion, is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to cookery, thus, Plato considered any speech of lengthy prose aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric—deliberative, forensic or judicial, and epideictic, when one considers that rhetoric included torture, it is clear that rhetoric cannot be viewed only in academic terms. However, the enthymeme based upon logic was viewed as the basis of rhetoric, however, since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, Modal logic has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric, yet, Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within the domain of public political practice
8.
Political philosophy
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In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism, the Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, prior to Chinas adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century. Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato, ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories, timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of philosophy is Platos Republic. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and the Roman statesman Cicero, Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between nation and state religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises, the institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive, chanakya, 4th century BC Indian political philosopher. Another influential extant Indian treatise on philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu, the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, augustines City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth. Thomas Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of law, according to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law, Eternal law Divine positive law Natural law Human law Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of canon law. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an influential thinker in the Natural Law tradition
9.
Epistemology
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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591 and this philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history, the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge and the suffix -logy, meaning a logical discourse to. J. F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of ontology, to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the true beginning of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte, French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as theory of knowledge. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, in mathematics, it is known that 2 +2 =4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person, place, thing, or activity. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between knowing that, knowing how, and acquaintance-knowledge, with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these, while these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages. In French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch to know is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer, modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω and ξέρω. Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, German has the verbs wissen and kennen. The verb itself implies a process, you have to go from one state to another and this verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the episteme in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name Erkenntnistheorie. The theoretical interpretation and significance of linguistic issues remains controversial. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance, gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. This position is essentially Ryles, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress and this includes the truth, and everything else we accept as true for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. Whether someones belief is true is not a prerequisite for belief, on the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself, epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer
10.
Philosophy of history
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The term philosophy of history refers to the theoretical aspect of history, in two senses. It is customary to distinguish critical philosophy of history from speculative philosophy of history, speculative philosophy of history is an area of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design, purpose, directive principle. Part of Marxism, for example, is speculative philosophy of history, another example is historiosophy, the term coined in 1838 by August Cieszkowski to describe his understanding of history. Though there is overlap between the two aspects, they can usually be distinguished, modern professional historians tend to be skeptical about speculative philosophy of history. Sometimes critical philosophy of history is included under historiography, Philosophy of history should not be confused with the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas in their historical context. Speculative philosophy of history asks several questions, What is the proper unit for the study of the human past—the individual subject. The family, polis or sovereign territory, or the whole of the human species. Are there any broad patterns that we can discern through the study of the human past, are there, for example, patterns of progress. Or are there no patterns or cycles, and is human history regulated by irregularity, related to this is the study of individual agency and its impact in history, functioning within, or opposed to, larger trends and patterns. If history can indeed be said to progress or cycle, what is its direction or pattern. What is the force of the progress or of the cycles. What does it mean to know, explain and write history, in his Poetics, Aristotle maintained the superiority of poetry over history because poetry speaks of what must or should be true rather than merely what is true. This reflects early Axial Age concerns rather than metaphysical concerns for what is, accordingly, classical historians felt a duty to ennoble the world. In keeping with philosophy of history, it is clear that their philosophy of value imposed upon their process of writing history—philosophy influenced method and hence product. Herodotus, a 5th-century BCE contemporary of Socrates, broke from the Homeric tradition of passing narrative from generation to generation in his work Investigations, History was supposed to teach good examples for one to follow. The assumption that history should teach good examples influenced how writers produced history, from the Classical period to the Renaissance, historians alternated between focusing on subjects designed to improve mankind and on a devotion to fact. History was composed mainly of hagiographies of monarchs or of epic poetry describing heroic gestures, in the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun, who is considered one of the fathers of the philosophy of history, discussed his philosophy of history and society in detail in his Muqaddimah
11.
Jurisprudence
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Jurisprudence is the study and theory of law. It includes principles behind law that make the law, scholars of jurisprudence, also known as jurists or legal theorists, hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems, and of legal institutions. Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was focused on the first principles of the law, civil law. Contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems in two groups, Problems internal to law and legal systems. Problems of law as a social institution as law relates to the larger political and social situation in which it exists. Answers to these questions come from four schools of thought in general jurisprudence. The foundations of law are accessible through reason and it is from these laws of nature that human-created laws gain whatever force they have. Legal positivism, by contrast to natural law, holds that there is no connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from some basic social facts. Legal positivists differ on what facts are. Critical legal studies are a younger theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s and it holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of a dominant social group. A further relatively new field is known as jurisprudence, concerned with the impact of legal processes on wellbeing. The English word is based on the Latin maxim jurisprudentia, juris is the form of jus meaning law. The word is first attested in English in 1628, at a time when the word prudence had the meaning of knowledge of or skill in a matter, the word may have come via the French jurisprudence, which is attested earlier. Ancient Indian jurisprudence is available in various Dharmaśāstra texts starting from the Dharmasutra of Bhodhayana. Jurisprudence already had this meaning in Ancient Rome even if at its origins the discipline was a in the jus of mos maiorum, an iudex then would judge a remedy according to the facts of the case. The law was implemented with new evolutive Institutiones, while remaining in the traditional scheme. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a body of prudentes. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience, under the Roman Empire, schools of law were created, and the activity constantly became more academic
12.
Plato
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Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Platos entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy. Alfred North Whitehead once noted, the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. In addition to being a figure for Western science, philosophy. Friedrich Nietzsche, amongst other scholars, called Christianity, Platonism for the people, Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy, which originate with him. He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied, few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range, perhaps only Aristotle, Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Platos early life, the philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies, the exact time and place of Platos birth are unknown, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BCE. According to a tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus. Platos mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker, besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children, these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus. The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, and presumably brothers of Plato, but in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, went to Euclides in Megara, as Debra Nails argues, The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite. Thus, Nails dates Platos birth to 424/423, another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping, an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. Ariston appears to have died in Platos childhood, although the dating of his death is difficult. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mothers brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato and these and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Platos family tree
13.
Aristotle
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Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
14.
Cicero
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Marcus Tullius Cicero was a Roman philosopher, politician, lawyer, orator, political theorist, consul, and constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy family of the Roman equestrian order. According to Michael Grant, the influence of Cicero upon the history of European literature, Cicero introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary distinguishing himself as a translator and philosopher. Though he was an orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. During the chaotic latter half of the 1st century BC marked by civil wars, following Julius Caesars death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a series of speeches. His severed hands and head were then, as a revenge of Mark Antony. Petrarchs rediscovery of Ciceros letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, according to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity. Cicero was born in 106 BC in Arpinum, a hill town 100 kilometers southeast of Rome and his father was a well-to-do member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being a semi-invalid, he could not enter public life, although little is known about Ciceros mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Ciceros brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife, Ciceros cognomen, or personal surname, comes from the Latin for chickpea, cicer. Plutarch explains that the name was given to one of Ciceros ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. However, it is likely that Ciceros ancestors prospered through the cultivation. Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames, the family names of Fabius, Lentulus, and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this name when he entered politics. During this period in Roman history, cultured meant being able to speak both Latin and Greek, Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite, according to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome, affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola. Ciceros fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus, the latter two became Ciceros friends for life, and Pomponius would become, in Ciceros own words, as a second brother, with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence. Cicero wanted to pursue a career in politics along the steps of the Cursus honorum
15.
Varro
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Marcus Terentius Varro was an ancient Roman scholar and writer. He is sometimes called Varro Reatinus to distinguish him from his younger contemporary Varro Atacinus, politically, he supported Pompey, reaching the office of praetor, after having been tribune of the people, quaestor and curule aedile. He was one of the commission of twenty that carried out the great scheme of Caesar for the resettlement of Capua. During the civil war he commanded one of Pompeys armies in the Ilerda campaign and he escaped the penalties of being on the losing side in the civil war through two pardons granted by Julius Caesar, before and after the Battle of Pharsalus. As the Republic gave way to Empire, Varro gained the favour of Augustus, under whose protection he found the security and quiet to devote himself to study, Varro studied under the Roman philologist Lucius Aelius Stilo, and later at Athens under the Academic philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon. Varro proved to be a productive writer and turned out more than 74 Latin works on a variety of topics. Among his many works, two stand out for historians, Nine Books of Disciplines and his compilation of the Varronian chronology and his Nine Books of Disciplines became a model for later encyclopedists, especially Pliny the Elder. The most noteworthy portion of the Nine Books of Disciplines is its use of the arts as organizing principles. Varro decided to focus on identifying nine of these arts, grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, using Varros list, subsequent writers defined the seven classical liberal arts of the medieval schools. The compilation of the Varronian chronology was an attempt to determine an exact timeline of Roman history up to his time. It is based on the sequence of the consuls of the Roman Republic — supplemented. His only complete work extant, Rerum rusticarum libri tres, has described as the well digested system of an experienced and successful farmer who has seen. One noteworthy aspect of the work is his anticipation of microbiology and epidemiology, Varro warned his contemporaries to avoid swamps and marshland, since in such areas. There are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, but which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and cause serious diseases. 199–242, in the collection of Wilmanns, pp. 170–223, and in that of Funaioli, pp. 179–371. G. Kent Livius. org, Varronian chronology thelatinlibrary. com, Latin works of Varro
16.
Tacitus
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Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and an historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors. These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus, in AD14, to the years of the First Jewish–Roman War, There are substantial lacunae in the surviving texts, including a gap in the Annals that is four books long. Tacitus is considered to be one of the greatest Roman historians, details about his personal life are scarce. What little is known comes from scattered hints throughout his work, the letters of his friend and admirer Pliny the Younger, and an inscription found at Mylasa in Caria. Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an equestrian family, one scholars suggestion of Sextus has gained no approval. Most of the aristocratic families failed to survive the proscriptions which took place at the end of the Republic. The claim that he was descended from a freedman is derived from a speech in his writings which asserts that many senators and knights were descended from freedmen, but this is generally disputed. His father may have been the Cornelius Tacitus who served as procurator of Belgica and Germania, Pliny the Elder mentions that Cornelius had a son who aged rapidly, which implies an early death. There is no mention of Tacitus suffering such a condition, the friendship between the younger Pliny and Tacitus leads some scholars to conclude that they were both the offspring of wealthy provincial families. The province of his birth remains unknown, though various conjectures suggest Gallia Belgica, Gallia Narbonensis and his marriage to the daughter of Narbonensian senator Gnaeus Julius Agricola implies that he came from Gallia Narbonensis. Tacitus dedication to Fabius Iustus in the Dialogus may indicate a connection with Spain, no evidence exists, however, that Plinys friends from northern Italy knew Tacitus, nor do Plinys letters hint that the two men had a common background. Pliny Book 9, Letter 23 reports that, when he was asked if he was Italian or provincial, he gave an unclear answer, since Pliny was from Italy, some infer that Tacitus was from the provinces, probably Gallia Narbonensis. His ancestry, his skill in oratory, and his depiction of barbarians who resisted Roman rule have led some to suggest that he was a Celt. This belief stems from the fact that the Celts who had occupied Gaul prior to the Roman invasion were famous for their skill in oratory, and had been subjugated by Rome. As a young man, Tacitus studied rhetoric in Rome to prepare for a career in law and politics, like Pliny, in 77 or 78, he married Julia Agricola, daughter of the famous general Agricola. Little is known of their life, save that Tacitus loved hunting. He started his career under Vespasian, but entered political life as a quaestor in 81 or 82 under Titus
17.
Augustine of Hippo
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Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, according to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith. In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin, when the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview, the segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustines On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and he is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death, Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence, Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church, other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is considered a saint. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August and he was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian, in his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage
18.
Duns Scotus
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John Duns, commonly called Duns Scotus, is generally considered to be one of the three most important philosopher-theologians of the High Middle Ages. Scotus has had influence on both Catholic and secular thought. Scotus also developed an argument for the existence of God. Duns Scotus was given the scholastic accolade Doctor Subtilis for his penetrating and he was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1993. Little is known of Duns Scotus apart from his work and his date of birth is thought to have been between 23 December 1265 and 17 March 1266, born into a leading family of the region. Duns Scotus received the habit of the Friars Minor at Dumfries. Duns Scotuss age is based on the first certain date for his life, the minimum canonical age for receiving holy orders is 25 and it is generally assumed that he would have been ordained as soon as it was permitted. At that time there would have been about 270 persons living there and he took part in a disputation under the regent master, Philip of Bridlington. He began lecturing on Peter Lombards Sentences at the prestigious University of Paris towards the end of 1302. Later in that year, however, he was expelled from the University of Paris for siding with Pope Boniface VIII in his feud with King Philip IV of France over the taxation of church property. Duns Scotus was back in Paris before the end of 1304 and he continued lecturing there until, for reasons that are still mysterious, he was dispatched to the Franciscan studium at Cologne, probably in October 1307. According to the 15th-century writer William Vorilong, his departure was sudden, Duns Scotus died unexpectedly in Cologne in November 1308, the date of his death is traditionally given as 8 November. He is buried in the Church of the Friars Minor there and his sarcophagus bears the Latin inscription, The story about Duns Scotus being buried alive, in the absence of his servant who alone knew of his susceptibility to coma, is probably a myth. It was reported by Francis Bacon in his Historia vitae et mortis. The colophon of Codex 66 of Merton College, Oxford says that Scotus was also at Cambridge, but we do not know for certain if this is true, or, if it was and his commentary exists in several versions. The standard version is the Ordinatio, a version of lectures he gave as a bachelor at Oxford. It was still incomplete when Scotus left for Paris in 1302, the original lectures were also transcribed and recently published as the Lectura. A reportatio is a student report or transcription of the lecture of a master
19.
Thomas Aquinas
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Saint Thomas Aquinas O. P. was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and he was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, of which he argued that reason is found in God. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, the works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Scripture and on Aristotle form an important part of his body of work, furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Churchs liturgy. Thomas Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Churchs greatest theologians, Pope Benedict XV declared, This Order. Acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the praises of the Pontiffs. The English philosopher Anthony Kenny considers Aquinas to be one of the dozen greatest philosophers of the western world, Thomas was most probably born in the castle of Roccasecca, located in Aquino, old county of the Kingdom of Sicily, c.1225. According to some authors, he was born in the castle of his father, though he did not belong to the most powerful branch of the family, Landulf of Aquino was a man of means. As a knight in the service of King Roger II, he held the title miles, Thomass mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of the Neapolitan Caracciolo family. Landulfs brother Sinibald was abbot of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino and it was here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle, Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would influence his theological philosophy. There his teacher in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus de Ibernia, at the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the recently founded Dominican Order. Thomass change of heart did not please his family, in an attempt to prevent Theodoras interference in Thomass choice, the Dominicans arranged to move Thomas to Rome, and from Rome, to Paris. Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Thomass release, which had the effect of extending Thomass detention, Thomas passed this time of trial tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order. Family members became desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans, at one point, two of his brothers resorted to the measure of hiring a prostitute to seduce him. According to legend Thomas drove her away wielding a fire iron and that night two angels appeared to him as he slept and strengthened his determination to remain celibate. By 1244, seeing all of her attempts to dissuade Thomas had failed, Theodora sought to save the familys dignity. In her mind, an escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans
20.
Dante
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Durante degli Alighieri, simply called Dante, was a major Italian poet of the Late Middle Ages. In the late Middle Ages, the majority of poetry was written in Latin. In De vulgari eloquentia, however, Dante defended use of the vernacular in literature, as a result, Dante played an instrumental role in establishing the national language of Italy. In addition, the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme, Dante has been called the Father of the Italian language and one of the greatest poets of world literature. In Italy, Dante is often referred to as il Sommo Poeta and il Poeta, he, Petrarch, Dante was born in Florence, Republic of Florence, present-day Italy. The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is believed to be around 1265. This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in the Divine Comedy, in 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately May 11 and June 11. Dante claimed that his family descended from the ancient Romans, but the earliest relative he could mention by name was Cacciaguida degli Elisei, born no earlier than about 1100. Dantes father, Alaghiero or Alighiero di Bellincione, was a White Guelph who suffered no reprisals after the Ghibellines won the Battle of Montaperti in the middle of the 13th century. Dantes family had loyalties to the Guelphs, an alliance that supported the Papacy and which was involved in complex opposition to the Ghibellines. The poets mother was Bella, likely a member of the Abati family and she died when Dante was not yet ten years old, and Alighiero soon married again, to Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. When Dante was 12, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, contracting marriages at this early age was quite common and involved a formal ceremony, including contracts signed before a notary. But by this time Dante had fallen in love with another, Beatrice Portinari, years after his marriage to Gemma he claims to have met Beatrice again, he wrote several sonnets to Beatrice but never mentioned Gemma in any of his poems. The exact date of his marriage is not known, the certain information is that, before his exile in 1301. Dante fought with the Guelph cavalry at the Battle of Campaldino and this victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution. To take any part in life, one had to enroll in one of the citys many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians. In the following years, his name is recorded as speaking or voting in the various councils of the republic. A substantial portion of minutes from meetings in the years 1298–1300 was lost, however
21.
Machiavelli
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Niccolò Machiavelli, or more formally Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli, was a Florentine Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often called the founder of modern political science. He was for years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry and his personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512 and he wrote his most renowned work The Prince in 1513. Machiavellianism is a widely used term to characterize unscrupulous politicians of the sort Machiavelli described most famously in The Prince. Machiavelli described immoral behavior, such as dishonesty and killing innocents, as being normal and he even seemed to endorse it in some situations. The book itself gained notoriety when some readers claimed that the author was teaching evil, the term Machiavellian is often associated with political deceit, deviousness, and realpolitik. In one place for example he noted his admiration for the selfless Roman dictator Cincinnatus, Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, the third child and first son of attorney Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli and his wife, Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli. Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini in 1502, political-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieri, who changed sides without warning, and the rise and fall of many short-lived governments. Machiavelli was taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin and it is thought that he did not learn Greek even though Florence was at the time one of the centres of Greek scholarship in Europe. In 1494 Florence restored the republic, expelling the Medici family that had ruled Florence for some sixty years, shortly thereafter, he was also made the secretary of the Dieci di Libertà e Pace. In the first decade of the century, he carried out several diplomatic missions. The pretext of defending Church interests was used as a justification by the Borgias. Other excursions to the court of Louis XII and the Spanish court influenced his writings such as The Prince, between 1503 and 1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia. He distrusted mercenaries and instead staffed his army with citizens, a policy that was to be repeatedly successful, under his command, Florentine citizen-soldiers defeated Pisa in 1509. However, Machiavellis success did not last, in the wake of the siege, Soderini resigned as Florentine head of state and left in exile. The experience would, like Machiavellis time in foreign courts and with the Borgia, after the Medici victory, the Florentine city-state and the republic were dissolved, and Machiavelli was deprived of office in 1512
22.
John Selden
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John Selden was an English jurist and a scholar of Englands ancient laws and constitution and scholar of Jewish law. He was known as a polymath showing true intellectual depth and breadth and he was born at Salvington, in the parish of West Tarring, West Sussex, and was baptised at St Andrews, the parish church. The cottage in which he was survived until 1959 when it was destroyed by a fire caused by an electrical fault. His father, another John Selden, had a small farm, Selden was educated at the free grammar school at Chichester, The Prebendal School, and in 1600 he went on to Hart Hall, Oxford. In 1603 he was admitted to Cliffords Inn, London, in 1604 he moved to the Inner Temple, and in 1612 he was called to the bar. His earliest patron was Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, the antiquary, for some reason, Selden very rarely practised in court, but his practice in chambers as a conveyancer and consulting counsel was large and apparently lucrative. In 1618, his History of Tithes appeared, although it had passed censorship and licensing, this dissertation on the historical basis of the tithe system caused anxiety among the bishops and provoked the intervention of the king. The author was summoned before the Privy Council and was compelled to retract his opinions, also, his work was suppressed, and he was forbidden to reply to anyone who might come forward to answer it. This all seems to have caused Seldens entry into politics and he and several others were imprisoned, at first in the Tower and later under the charge of Sir Robert Ducie, sheriff of London. In 1623 he was returned to the House of Commons for the borough of Lancaster and he was also nominated reader of Lyons Inn, an office he declined to undertake. For this the benchers of the Inner Temple fined him £20, nevertheless, after a few years, he became a master of the bench. In the first parliament of Charles I, it appears from the returns of members printed in 1878 that contrary to the assertion of all his biographers, he had no seat. In Charless second parliament, he was elected for Great Bedwyn in Wiltshire, in the following year, in Darnells Case, he was counsel for Sir Edmund Hampden in the Court of Kings Bench. In 1628 he was returned to the parliament of Charles for Ludgershall, Wiltshire. There he remained for eight months, deprived for a part of the time of the use of books and he was then removed, under less rigorous conditions, to the Marshalsea, until Archbishop Laud arranged for him to be freed. Some years before, he had been appointed steward to the Earl of Kent, to seat, Wrest in Bedfordshire. He was not elected to the Short Parliament of 1640, but to the Long Parliament, summoned in the autumn, he was returned without opposition for Oxford University. He opposed the resolution against episcopacy which led to the exclusion of the bishops from the House of Lords and he was equally opposed to the court on the question of the commissions of lieutenancy of array and to the parliament on the question of the militia ordinance
23.
Thomas Hobbes
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Thomas Hobbes, in some older texts Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, was an English philosopher who is considered one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book Leviathan, which established the social theory that has served as the foundation for most later Western political philosophy. Thomas Hobbes was born at Westport, now part of Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England, born prematurely when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada, Hobbes later reported that my mother gave birth to twins, myself and fear. His childhood is almost completely unknown, and his mothers name is unknown and his father, Thomas Sr. was the vicar of Charlton and Westport. Thomas Hobbes, the younger, had a brother Edmund, about two years older, and a sister, Thomas Sr. was involved in a fight with the local clergy outside his church, forcing him to leave London and abandon the family. The family was left in the care of Thomas Sr. s older brother, Francis, Hobbes was a good pupil, and around 1603 he went up to Magdalen Hall, the predecessor college to Hertford College, Oxford. The principal John Wilkinson was a Puritan, and he had influence on Hobbes. At university, Hobbes appears to have followed his own curriculum and he did not complete his B. A. Hobbes became a companion to the younger William and they both took part in a grand tour of Europe in 1610. Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the tour and it has been argued that three of the discourses in the 1620 publication known as Horea Subsecivae, Observations and Discourses, also represent the work of Hobbes from this period. Although he associated with figures like Ben Jonson and briefly worked as Francis Bacons amanuensis. His employer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, died of the plague in June 1628, the widowed countess dismissed Hobbes but he soon found work, again as a tutor, this time to Gervase Clifton, the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet. This task, chiefly spent in Paris, ended in 1631 when he found work with the Cavendish family, tutoring William. Over the next seven years, as well as tutoring, he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy and he visited Florence in 1636 and was later a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held together by Marin Mersenne. Hobbess first area of study was an interest in the doctrine of motion. Despite his interest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics and he went on to conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would devote his life. He then singled out Man from the realm of Nature and plants, finally he considered, in his crowning treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this must be regulated if Men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man, Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country riven with discontent which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. However, by the end of the Short Parliament in 1640, he had written a treatise called The Elements of Law, Natural
24.
Nicolas Malebranche
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Nicolas Malebranche, Oratory of Jesus, was a French Oratorian priest and rationalist philosopher. In his works, he sought to synthesize the thought of St. Augustine and Descartes, Malebranche is best known for his doctrines of Vision in God, Occasionalism and Ontologism. Malebranche was born in Paris in 1638, the youngest child of Nicolas Malebranche, secretary to King Louis XIII of France, and Catherine de Lauzon, sister of Jean de Lauson, because of a malformed spine, Malebranche received his elementary education from a private tutor. He eventually left the Sorbonne, having rejected scholasticism, and entered the Oratory in 1660, there, he devoted himself to ecclesiastical history, linguistics, the Bible, and the works of Saint Augustine. Malebranche was ordained a priest in 1664, in 1664, Malebranche first read Descartes Treatise on Man, an account of the physiology of the human body. Malebranche’s biographer, Father Yves André reported that Malebranche was influenced by Descartes’ book because it allowed him to view the world without Aristotelian scholasticism. Malebranche spent the next decade studying the Cartesian system, in 1674–75, Malebranche published the two volumes of his first and most extensive philosophical work. Entitled Concerning the Search after Truth, in which is treated the nature of the human mind and the use that must be made of it to avoid error in the sciences, the book laid the foundation for Malebranche’s philosophical reputation and ideas. It dealt with the causes of error and on how to avoid such mistakes. Most importantly, in the book, which discussed pure understanding. Malebranches first critic was the Abbé Simon Foucher, who attacked the Search even before its second volume had been published and these responded to further criticisms, but they also expanded on the original arguments, and developed them in new ways. Malebranche expanded on this last point in 1680 when he published Treatise on Nature, over the next few years, the two men wrote enough polemics against one other to fill four volumes of Malebranches collected works and three of Arnaulds. Arnaulds supporters managed to persuade the Roman Catholic Church to place Nature and Grace on its Index of Prohibited Books in 1690, other critics with whom Malebranche entered into significant discussion include another fellow Cartesian, Pierre Sylvain Regis, as well as Dortous de Mairan. De Mairan was sympathetic to the views of Baruch Spinoza,1638 - Born in Paris to Nicolas Malebranche and Catherine de Lauzon. 1654 - Enters the Collège de la Marche and later the Sorbonne to study philosophy,1660 - Ordained as a member of the French Oratory. 1664 - First reads Descartes Treatise on Man and spends the next ten years studying philosophy, 1674–75 - Publishes The Search After Truth. 1678 - Adds Elucidations to new edition of the Search,1680 - Publishes Treatise Of Nature And Grace. 1683 - Publishes Christian and Metaphysical Meditations, arnauld publishes On True And False Ideas, the opening salvo in their dispute
25.
Francis Bacon
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Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
26.
Hugo Grotius
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Hugo Grotius, also known as Huig de Groot or Hugo de Groot, was a Dutch jurist. Along with the works of Francisco de Vitoria and Alberico Gentili, Grotius laid the foundations for international law. A teenage intellectual prodigy, he was imprisoned for his involvement in the intra-Calvinist disputes of the Dutch Republic and he wrote most of his major works in exile in France. Because of his theological underpinning of free trade, he is considered an economic theologist. Born in Delft during the Dutch Revolt, Hugo was the first child of Jan de Groot, a prodigious learner, Hugo entered the University of Leiden when he was just eleven years old. There he studied some of the most acclaimed intellectuals in northern Europe, including Franciscus Junius, Joseph Justus Scaliger. Omnes, & emendati, & Notis, siue Februis Hug, in Holland, Grotius earned an appointment as advocate to The Hague in 1599 and then as official historiographer for the States of Holland in 1601. The Dutch were at war with Spain and Portugal when the merchant ship Santa Catarina. The scandal led to a judicial hearing and a wider campaign to sway public opinion. It was in this context that representatives of the Company called upon Grotius to draft a polemical defence of the seizure. The result of Grotius efforts in 1604/05 was a long, theory-laden treatise that he provisionally entitled De Indis, Grotius sought to ground his defense of the seizure in terms of the natural principles of justice. In this, he had cast a net much wider than the case at hand, his interest was in the source, the treatise was never published in full during Grotius lifetime, perhaps because the court ruling in favor of the Company preempted the need to garner public support. In The Free Sea Grotius formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory, Grotius, by claiming free seas, provided suitable ideological justification for the Dutch breaking up of various trade monopolies through its formidable naval power. In 1608 he married Maria van Reigersbergen, with whom he would have eight children and who would be invaluable in helping him and the family to weather the storm to come. The domestic dissension resulting over Arminius professorship was overshadowed by the war with Spain. The new peace would move the focus to the controversy. The controversy expanded when the Remonstrant theologian Conrad Vorstius was appointed to replace Jacobus Arminius as the chair at Leiden. Vorstius was soon seen by Counter-Remonstrants as moving beyond the teachings of Arminius into Socinianism, leading the call for Vorstius removal was theology professor Sibrandus Lubbertus
27.
Samuel Pufendorf
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FriherreSamuel von Pufendorf was a German jurist, political philosopher, economist, statesman, and historian. His name was just Samuel Pufendorf until he was ennobled in 1684, among his achievements are his commentaries and revisions of the natural law theories of Thomas Hobbes and Hugo Grotius. Pufendorf was familiar to American political writers such as Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and his political concepts are part of the cultural background of the American Revolution. Pufendorf is seen as an important precursor of Enlightenment in Germany and he was born at Dorfchemnitz in the Electorate of Saxony. His father Elias Pufendorf from Glauchau was a Lutheran pastor, educated at the ducal school at Grimma, he was sent to study theology at the University of Leipzig. The narrow and dogmatic teaching was repugnant to Pufendorf, and he abandoned it for the study of public law. Under the influence of Weigel, he started to read Hugo Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, at this time, Charles was endeavoring to impose an unwanted alliance on Denmark. In the middle of the negotiations he opened hostilities and the Danes turned with anger against his envoys, Coyet succeeded in escaping, but the second minister, Sten Bielke, and the rest of the staff were arrested and thrown into prison. Pufendorf shared this misfortune, and was held in captivity for eight months and he occupied himself in meditating upon what he had read in the works of Hugo Grotius and Thomas Hobbes, and mentally constructed a system of universal law. At the end of his captivity, he accompanied his pupils, at Leiden, he was permitted to publish, in 1661, the fruits of his reflections under the title of Elementa jurisprudentiae universalis libri duo. The work was dedicated to Charles Louis, elector palatine, who created for Pufendorf a new chair at the University of Heidelberg and this professorship was first of its kind in the world. Pufendorf married Katharina Elisabeth von Palthen, the widow of a colleague, in 1667 he wrote, with the assent of the elector palatine, a tract De statu imperii germanici liber unus. Published under the cover of a pseudonym at Geneva in 1667, it was supposed to be addressed by a gentleman of Verona, Severinus de Monzambano, to his brother Laelius. Before Pufendorf, Philipp Bogislaw von Chemnitz, publicist and soldier, had written, under the pseudonym of Hippolytus a Lapide, inimical, like Pufendorf, to the Austrian House of Habsburg, Chemnitz had gone so far as to make an appeal to France and Sweden. Pufendorf, on the contrary, rejected all idea of foreign intervention, when Pufendorf went on to criticise a new tax on official documents, he did not get the chair of law and had to leave Heidelberg in 1668. Chances for advancement were few in a Germany that still suffered from the ravages of the Thirty Years War, so Pufendorf went to Sweden where that year he was called to the University of Lund. In 1672 appeared De jure naturae et gentium libri octo, and in 1673 a résumé of it under the title De officio hominis et civis, which, among other topics, gave his analysis of just war theory. In De jure naturae et gentium Pufendorf took up in great measure the theories of Grotius and sought to complete them by means of the doctrines of Hobbes and of his own ideas on jus gentium
28.
Gottfried Leibniz
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Leibnizs notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and he became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. He also refined the number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism and he wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Leibnizs contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters and he wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin, French, and German. There is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz in English, Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1,1646, toward the end of the Thirty Years War, in Leipzig, Saxony, to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck. Friedrich noted in his journal,21. Juny am Sontag 1646 Ist mein Sohn Gottfried Wilhelm, post sextam vespertinam 1/4 uff 7 uhr abents zur welt gebohren, in English, On Sunday 21 June 1646, my son Gottfried Wilhelm is born into the world a quarter after six in the evening, in Aquarius. Leibniz was baptized on July 3 of that year at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig and his father died when he was six and a half years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibnizs philosophical thoughts in his later life, Leibnizs father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig, and the boy later inherited his fathers personal library. He was given access to it from the age of seven. Access to his fathers library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language and he also composed 300 hexameters of Latin verse, in a single morning, for a special event at school at the age of 13. In April 1661 he enrolled in his fathers former university at age 15 and he defended his Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui, which addressed the principle of individuation, on June 9,1663. Leibniz earned his masters degree in Philosophy on February 7,1664, after one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelors degree in Law on September 28,1665. His dissertation was titled De conditionibus, in early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, De Arte Combinatoria, the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in Philosophy, which he defended in March 1666. His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, in 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibnizs doctoral application and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth. Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf and quickly submitted a thesis, the title of his thesis was Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666 and he next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction
29.
Herodotus
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Herodotus was a Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire and lived in the fifth century BC, a contemporary of Socrates. The Histories is the work which he is known to have produced. Despite Herodotus historical significance, little is known of his personal life and his place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact, of these only fragments of Hecataeuss work survive yet they allow us glimpses into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own Histories. In his introduction to Hecataeus’s work, Genealogies, This points forward to the ‘folksy’ yet ‘international’ outlook typical of Herodotus. Yet, one scholar has described the work of Hecataeus as “a curious false start to history” since despite his critical spirit. It is possible that Herodotus borrowed much material from Hecataeus, as stated by Porphyry in a recorded by Eusebius. But Hecataeus did not record events that had occurred in living memory, unlike Herodotus, Herodotus claims to be better informed than his predecessors by relying on empirical observation to correct their excessive schematism. For example, He argues for continental asymmetry as opposed to the theory of a perfectly circular earth with Europe. Yet, he retains idealizing tendencies, as in his notions of the Danube. His debt to previous authors of prose ‘histories’ might be questionable, however, this point is one of the most contentious issues in modern scholarship. It is on account of the strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics in early modern times branded him “The Father of Lies”. Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement, similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a “logos-writer”. Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view, the interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory. Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus’s own writing for reliable information about his life, supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, modern accounts of his life typically go something like this, Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus around 484 BC. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League, the epic poet Panyassis – a relative of Herodotus – is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising. Herodotus expresses affection for the island of Samos, and this is an indication that he might have lived there in his youth. So it is possible that his family was involved in an uprising against Lygdamis, leading to a period of exile on Samos, Herodotus wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect, yet he was born in Halicarnassus, which was a Dorian settlement
30.
Joseph de Maistre
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Joseph-Marie, comte de Maistre was a Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer, and diplomat. He defended hierarchical societies and a monarchical State in the immediately following the French Revolution. Maistre was a subject of the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, whom he served as member of the Savoy Senate, ambassador to Russia and he called for the restoration of the House of Bourbon to the throne of France and argued that the Pope should have ultimate authority in temporal matters. Maistre also claimed that it was the rationalist rejection of Christianity which was responsible for the disorder. Maistre was born in 1753 at Chambéry, in the Duchy of Savoy and his family was of French and Italian origin. His mothers family, whose surname was Desmotz, were from Rumilly, josephs younger brother, Xavier, who became an army officer, was a popular writer of fiction. Joseph was probably educated by the Jesuits, after the Revolution, he became an ardent defender of their Order, increasingly associating the spirit of the Revolution with the Jesuits traditional enemies, the Jansenists. After completing his training in the law at the University of Turin in 1774, as a landowner in France, Maistre was eligible to join that body, and there is some evidence that he contemplated that possibility. He was alarmed, however, by the decision of the States-General to combine clergy, aristocracy, and commoners into a legislative body. After the passing of the August Decrees on 4 August 1789 he decisively turned against the course of events in France. Maistre fled Chambéry when it was taken by a French revolutionary army in 1792, deciding that he could not support the French-controlled regime, he departed again, this time for Lausanne, in Switzerland. From Lausanne, Maistre went to Venice, and then to Cagliari, where the King of Piedmont-Sardinia held the court, Maistres relations with the court at Cagliari were not always easy and in 1802 he was sent to Saint Petersburg in Russia, as ambassador to Tsar Alexander I. Maistres observations on Russian life, contained in his memoirs and in his personal correspondence, were among Tolstoys sources for his novel War. He died on 26 February 1821 and is buried in the Jesuit Church of the Holy Martyrs, in Considérations sur la France, Maistre claimed that France has a divine mission as the principal instrument of good and evil on Earth. He claimed that the crimes of the Reign of Terror were the consequence of Enlightened thought. Maistre therefore argued that the legitimacy of government must be based on compelling but non-rational grounds, Maistre went on to argue that authority in politics should therefore derive from religion, and that in Europe this religious authority must ultimately lie with the Pope. In his own words, which he addressed to a group of aristocratic French émigrés, before, this was an instinct, but today it is a science. You must love the sovereign as you love order, with all the forces of intelligence, Maistres analysis of the problem of authority and its legitimacy foreshadows some of the concerns of early sociologists such as Comte and Saint-Simon
31.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan and his critical work, especially on William Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. Coleridge coined many words and phrases, including suspension of disbelief. He was an influence on Ralph Waldo Emerson and American transcendentalism. Throughout his adult life Coleridge had crippling bouts of anxiety and depression, it has been speculated that he had bipolar disorder and he was physically unhealthy, which may have stemmed from a bout of rheumatic fever and other childhood illnesses. He was treated for these conditions with laudanum, which fostered a lifelong opium addiction, Coleridge was born on 21 October 1772 in the town of Ottery St Mary in Devon, England. He had previously been Master of Hugh Squiers School in South Molton, Devon, John Coleridge had three children by his first wife. Samuel was the youngest of ten by the Reverend Mr. Coleridges second wife, Anne Bowden, probably the daughter of John Bowden, Mayor of South Molton, Devon, Coleridge suggests that he took no pleasure in boyish sports but instead read incessantly and played by himself. At that school Coleridge became friends with Charles Lamb, a schoolmate, in fancy I can almost hear him now, exclaiming Harp. Pen and ink, boy, you mean, oh aye. the cloister-pump, I suppose. Be this as it may, there was one custom of our masters and he would often permit our theme exercises. To accumulate, till each lad had four or five to be looked over, throughout his life, Coleridge idealised his father as pious and innocent, while his relationship with his mother was more problematic. His childhood was characterised by attention seeking, which has linked to his dependent personality as an adult. He was rarely allowed to return home during the term. He later wrote of his loneliness at school in the poem Frost at Midnight, With unclosed lids, from 1791 until 1794, Coleridge attended Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1792, he won the Browne Gold Medal for an ode that he wrote on the slave trade, afterwards, he was rumoured to have had a bout of severe depression. His brothers arranged for his discharge a few months later under the reason of insanity and he was readmitted to Jesus College, at Jesus College, Coleridge was introduced to political and theological ideas then considered radical, including those of the poet Robert Southey. Coleridge joined Southey in a plan, soon abandoned, to found a utopian society, called Pantisocracy
32.
Hegel
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Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher and an important figure of German idealism. He achieved wide renown in his day and, while primarily influential within the tradition of philosophy, has become increasingly influential in the analytic tradition as well. Although he remains a figure, his canonical stature within Western philosophy is universally recognized. His philosophy of spirit conceptually integrates psychology, the state, history, art, religion and his account of the master–slave dialectic has been highly influential, especially in 20th-century France. Hegel has been seen in the 20th century as the originator of the thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad, however, as an explicit phrase, Hegel has influenced many thinkers and writers whose own positions vary widely. Hegel was born on August 27,1770 in Stuttgart, in the Duchy of Württemberg in southwestern Germany, christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig, was Rentkammersekretär at the court of Karl Eugen, Hegels mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa, was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court. She died of a fever when Hegel was thirteen. Hegel and his father caught the disease but narrowly survived. Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise, and a brother, Georg Ludwig, at the age of three Hegel went to the German School. When he entered the Latin School two years later, he knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother. In 1776, Hegel entered Stuttgarts gymnasium illustre, during his adolescence Hegel read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment, such as Christian Garve, Hegels studies at the Gymnasium were concluded with his Abiturrede entitled The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey. At the age of eighteen Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift, where he had as roommates the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each others ideas. All greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and they watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, Hegel at this time envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph, i. e. Having received his certificate from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister to an aristocratic family in Bern. During this period he composed the text which has known as the Life of Jesus
33.
Karl Marx
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Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a family, he later studied political economy. His work has influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history. These economic critiques were set out in works such as the three volumes, published between 1867 and 1894, that comprise Das Kapital. According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all. He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marxs work, Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science. Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and he was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussias Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx was ancestrally Jewish, his grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis since 1723. Marx was also a cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland. Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, a classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy. In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 moving his family to a property near the Porta Nigra. Her sister Sophie Pressburg, was Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips Marxs uncle through this marriage, Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London. Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood, the third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 along with his siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie. Young Karl was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, by employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government
34.
Benedetto Croce
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Benedetto Croce was an Italian idealist philosopher, historian and politician. He wrote on topics, including philosophy, history, historiography. He was a liberal, although he opposed laissez-faire free trade and had influence on other Italian intellectuals. He was President of PEN International, the writers association. He was nominated for the Nobel prize for literature sixteen times, Croce was born in Pescasseroli in the Abruzzo region of Italy. His family was influential and wealthy, and he was raised in a very strict Catholic environment and he kept this philosophy for the rest of his life. In 1883, an earthquake occurred in the village of Casamicciola on the island of Ischia near Naples and his mother, father, and only sister were all killed, while he was buried for a long time and barely survived. He studied law, but never graduated, at the University of Naples and his ideas were publicized at the University of Rome towards the ends of the 1890s by Professor Antonio Labriola. Influenced by Neapolitan-born Gianbattista Vicos thoughts about art and history, he began studying philosophy in 1893, Croce also purchased the house in which Vico had lived. His friend, the philosopher Giovanni Gentile, encouraged him to read Hegel, Croces famous commentary on Hegel, What is Living and What is Dead in the Philosophy of Hegel, was published in 1907. As his fame increased, Croce was persuaded, against his initial wishes and he was appointed to the Italian Senate, a lifelong position, in 1910. He was a critic of Italys participation in World War I. Though this made him unpopular, his reputation was restored after the war. He was Minister of Public Education between 1920 and 1921 for the 5th and last government headed by Giovanni Giolitti, Gentile remained minister for only a year, but managed to begin a comprehensive reform of Italian education that was based partly on Croces earlier suggestions. Gentiles reform remained in force well beyond the Fascist regime, and was partly abolished in 1962. Croce was instrumental in the relocation of the Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III to Naples Palazzo Reale in 1923, Croce initially supported Mussolinis Fascist government that took power in 1922. However, the assassination by Fascists of the socialist politician, Giacomo Matteotti and he later explained that he had hoped that the support for Mussolini in parliament would weaken the more extreme Fascists who, he believed, were responsible for Matteottis murder. Croce later coined the term onagrocrazia to emphasize the anti-intellectual and boorish tendencies of parts of the Fascist regime, Croce also described Fascism as malattia morale
35.
Antonio Gramsci
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Antonio Francesco Gramsci was an Italian Marxist theorist and politician. He wrote on political theory, sociology and linguistics and he attempted to break from the economic determinism of traditional Marxist thought and so is considered a key neo-Marxist. He was a member and one-time leader of the Communist Party of Italy and was imprisoned by Benito Mussolinis Fascist regime. He wrote more than 30 notebooks and 3,000 pages of history and his Prison Notebooks are considered a highly original contribution to 20th century political theory. Gramsci drew insights from varying sources - not only other Marxists but also such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Vilfredo Pareto, Georges Sorel. The notebooks cover a range of topics, including Italian history and nationalism. The bourgeoisie in Gramscis view develops a hegemonic culture using ideology rather than violence, economic force, hegemonic culture propagates its own values and norms so that they become the common sense values of all and thus maintain the status quo. Hegemonic power is used to maintain consent to the capitalist order, rather than coercive power using force to maintain order. This cultural hegemony is produced and reproduced by the dominant class through the institutions that form the superstructure, Antonio Francesco Gramsci was born in Ales, on the island of Sardinia, the fourth of seven sons of Francesco Gramsci. The senior Gramsci was an official from Gaeta, who married Giuseppina Marcias. Gramscis father was of distant Arbëreshë descent, though Gramsci mistakenly believed his fathers family left Albania as recently as 1821 and his mother belonged to a local landowning family. The senior Gramscis financial difficulties and troubles with the police forced the family to move about through several villages in Sardinia until they settled in Ghilarza. In 1898 Francesco was convicted of embezzlement and imprisoned, reducing his family to destitution, the young Antonio had to abandon schooling and work at various casual jobs until his fathers release in 1904. As a boy, Gramsci suffered from problems, particularly a malformation of the spine that stunted his growth. Gramsci was also plagued by various internal disorders throughout his life, Gramsci completed secondary school in Cagliari, where he lodged with his elder brother Gennaro, a former soldier whose time on the mainland had made him a militant socialist. However, Gramscis sympathies then did not lie with socialism, but rather with the grievances of impoverished Sardinian peasants, in 1911, Gramsci won a scholarship to study at the University of Turin, sitting the exam at the same time as Palmiro Togliatti. At Turin, he read literature and took a keen interest in linguistics, Gramsci was in Turin as it was going through industrialization, with the Fiat and Lancia factories recruiting workers from poorer regions. Trade unions became established, and the first industrial social conflicts started to emerge, Gramsci frequented socialist circles as well as associating with Sardinian emigrants
36.
James Joyce
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James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was an Irish novelist, short story writer, and poet. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde and is regarded as one of the most influential, other well-known works are the short-story collection Dubliners, and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Finnegans Wake. His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, occasional journalism and his published letters, Joyce was born in 41 Brighton Square, Rathgar, Dublin—about half a mile from his mothers birthplace in Terenure—into a middle-class family on the way down. He went on to attend University College Dublin, in 1904, in his early twenties, Joyce emigrated permanently to continental Europe with his partner Nora Barnacle. They lived in Trieste, Paris and Zurich, Ulysses in particular is set with precision in the streets and alleyways of the city. In the particular is contained the universal, James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane May Murray, in the Dublin suburb of Rathgar. He was baptised according to the Rites of the Catholic Church in the nearby St Josephs Church in Terenure on 5 February by Rev. John OMulloy and his godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann. He was the eldest of ten surviving children, two of his siblings died of typhoid and his fathers family, originally from Fermoy in County Cork, had once owned a small salt and lime works. Joyces father and paternal grandfather both married into families, though the familys purported ancestor, Seán Mór Seoighe was a stonemason from Connemara. In 1887, his father was appointed rate collector by Dublin Corporation, around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog, which engendered in him a lifelong cynophobia. He also suffered from astraphobia, as an aunt had described thunderstorms to him as a sign of Gods wrath. In 1891 Joyce wrote a poem on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell, the Irish Party had dropped Parnell from leadership. But the Vaticans role in allying with the British Conservative Party to prevent Home Rule left an impression on the young Joyce. The elder Joyce had the printed and even sent a part to the Vatican Library. In November of that year, John Joyce was entered in Stubbs Gazette. In 1893, John Joyce was dismissed with a pension, beginning the familys slide into poverty caused mainly by his drinking and general financial mismanagement. Joyce had begun his education at Clongowes Wood College, a Jesuit boarding school near Clane, County Kildare and this came about because of a chance meeting his father had with a Jesuit priest who knew the family and Joyce was given a reduction in fees to attend Belvedere. In 1895, Joyce, now aged 13, was elected to join the Sodality of Our Lady by his peers at Belvedere, the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas continued to have a strong influence on him for most of his life
37.
Julius Evola
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Baron Giulio Cesare Andrea Evola, better known as Julius Evola, was an Italian philosopher, painter, and esotericist. Historian Aaron Gillette described Evola as one of the most influential fascist racists in Italian history, Evola was admired by the Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini. He idolized the Nazi SS and admired the SS head Heinrich Himmler, whom he knew personally, in a trial in 1951, Evola, who denied being a Fascist, referred to himself as a ‘superfascist’. Concerning this statement, historian Elisabetta Cassina Wolff wrote that It is unclear whether this meant that Evola was placing himself above or beyond Fascism, Evola was the chief ideologue of Italys terrorist radical right after World War II. He continues to influence contemporary neofascist movements, as well as leaders of the Alt-right movement. Many of Evolas theories and writings were centered on his idiosyncratic mysticism, occultism, and esoteric religious studies, Giulio Cesare Andrea Evola was born in Rome to a Sicilian family of minor aristocracy. He was occasionally attributed with the title Baron, little is known about his early upbringing except that he considered it irrelevant. Evola studied engineering in Rome and was involved in the Italian social and he did not complete his studies on the grounds that he did not want to be associated in any way with bourgeois academic recognition and titles such as doctor and engineer. He joined the artillery as an officer in the First World War, returning to civilian life, Evola was a painter and poet in the Dada movement. Evolas early philosophical influences included Friedrich Nietzsche, Otto Weininger, Carlo Michelstaedter, a keen mountaineer, Evola described the experience a source of revelatory spiritual experience. After his return from the war, Evola experimented with drugs and magic until, around age 23 and he claimed that he avoided suicide thanks to a revelation he had while reading an early Buddhist text, which dealt with shedding all forms of identity other than absolute transcendence. Evola would later publish the text The Doctrine of Awakening, which he regarded as a repayment of his debt to the doctrine of the Buddha for saving him from suicide. For Evola, this unity with the absolute involved expanded participation in the absolute individual understood as unconstrained liberty. In his 1925 work Essays on Magical Idealism, Evola declared that God does not exist, the Ego must create him by making itself divine. Evola would later write, The truths that allow us to understand the world of Tradition are not those that can be learned or discussed and they either are or are not. Traditional truths have always held to be essentially non-human. He considered spiritual virility to signify orientation towards this postulated transcendent principle, Evola was introduced to esotericism by the early supporter of fascism Arturo Reghini, who sought to promote a cultured magic opposed to Christianity. Reghini introduced Evola to the traditionalist René Guénon, in 1927, Reghini and Evola, along with other Italian esotericists, founded the Gruppo di Ur
38.
Jules Michelet
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Jules Michelet was a French historian. He was born in Paris to a family with Huguenot traditions, historian François Furet wrote that his History of the French Revolution remains the cornerstone of all revolutionary historiography and is also a literary monument. His aphoristic style emphasized his anti-clerical republicanism and his father was a master printer, not very prosperous, and Jules assisted him in the actual work of the press. A place was offered him in the printing office, but his father was able to send him to the famous Collège or Lycée Charlemagne. He passed the university examination in 1821, and was appointed to a professorship of history in the Collège Rollin. Soon after this, in 1824, he married and this was one of the most favourable periods ever for scholars and men of letters in France, and Michelet had powerful patrons in Abel-François Villemain and Victor Cousin, among others. Although he was an ardent politician, he was all a man of letters. His earliest works were school textbooks, between 1825 and 1827 he produced diverse sketches, chronological tables etc. of modern history. His précis of the subject, published in 1827, is a sound and careful book, far better than anything that had appeared before it, in the same year he was appointed maître de conférences at the École normale supérieure. The events of 1830 had placed him in a position for study by obtaining him a place in the Record Office. Soon afterwards he began his chief and monumental work, the Histoire de France that would take 30 years to complete,1838 was a year of great importance in Michelets life. He published, in 1839, his Histoire romaine, but this was in his graver and earlier manner, the results of his lectures appeared in the volumes Du prêtre, de la femme et de la famille and Le peuple. However, when the revolution broke out, Michelet, unlike other men of letters, did not attempt to enter active political life. The coup détat lost Michelet his place in the Record Office, since he refused to take the oaths to the empire, the new régime kindled afresh his republican zeal, and his second marriage with Mlle. Athénaïs Michelet, a lady of some capacity and of republican sympathies. While his great work of history was still his main pursuit, sometimes they were expanded versions of its episodes, sometimes what may be called commentaries or companion volumes. In some of the best of them natural science, a new subject with Michelet, to which his wife is believed to have introduced him, supplies the text. The first of these was Les Femmes de la Révolution, in which Michelets natural and inimitable faculty of dithyrambic too often gives way to tedious and not very conclusive argument, in the next, LOiseau, a new and most successful vein was struck
39.
Edgar Quinet
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Edgar Quinet was a French historian and intellectual. Born at Bourg-en-Bresse, in the département of Ain, Edgar, who was an only child, was usually alone, but his mother exercised great influence over him. He was sent to school first in Bourg and then in Lyon and his father wished him on leaving school to go into the army, and then enter a business career. However, Quinet was determined to engage in literature, and after a time got his way when he moved to Paris in 1820 and his first publication, the Tablettes du juif errant, which appeared in 1823, symbolized the progress of humanity. At this time he was introduced to Victor Cousin, and made the acquaintance of Jules Michelet and he had visited Germany and the United Kingdom before the appearance of his book. Cousin obtained for him a position on a government mission to the Morea, in the Ottoman Empire, in 1829, with Michelet he published a volume of works denouncing Jesuits and blaming them for religious, political and social troubles in 1843. He also became acquainted with and a lover of the works of Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1838, Quinet wrote several lectures praising Emerson’s works which were published with the title of “Le Christianisme et la Revolution Francaise” in 1845. Hopes of employment which he had after the July Revolution were frustrated by his reputation as a speculative republican, ahasverus, his first major original work, appeared in 1833 - it is a singular prose poem. Shortly afterwards he married Minna More, a German girl with whom he had fallen in some years before. In 1838 he published a reply to David Strauss Leben Jesu. In 1839 he was appointed professor of literature at Lyon. Two years later he was transferred to the Collège de France, quinets Parisian professorship, which began in 1842, was notorious as the subject of polemics. His chair was that of Southern Literature, but, neglecting his proper subject, he chose, in conjunction with Michelet, to engage in a violent polemic with the Jesuits and with Ultramontanism. Two books bearing exactly these titles appeared in 1843 and 1844, and contained, as was usual with Quinet, by this time Quinet was a pronounced republican, and something of a revolutionary. He had published in 1848 Les Révolutions dItalie, one of his main works, Quinet fled Louis Napoléon’s 1851 coup d’état to Brussels until 1858 and then fled to Veytaux, Switzerland, until 1870. His wife had died some time previously, and he now married Hermione Asachi, the daughter of Gheorghe Asachi, in Veytaux, his literary output was greater than ever. Quinet had refused to return to France to join the opposition against Napoleon III. He was then restored to his professorship, and during the siege of Paris wrote vehemently against the Germans
40.
Erich Auerbach
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Erich Auerbach was a German philologist and comparative scholar and critic of literature. Auerbach, who was Jewish and born in Berlin, was trained in the German philological tradition and would become, along with Leo Spitzer. With the rise of National Socialism Auerbach was forced to vacate his position in 1935, exiled from Nazi Germany, he took up residence in Istanbul, Turkey, where he wrote Mimesis, The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, generally considered his masterwork. Auerbachs life and work in Turkey is detailed and placed in historical and sociological context by Kader Konuk, East West Mimesis and he moved to the United States in 1947, teaching at Pennsylvania State University and then working at the Institute for Advanced Study. He was appointed professor of Romance philology at Yale University in 1950, while at Yale, Auerbach supervised Fredric Jamesons doctoral work. Roman Filolojisine Giris Istanbul Universitesi Edebiyat Fakultesi, Horoz Yayinevi,1944, scenes from the Drama of European Literature. Republished 1984 by Manchester University Press, dante, Poet of the Secular World Trans. Mimesis, The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, Literary Language and Its Public in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages. Time, History, and Literature, Selected Essays of Erich Auerbach, Mimesis as Performance, Rereading Auerbach’s First Chapter. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms, new York, Oxford University Press,1996. Bremmer, Jan. Erich Auerbach and His Mimesis, Erich Auerbach’s Mimesis – ’Tis Fifty Years Since, A Reassessment. Literary History and the Sublime in Erich Auerbach´s Mimesis, Erich Auerbachs Humanism and the Criticism of the Future. Moderna, semestrale di teoria e critica della letteratura 11. 1/2, Literary Criticism & the Structures of History, Erich Auerbach & Leo Spitzer. Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press,1982, holmes, Jonathan, and Streete, Adrian, eds. Refiguring Mimesis, Representation in Early Modern Literature, hatfield, University of Hertfordshire Press,2005. Erich Auerbach and the Fate of Philology Today, lerer, Seth, Literary History and the Challenge of Philology, The Legacy of Erich Auerbach. Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism, Erich Auerbach and the Judaizing of Philology. Fifty Year Anniversary of Mimesis, included in Fifty Year Anniversary edition of Mimesis, rousseau Hakkinda Bir Baslangic Yazisi by Erich Auerbach, Editor by Beyaz Arif Akbas, Yalnizgoz Books, Edirne 2011
41.
Marshall McLuhan
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Herbert Marshall McLuhan, CC was a Canadian professor, philosopher, and public intellectual. His work is viewed as one of the cornerstones of the study of theory, as well as having practical applications in the advertising. McLuhan is known for coining the expression the medium is the message and the global village. He was a fixture in media discourse in the late 1960s, in the years after his death, he continued to be a controversial figure in academic circles. With the arrival of the internet, however, interest has renewed in his work, Herbert Marshall McLuhan was born in Edmonton, Alberta to Elsie Naomi and Herbert Ernest McLuhan, both born in Canada. His brother Maurice was born two years later, Marshall was his maternal grandmothers surname. His mother was a Baptist schoolteacher who became an actress. That business failed when World War I broke out, and McLuhans father enlisted in the Canadian army, after a year of service, he contracted influenza and remained in Canada, away from the front. At Manitoba, McLuhan explored his relationship with religion and turned to literature to gratify his souls hunger for truth and beauty. After studying for one year as a student, he changed majors and earned a BA, winning a University Gold Medal in Arts. He took an MA in English from the University of Manitoba in 1934 and he had long desired to pursue graduate studies in England and he was accepted to the University of Cambridge, having failed to secure a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford. He entered Trinity Hall, Cambridge in the autumn of 1934 and these studies formed an important precursor to his later ideas on technological forms. He received the bachelors degree from Cambridge in 1936 and entered their graduate program. Later, he returned from England to take a job as an assistant at the University of Wisconsin–Madison that he held for the 1936–37 academic year. While studying the trivium at Cambridge, he took the first steps toward his eventual conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1937, in 1935, he wrote to his mother, ad I not encountered Chesterton, I would have remained agnostic for many years at least. At the end of March 1937, McLuhan completed what was a slow but total conversion process, after consulting a minister, his father accepted the decision to convert. His mother, however, felt that his conversion would hurt his career and was inconsolable, McLuhan was devout throughout his life, but his religion remained a private matter. He had a lifelong interest in the three and sometimes said that the Virgin Mary provided intellectual guidance for him
42.
Northrop Frye
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Herman Northrop Frye CC FRSC was a Canadian literary critic and literary theorist, considered one of the most influential of the 20th century. Frye gained international fame with his first book, Fearful Symmetry, the American critic Harold Bloom commented at the time of its publication that Anatomy established Frye as the foremost living student of Western literature. Fryes contributions to cultural and social criticism spanned a long career during which he earned widespread recognition, born in Sherbrooke, Quebec but raised in Moncton, New Brunswick, Frye was the third child of Herman Edward Frye and of Catherine Maud Howard. His much older brother, Howard, died in World War I, he also had a sister and his first cousin was the scientist Alma Howard. Frye went to Toronto to compete in a typing contest in 1929. He studied for his degree at Victoria College in the University of Toronto. He then studied theology at Emmanuel College, after a brief stint as a student minister in Saskatchewan, he was ordained to the ministry of the United Church of Canada. He then studied at Merton College, Oxford, where he was a member and Secretary of the Bodley Club before returning to Victoria College, Frye rose to international prominence as a result of his first book, Fearful Symmetry, published in 1947. Until then, the poetry of William Blake had long been poorly understood. Frye found in it a system of metaphor derived from Paradise Lost and his study of Blakes poetry was a major contribution. Moreover, Frye outlined an innovative manner of studying literature that was to influence the study of literature in general. He was an influence on Harold Bloom, Margaret Atwood. In 1974–1975 Frye was the Norton professor at Harvard University, Northrop Frye did not have a Ph. D. Frye married Helen Kemp, an educator, editor and artist and she died in Australia while accompanying Frye on a lecture tour. Two years after her death in 1986, he married Elizabeth Brown and he died in 1991 and was interred in Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto, Ontario. The insights gained from his study of Blake set Frye on his path and shaped his contributions to literary criticism. He was the first critic to postulate a systematic theory of criticism, to out, in his own words. In so doing, he shaped the discipline of criticism, inspired by his work on Blake, Frye developed and articulated his unified theory ten years after Fearful Symmetry, in the Anatomy of Criticism
43.
Cornelius Castoriadis
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Cornelius Castoriadis was a Greek-French philosopher, social critic, economist, psychoanalyst, author of The Imaginary Institution of Society, and co-founder of the Socialisme ou Barbarie group. His writings on autonomy and social institutions have been influential in academic and activist circles. Cornelius Castoriadis was born on March 11,1922 in Constantinople and his family had to move in July 1922 to Athens due to the Greek–Turkish population exchange. He developed an interest in politics after he came into contact with Marxist thought, at the same time he began studying traditional philosophy after purchasing a copy of the book History of Philosophy by the historian of philosophy Nikolaos Louvaris. Sometime between 1932 and 1935, Maximiani Portas was the French tutor of Castoriadis, during the same period, he attended the 8th Gymnasium of Athens in Kato Patisia, from which he graduated in 1937. His first active involvement in politics occurred during the Metaxas Regime, when he joined the Athenian Communist Youth, in 1941 he joined the Communist Party of Greece, only to leave one year later in order to become an active Trotskyist. The latter action resulted in his persecution by both the Germans and the Communist Party, in 1944 he wrote his first essays on social science and Max Weber, which he published in a magazine named Archive of Sociology and Ethics. During the December 1944 violent clashes between the communist-led ELAS and the Papandreou government, aided by British troops, Castoriadis heavily criticized the actions of the KKE, kyrou, Kostas Papaïoannou, and Virgile Solomonidis. Once in Paris, Castoriadis joined the Trotskyist Parti Communiste Internationaliste and he and Claude Lefort constituted a Chaulieu–Montal Tendency in the French PCI in 1946. Castoriadis had links with the group around C. L. R. James until 1958, also strongly influenced by Castoriadis and Socialisme ou Barbarie were the British group and journal Solidarity and Maurice Brinton. He submitted a proposal for a dissertation on mathematical logic to Poirier. The working title of his thesis was Introduction à la logique axiomatique, at the same time, he worked as an economist at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development until 1970, which was also the year when he obtained French citizenship. Consequently, his writings prior to date were published pseudonymously, as Pierre Chaulieu, Paul Cardan. In his 1949 essay The Relations of Production in Russia, Castoriadis developed a critique of the supposed socialist character of the government of the Soviet Union and his work in the OECD substantially helped his analyses. In the latter years of Socialisme ou Barbarie, Castoriadis came to reject the Marxist theories of economics and of history, especially in an essay on Modern Capitalism and Revolution. When Jacques Lacans disputes with the International Psychoanalytical Association led to a split, in 1968 Castoriadis married Piera Aulagnier, a French psychoanalyst who had undergone psychoanalytic treatment under Jacques Lacan from 1955 until 1961. Castoriadis began to practice analysis in 1973, in 1967, Castoriadis submitted a proposal for a doctoral dissertation on the philosophy of history to Paul Ricœur. Otherness emerges in part from the activity of the psyche itself, for Castoriadis, self-examination, as in the ancient Greek tradition, could draw upon the resources of modern psychoanalysis
44.
Costanzo Preve
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Costanzo Preve was an Italian philosopher and a political theoretician. He is widely considered as one of the most important anti-capitalist European thinkers and his thought is based on the Ancient Greek and Idealistic tradition philosophy, under the influence of Fichte, Hegel and Marx. He is author of essays and volumes about philosophical interpretation. Born in Valenza, Preve studied philosophy, political science and ancient and modern Greek in Turin, Paris, after the dissolving of the PCI following the 1989 fall of the Berlin Wall, Costanzo Preve undertook a critical review of his own positions held in the precedent decades. Since 2005 he writes for a journal, Eurasia. Costanzo Preve was initially influenced by Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, before turning himself towards Georg Lukács and he rejected the important Operaismo current during the 1960-1970s. In the 1990s, Preve returned to Althusser and criticizes economism, Preve conceives of the 1960s as a rupture in history, in much the same way that the appearance of the proletariat in the 19th century had been. However, Preve insists against Althusser on the young Marxs theory of alienation and on his theory on human nature, Preve has also insisted on the unprecedented power of the sole hyperpower, that is the United States, and warned against cultural imperialism. He criticizes Toni Negri and Michael Hardts Empire, Costanzo Preve died in Turin where he lived on 23 November 2013. La classe operaia non va in paradiso, dal marxismo occidentale alloperaismo italiano,1982, Dedalo Cosa possiamo chiedere al marxismo. 1983, Franco Angeli La filosofia imperfetta, Una proposta di ricostruzione del marxismo contemporaneo. 1984, Franco Angeli La teoria in pezzi, La dissoluzione del paradigma teorico operaista in Italia. 1984, Dedalo La ricostruzione del marxismo fra filosofia e scienza,1986, Franco Angeli Vers une nouvelle alliance. Actualité et possibilités de développement de leffort ontologique de Bloch et de Lukàcs,1986, Actes Sud La rivoluzione teorica di Louis Althusser. 1987, Vallerini Editore Viewing Lukàcs from the 1980s,1987, The University of Chicago Press La passione durevole. 1989, Vangelista La musa di Clio vestita di rosso,1990, Franco Angeli Il filo di Arianna. 1990, Vangelista Il marxismo ed il problema teorico delleguaglianza oggi,1990, QuattroVenti Il convitato di pietra. Saggio sulla storia delle idee marxiste in Italia,1993, Vangelista The dream and the reality
45.
Isaiah Berlin
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Sir Isaiah Berlin OM CBE FBA was a Russian-British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas. He was an essayist, conversationalist, raconteur, and lecturer, born in Riga, Latvia in 1909, he moved to Petrograd, Russia at the age of six, where he witnessed the revolutions of 1917. In 1921 his family came to England, and he was educated at St Pauls School, London and Corpus Christi College, in 1932, at the age of 23, Berlin was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. He translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during the war, from 1957 to 1967 he was Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at the University of Oxford. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1963 to 1964, in 1966, he played a crucial role in founding Wolfson College, Oxford, and became its first President. Berlin was appointed a CBE in 1946, knighted in 1957 and he was President of the British Academy from 1974 to 1978. He also received the 1979 Jerusalem Prize for his writings on individual freedom, an annual Isaiah Berlin Lecture is held at the Hampstead Synagogue, at Wolfson College, Oxford, at the British Academy, and in Riga. Berlins work on theory and on value pluralism has had a lasting influence. Berlin was the surviving child of a prosperous Jewish family, the son of Mendel Berlin, a timber trader and direct descendant of Shneur Zalman. He spent his first six years in Riga, and later lived in Andreapol and Petrograd, in London, the family first stayed in Surbiton, then within the year they bought a house in Holland Park, and six years later in Hampstead. Berlins English was virtually nonexistent at first, but he became fluent within a year, Berlin was educated at St Pauls School, then at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he studied Greats. In his final examinations, he took a First, winning The John Locke Prize for his performance in the philosophy papers and he subsequently took another degree at Oxford in PPE, winning another First after less than a year on the course. He was appointed a tutor in philosophy at New College, Oxford, and soon afterwards was elected to a fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. While still a student, he befriended Ayer, Stuart Hampshire, Richard Wollheim, Maurice Bowra, Stephen Spender, J. L. Austin, in 1940, he presented a philosophical paper on other minds to a meeting attended by Ludwig Wittgenstein at Cambridge University. Wittgenstein rejected the argument of his paper in discussion but praised Berlin for his honesty and integrity. Prior to this service, however, Berlin was barred from participation in the British war effort as a result of his being born in Latvia, for his services, he was appointed a CBE in the 1946 New Year Honours. Berlin was fluent in Russian and English, spoke French, German and Italian, meetings with Anna Akhmatova in Leningrad in November 1945 and January 1946 had a powerful effect on both of them, and serious repercussions for Akhmatova. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and he was instrumental in the founding, in 1966, of a new graduate college at Oxford University, Wolfson College
46.
Georges Sorel
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Georges Eugène Sorel was a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. His notion of the power of myth in peoples lives inspired anarchists, Marxists and it is, together with his defense of violence, the contribution for which he is most often remembered. Born in Cherbourg as the son of a wine merchant, he moved to Paris in 1864 to attend the Collège Rollin. He became chief engineer with the Department of Public Works, stationed briefly in Corsica, in 1891, he was awarded the Légion dhonneur. He retired in 1892 and moved to Boulogne-sur-Seine, near Paris, beginning in the second half of the 1880s, he published articles in various fields displaying the influence of Aristotle, as well as Hippolyte Taine and Ernest Renan. In 1893, he affirmed his position as a Marxist. His social and political philosophy owed much to his reading of Proudhon, Karl Marx, Giambattista Vico, Henri Bergson, Sorels engagement in the political world was accompanied by a correspondence with Benedetto Croce, and later with Vilfredo Pareto. Sorel worked on the first French Marxist journals, L’Ère nouvelle and Le Devenir social and he took the side of Eduard Bernstein against Karl Kautsky. Sorel supported acquittal during the Dreyfus affair, although, like his friend Charles Péguy, through his contributions to Enrico Leones Il Divenire sociale and Hubert Lagardelles Mouvement socialiste, he contributed around 1905 to the theoretical elaboration of revolutionary syndicalism. In 1906, his most famous text, Reflections on Violence and it was published in book form in 1908, and was followed the same year by Illusions du Progrès. Disappointed by the CGT, Sorel associated himself for a period in 1909-1910 with Charles Maurras’ Action française and this collaboration inspired the founders of the Cercle Proudhon, which brought together revolutionary syndicalists and monarchists. Sorel himself, with Jean Variot, founded a journal in 1911 called LIndépendance, although disagreements, in part over nationalism, soon ended the project. Ferociously opposed to the 1914 Union sacrée, Sorel denounced the war and in 1917 praised the Russian Revolution and he wrote numerous small pieces for Italian newspapers defending the Bolsheviks. After the war, Sorel published a collection of his writings entitled Matériaux d’une Théorie du Prolétariat, at the time of his death, in Boulogne sur Seine, he had an ambivalent attitude towards both Fascism and Bolshevism. His ideas, most notably the concept of a general strike, have contributed significantly to anarcho-syndicalism. Sorel began his writing as a marginal Marxist, a critical analyst of Marxs economics and philosophy, when the Bolsheviks came to power, he completed his cycle of illusions by saluting Vladimir Lenin as the leader who had realized his syndicalist myth. The syndicalist or militant trade union movement, which burst into prominence in France around 1900, the turmoil engendered by strikes was universally condemned even by parliamentary socialists, who favored negotiation and conciliation. To justify the militancy and to give syndicalism an ideology, Sorel published the series of articles that became, as one of his biographers calls it, indeed, it was Sorels only successful book of about a dozen published
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Vico, Giovanni Battista". Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
