1.
Beauvais
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Beauvais archaic English, Beawayes, Beeway, Boway, is a city and commune in northern France. It serves as the capital of the Oise département, in the Hauts-de-France region, Beauvais is located approximately 75 kilometres from Paris. The residents of the city are called Beauvaisiens, together with its suburbs and satellite towns, the metropolitan area of Beauvais has a population of 103,885. Beauvais was known to the Romans by the Gallo-Roman name of Caesaromagus, the post-Renaissance Latin rendering is Bellovacum from the Belgic tribe the Bellovaci, whose capital it was. In the ninth century it became a countship, which about 1013 passed to the bishops of Beauvais, who became peers of France from the twelfth century. At the coronations of kings the Bishop of Beauvais wore the royal mantle and went, with the Bishop of Langres and its name is Gaulish for place where judgements are made, from *bratu-spantion. Some say that Bratuspantium is Beauvais, others theorize that it is Vendeuil-Caply or Bailleul sur Thérain. From 1004 to 1037, the Count of Beauvais was Odo II, in a charter dated 1056/1060, Eudo of Brittany granted land in pago Belvacensi to the Abbey of Angers Saint-Aubin. In 1346 the town had to defend itself against the English, the hoard, which contained a variety of rare and extremely rare Anglo-Norman pennies, English and foreign coins, was reputed to have been found in or near Paris. Beauvais was extensively damaged during World War I and again in World War II, much of the older part of the city was all but destroyed, and the cathedral badly damaged before being liberated by British forces on 30 August 1944. Beauvais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the bank of the Thérain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its ancient ramparts have been destroyed, and it is now surrounded by boulevards, in addition, there are spacious promenades in the north-east of the town. The average annual temperature is 9. 9°C, the annual average of 1669 hours. Hills Bray are provided to the precipitation of Beauvais, the precipitation is 669 mm on average per year, while it is 800 mm on average per year in Bray. However, the frequency of rainfall is high, the average number of days per year above the precipitation of a 1 mm is 116 days, or every third day. The fog is present, it is estimated at about 55 days a year. The department is affected by 41 days of average wind year, the citys cathedral, dedicated to Saint Peter, in some respects the most daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists only of a transept and quire with apse and seven apse-chapels. The vaulting in the interior exceeds 46 m or 150 feet in height, the cathedral underwent a major repair and restoration process in 2008
2.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
3.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
4.
Roberval balance
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The Roberval balance is a weighing scale presented to the French Academy of Sciences by the French mathematician Gilles Personne de Roberval in 1669. In this scale, two identical horizontal beams are attached, one directly above the other, to a vertical column, on each side, both horizontal beams are attached to a vertical beam. The six attachment points are pivots, two horizontal plates, suitable for placing objects to be weighed, are fixed to the top of the two vertical beams. An arrow on the horizontal beam and a mark on the vertical column may be added to aid in leveling the scale. The object to be weighed is placed on one plate, and calibrated masses are added to, the mass of the object is equal to the mass of the calibrated masses regardless of where on the plates items are placed. The vertical column supporting a plate with an offset weight must be in axial compression, the flexural force in the column is taken by a pair of equal and opposite forces in the horizontal beams. So if the weight is towards the outside of the platform, further from the centre of the scales, the top beam will be in axial tension. These tensions and compressions are carried by horizontal reactions from the central supports, certain presumptions are made in a theoretical Roberval balance. This tension will manifest as an increase in static friction and these effects must be distinguished from the feedback loops and the friction of the pivot points mentioned above, as those are undesirable effects caused by design weaknesses/ flaws. If the arms finalize in a position, this only indicates friction in the pivot points somewhere. A well-made and precise Roberval balance with a center of gravity never actually balances. The Roberval balance is less accurate and more difficult to manufacture than a beam balance with suspended plates. The beam balance, however, has the significant disadvantage of requiring suspensory strings, chains, for over three hundred years the Roberval balance has instead been popular for applications requiring convenience and only moderate accuracy, notably in retail trade. Well known manufacturers of Roberval balances include W & T Avery Ltd. and George Salter & Co. Ltd. in the United Kingdom, henry Troemner, who designed scales for the United States Department of Treasury, was the first American to use the design. J. T. Graham, Scales and Balances, Shire Publications, Aylesbury ISBN 0-85263-547-8 Bruno Kisch, Scales, a Historical Outline, Yale University Press, New Haven ISBN 0-300-00630-6 The Roberval Balance
5.
Trochoid
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A trochoid is the curve described by a fixed point on a circle as it rolls along a straight line. The cycloid is a member of the trochoid family. The word trochoid was coined by Gilles de Roberval, parametric equations of the trochoid for which L is the x-axis are x = a θ − b sin y = a − b cos where θ is the variable angle through which the circle rolls. If P lies inside the circle, on its circumference, or outside, a curtate trochoid is traced by a pedal when a bicycle is pedaled along a straight line. A prolate trochoid is traced by the tip of a paddle when a boat is driven with constant velocity by paddle wheels, a common trochoid, also called a cycloid, has cusps at the points where P touches the L. In the case of a path, one full rotation coincides with one period of a periodic locus. The number of cusps given above also hold true for any epitrochoid and hypotrochoid, list of periodic functions Epitrochoid Hypotrochoid Cycloid Cyclogon Spirograph Trochoidal wave Online experiments with the Trochoid using JSXGraph
6.
Mathematician
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A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematics is concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, one of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, the number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was All is number. It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term mathematics, and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins, the first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria. She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote works on applied mathematics. Because of a dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked. Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and it was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences, an example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham, the Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. As time passed, many gravitated towards universities. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag productive thinking. ”Thus, seminars, overall, science became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. ”Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of an understanding of mathematics, the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their knowledge and professional methodology. With professional focus on a variety of problems, theoretical systems
7.
University of Paris
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The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
8.
Royal College of France
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The Collège de France, founded in 1530, is a renowned higher education and research establishment in France. It is located in Paris, in the 5th arrondissement, or Latin Quarter, the Collège does not grant degrees. Each professor is required to give lectures where attendance is free, professors, about 50 in number, are chosen by the professors themselves, from a variety of disciplines, in both science and the humanities. The Collège has research laboratories and one of the best research libraries of Europe, with focusing on history with rare books, humanities, social sciences and also chemistry. As of June 2009, over 650 audio podcasts of Collège de France lectures are available on iTunes, some are also available in English and Chinese. Similarly, the Collège de Frances website hosts several videos of classes, the classes are followed by various students, from senior researchers to PhD or master students, or even bachelor students. Moreover, the leçons inaugurales are important events in Paris intellectual and social life, the Collège was established by King Francis I of France, modeled after the Collegium Trilingue in Louvain, at the urging of Guillaume Budé. Of humanist inspiration, the school was established as an alternative to the Sorbonne to promote such disciplines as Hebrew, Ancient Greek, initially called Collège Royal, and later Collège des Trois Langues, Collège National, and Collège Impérial, it was named Collège de France in 1870. Two chairs are reserved for scholars who are invited to give lectures. Notable faculty members include Serge Haroche, awarded with Nobel Prize in Physics in 2012, notably,8 Fields medal winners have been affiliated with the College. Past faculty include, Institut de France Raymond Couvègnes Collège de France website, English home page
