1.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
2.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
3.
Vorma
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Vorma is a river in Norway that brings water from lake Mjøsa into the Glomma river. The Vorma is 30 kilometres long and flows through the town of Eidsvoll, the Vorma flows from Lake Mjøsa at the village of Minnesund to join with the Glomma at Årnes. Vorma was so named because it was a river that never freezes over. The junction of the Vorma with the Glomma at Årnes and Nes is the site of the Funnefoss on the Glomma, the Eidsivating was, according to tradition, founded by Halvdan Svarte, and served as the ting place for all of the Opplands and Viken. Saint Olav also held a ting there and built a church at this site in 1017, in 1795 a landslide totally blocked the Vorma at Disen for 111 days, completely drying the riverbed. A channel was cut around it to prevent a major overflow, on the Vorma, south of Eidsvoll, lies the Svanfoss where the water level in Lake Mjøsa is regulated. A 6-by-60-metre lock, which bypassed the Svanfoss, lifting boats 3 metres to allow the bypassing of the fall, the Vorma discharges from Lake Mjøsa at the village of Minnesund on the southern lakeshore. The southern shore of Lake Mjøsa is a moraine deposit formed by a pause in the glacial ice retreat that occurred ~9,400 years before the present. The terminal moraine is characterized by substantial clay, sand and gravel deposits, the Vorma has eroded through these deposits, leaving steep banks with many high gradient tributaries forming cascades as they join the Vorma. The river cut down until it met the less-easily eroded intrusive sill at the center of Eidsvoll where it formed the Svanfoss. Falls are also found where the Vorma meets the Glomma - the Funnefoss, the glacial deposits also dammed up a side valley, forming lake Hurdalssjøen. The Hurdalssjøen discharges to the Vorma river at Eidsvoll via the tributary Andelva river, other tributaries include the Julsrudåa, the Jøndalsåa, and the Holtåa. East Norway and its Frontier by Frank Noel Stagg, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.1956 An overview of Norwegian canals, including one on the Vormas
4.
Fredrikstad
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Fredrikstad is a city and municipality in Østfold county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the city of Fredrikstad, the city of Fredrikstad was founded in 1567 by King Frederick II, and established as a municipality on 1 January 1838. The rural municipality of Glemmen was merged with Fredrikstad on 1 January 1964, the rural municipalities of Borge, Onsøy, Kråkerøy, and Rolvsøy were merged with Fredrikstad on 1 January 1994. The city straddles the river Glomma where it meets the Skagerrak, along with neighboring Sarpsborg, Fredrikstad forms the fifth largest city in Norway, Fredrikstad/Sarpsborg. As of 1 January 2013, according to Statistics Norway, these two municipalities have a population of 128,916 with 75,583 in Fredrikstad and 53,333 in Sarpsborg. Fredrikstad was built at the mouth of Glomma as a replacement after Sarpsborg was burned down by the Swedes, almost half the population of Sarpsborg stayed behind, and rebuilt their old town at its original site. The city centre is on the west bank of the Glomma, Fredrikstad used to have a large sawmill industry and was an important harbour for timber export, then later on shipbuilding, until the main yard was closed in the 1980s. The main industries are currently various chemical plants and other light industry, in 2005, Fredrikstad was the final host port for the Tall Ships Race, attracting thousands to the city. The city was named after the Danish king Frederick II in 1569, the last element stad means city. Prior to 1877, the name was spelled Frederiksstad, then from 1877–1888 it was written as Fredriksstad, the coat-of-arms is from modern times. They were granted on 21 April 1967, the old arms are based on the oldest known seal of the city, which dates from 1610. They showed a fortress being guarded by a bear, strangely, Fredrikstad had no fortifications in 1610. Fredrikstad was founded by citizens of Sarpsborg and both the fortress and the bear are taken from the old arms of Sarpsborg, the composition of the seal was also used as arms since the beginning of the 19th century. The new arms were granted at the 400th anniversary of the city in 1967 and show a modern variation on the fortress. This new sites proximity to the sea and the open land surrounding it made it a better location than the old one. The name Fredrikstad was first used in a letter from the King dated 6 February 1569, the temporary fortification built during the Hannibal War between Sweden and Denmark-Norway, became permanent in the 1660s. The work on the fortifications was first led by William de Coucheron, during the next 60 years, several fortifications at the Fredrikstad Fortress were built, including Isegran, Kongsten, and Cicignon. In 1735, a suburb on the side of Glomma
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Ramsar Convention
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The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands and it is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention was signed in 1971. The most recent COP12 was held in Punta del Este, Uruguay, cOP13 will take place in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, in 2018. The List of Wetlands of International Importance included 2,231 Ramsar Sites in March 2016 covering over 2.1 million square kilometres. The country with the highest number of Sites is the United Kingdom with 170, the Ramsar Sites Information Service is a searchable database which provides information on each Ramsar Site. As of 2016 there are 18 Transboundary Ramsar Sites, as of 2016 there are 15 Ramsar Regional Initiatives covering regions of the Mediterranean, Asia, Africa and South America. The Ramsar Convention works closely with six other known as International Organization Partners. The IOPs also participate regularly as observers in all meetings of the Conference of the Parties and as members of the Scientific. Conference of the Parties Conference of the Parties is the Conventions governing body consisting of all governments that have ratified the treaty and this ultimate authority reviews progress under the Convention, identifies new priorities, and sets work plans for members. The COP can also make amendments to the Convention, create expert advisory bodies, review progress reports by member nations, and collaborate with other international organizations and agreements. The Standing Committee The Standing Committee is the executive body which represents the COP between its triennial meetings, within the framework of the decisions made by the COP. The Contracting Parties that are members of the Standing Committee are elected by each meeting of the COP to serve for the three years until the next one, the Secretariat The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day coordination of the Convention’s activities. It is based at the headquarters of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature in Gland, Switzerland, the 2nd of February each year is World Wetlands Day, marking the date of the adoption of the Convention on Wetlands on 2 February 1971. Established to raise awareness about the value of wetlands for humanity, in 2015 World Wetlands Day was celebrated in 59 countries
7.
River
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A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water, small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the term river as applied to geographic features. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location, examples are run in parts of the United States, burn in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek, but not always, Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Potamology is the study of rivers while limnology is the study of inland waters in general. Extraterrestrial rivers of liquid hydrocarbons have recently found on Titan. Channels may indicate past rivers on other planets, specifically outflow channels on Mars and rivers are theorised to exist on planets, a river begins at a source, follows a path called a course, and ends at a mouth or mouths. The water in a river is confined to a channel. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing. Rivers can flow down mountains, through valleys or along plains, the term upriver refers to the direction towards the source of the river, i. e. against the direction of flow. Likewise, the term describes the direction towards the mouth of the river. The term left bank refers to the bank in the direction of flow. The river channel typically contains a stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams of water. Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide and they also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare
8.
Drainage basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water. Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at elevations in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins. Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake. The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the covered by the basin. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks, in a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins. Drainage basins of the oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the oceans, the following is a list of the major ocean basins, About 48. 7% of the worlds land drains to the Atlantic Ocean. The two major mediterranean seas of the world also flow to the Atlantic, The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico basin includes most of the U. S. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes much of North Africa, east-central Africa, Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, Turkey, and the areas of Israel, Lebanon. Just over 13% of the land in the world drains to the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Oceans drainage basin also comprises about 13% of Earths land. It drains the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, antarctica comprises approximately eight percent of the Earths land. The five largest river basins, from largest to smallest, are the basins of the Amazon, the Río de la Plata, the Congo, the Nile, and the Mississippi. The three rivers that drain the most water, from most to least, are the Amazon, Ganga, endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks, the largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, in endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example of this is the Dead Sea, drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important
9.
Elverum
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Elverum is a town and municipality in Hedmark county, Norway. It is part of the region of Østerdalen. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Elverum, the municipality of Elverum was established on 1 January 1838. Elverum lies at an important crossroads, with Hamar to the west, Kongsvinger to the south and it is bordered on the north by Åmot municipality, in the northeast by Trysil municipality, in the southeast by Våler, and in the west by Løten. The municipality is named after the old Elverum farm, since the first church was built here, the first element is the genitive case of elfr which means river and the last element is heimr which means home/homestead or farm. The coat-of-arms is from modern times and they were granted on 9 December 1988. The arms show a gold-colored owl on a red field and this was chosen as a symbol for wisdom since there are many schools in the municipality. The owl also seems somewhat aggressive, to represent the spirit of Norwegians. In 1940, when Norway was under attack from the German forces, King Haakon VII received the power from the parliament to govern the country, during the Nordic Seven Years War, Swedish troops invaded Norway in a number of locations, including a number of incursions into Østerdalen. In 1563, Norwegian troops stopped the Swedish advance at Elverum, the parishes of Idre and Särna originally belonged to Elverum. But they were occupied by Swedish troops in 1644, and since then lost to Sweden, construction of fortifications started in 1673 during the Gyldenløve War as Hammersberg Skanse. It was renamed Christiansfjeld Fortress in 1685 by King Christian V of Denmark during his visit to Hammersberg Skanse on June 14, although the fortress was manned through the Great Northern War, the city was spared major battles. In 1742, Christiansfjeld Fortress was closed, a Norwegian infantry regiment, the Oppland Regiment, was formed in 1657 and Elverum became a garrison town. The area of population east of the river called Leiret adjacent to Christiansfjeld Fortress was built up by soldiers as well as the merchants, even to this day the area of Elverum central areas east of the river is referred to as Leiret. In 1878, Terningmoen at Elverum became the base for the Oppland Regiment. The Oppland Regiment had a history which included involvement in combat from the Swedish wars of the 17th century through the German invasion of Norway in 1940. As part of the restructuring, the unit was disbanded in 2002. Today, Terningmoen hosts several sub units within the Norwegian army, in the Danish-Norwegian period, Elverum was the location for a bailiff, a judge, a head pastor, and numerous military officers
10.
Hedmark
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Hedmark is a county in Norway, bordering Sør-Trøndelag to the north, Oppland to the west and Akershus to the south. The county administration is in Hamar, Hedmark makes up the northeastern part of Østlandet, the southeastern part of the country. It has a border with Sweden, Dalarna County and Värmland County. The largest lakes are Femunden and Mjøsa, the largest lake in Norway, parts of Glomma, Norways longest river, flow through Hedmark. Geographically, Hedmark is traditionally divided into, Hedemarken, east of Mjøsa, Østerdalen, north of Elverum, Hedmark and Oppland are the only Norwegian counties with no coastline. Hedmark also hosted events of the 1994 Winter Olympic Games. Hamar, Kongsvinger, Elverum and Tynset are cities in the county, Hedmark is one of the less urbanized areas in Norway, about half of the inhabitants live on rural land. The population is concentrated in the rich agricultural district adjoining Mjøsa to the southeast. The countys extensive forests supply much of Norways timber, at one time, logs were floated down Glomma to the coast but are now transported by truck and train. The Hedmark municipality of Engerdal has the distinction of marking the current southernmost border in Norway of Sápmi, the county is divided into three traditional districts. These are Hedmarken, Østerdalen and Solør, Hedmark was originally a part of the large Akershus amt, but in 1757 Oplandenes amt was separated from it. Some years later, in 1781, this was divided into Kristians amt, until 1919, the county was called Hedemarkens amt. The Old Norse form of the name was Heiðmǫrk, the first element is heiðnir, the name of an old Germanic tribe and is related to the word heið, which means moorland. The last element is mǫrk woodland, borderland, march, the coat of arms is from modern times. Every four years the inhabitants of Hedmark elect 33 representatives to Hedmark Fylkesting, after the elections of September 2007 the majority of the seats of the assembly were held by a three-party coalition consisting of the Labour Party, the Centre Party and the Socialist Left Party. Eight parties are represented in the assembly, the remaining 5 being the Progress Party, the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, the Christian Democratic Party, the assembly is headed by the county mayor. As of the 2007 elections the county mayor is Arnfinn Nergård, in 2003 a parliamentary system was established, which means that the county assembly elects a political administration or council to hold executive power. The council is led by Siv Tørudbakken, a member of the Labour Party, official homepage Media related to Hedmark at Wikimedia Commons Hedmark travel guide from Wikivoyage
11.
Oslofjord
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The Oslofjord is an inlet in the south-east of Norway, stretching from an imaginary line between the Torbjørnskjær and Færder lighthouses and down to Langesund in the south to Oslo in the north. It is part of the Skagerrak strait, connecting the North Sea and the Kattegat sea area, the Oslofjord is not a fjord in the geological sense - in Norwegian the term fjord can refer to a wide range of waterways. The bay is divided into the inner and outer Oslofjord at the point of the 17 by 1 kilometre Drøbak Sound, in the period 1624-1925 the name of the fjord was Kristianiafjorden - since this was the name of the capital in this period. The old Norse name of the fjord was Fold, giving names to the counties of Vestfold and Østfold -, each of the islands in the innermost part of the fjord has its own identity and distinguishing history. Among them are Hovedøya, Lindøya, Nakholmen, Bleikøya, Gressholmen and these islands can be reached with the Oslo-boats from Vippetangen. Hovedøya contains monastery ruins, Gressholmen for its rabbits, Nakholmen, Bleikøya, Lindøya for their cabins at the water’s edge. The inner part of the Oslofjord has steep and forest covered hill slopes down towards the fjord, the Oslofjord has Norway’s highest all year temperature,7.5 degrees Celsius. February is the coldest month in the fjord with -1.3 degrees Celsius, the islands in the middle of the fjord are among Norway’s warmest with high summer temperatures and moderate winters. Oslofjord’s relatively high temperatures enable various flora to flourish, the oldest settlements in the area surrounding the Oslofjord date from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. It was here on the eastern and western shores that three of the best preserved Viking ships were unearthed, in historical times, this bay was known by the current name of the region, Viken. Oslofjord has been an important body of water due to its proximity to Oslo. During WWII, there were German installations at several points on its coastline, one installation in Hovedøya held 1,100 Wehrmacht soldiers and later women deemed Nazi collaborators at the National Internment Camp for Women in Hovedøya. Norwegian painter Edvard Munch had a cottage and studio in Åsgårdstrand on the fjord, the fjord was the scene of a key event in the German invasion of Norway in April 1940, the Battle of Drøbak Sound. The invasion included a landing of 1,000 troops transported by ship to Oslo. Colonel Eriksen, Commander of the Oscarsborg fortress near Drøbak, mainly maintained for historical purposes, the fortresss resistance blocked the route to Oslo, thus delaying the rest of the group long enough for the royal family, government, parliament, and national treasury to be evacuated. The entire population situated around the Oslofjord including Oslo is about 1.96 million, more than 40% of Norway’s population resides under 45 minutes of driving from the Oslofjord. The Oslofjord has Norway’s busiest traffic of ferries and cargo boats, even though the Oslofjord contains hundreds of populated islands, most of the population of the fjord resides on the mainland. In the summer there are boats of all sizes on the fjord, and it is possible to go kayaking, canoeing, fishing, the Oslofjord is one of the nine venues of the Class 1 World Powerboat Championship
12.
Nes, Akershus
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Nes is a municipality in Akershus county, Norway. It is part of the region of Romerike. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Årnes, the municipality is named after the old Nes farm, since the first church was built here. The actual nes is the headland made by the two great rivers Glomma and Vorma, which have their meeting point just south of the farm, prior to 1889, the name was spelled Næs. The coat-of-arms is from modern times, the arms show three yellow logs on a green background. The position of the logs represents the meeting of the rivers Glomma and Vorma, the parish of Næs was established as a municipality of its own on 1 January 1838. Nes Church ruins are one of Norways best preserved church ruins, the old medieval stone church dated from ca 1100 and was extended into a cruciform church in 1697. After the fire the almost completely preserved walls were preserved as ruins, the new Nes church was completed in 1860. The municipality borders Eidsvoll, Ullensaker, Sørum, and Aurskog-Høland in Akershus county and Eidskog, Sør-Odal, Nes includes many natural attractions, such as parts of the river Glomma, as well as 168 lakes. Elk, beaver, wolf, and lynx can be found here, hunting and sportfishing are very prevalent. Eight hundred farms make the one of the largest producers of wheat in the country
13.
Gudbrandsdalen
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Gudbrandsdalen is a valley and traditional district in the Norwegian county of Oppland. The valley is oriented in a direction from Lillehammer and the lake of Mjøsa. The river of Gudbrandsdalslågen flows through the valley, starting from Lesjaskogsvatnet, the Otta river flowing through Otta valley is a major tributary to Lågen. The valleys of the rivers such as Otta and Gausa are usuall regarded as part of the Gudbrand Valley. The total area of the valley is calculated from the areas of the related municipalities, together with Glomma river and Østerdalen, Lågen and the Gudbrand Valley forms Norways largest drainage system covering major parts of East Norway. The Gudbrand Valley is home to Dovre Line and the E6 road, the valley is divided into three parts, Norddalen, Midtdalen, and Sørdalen. The valley has two courts, north and south. Until 2016 the valley was also a police district, the main character in Henrik Ibsens play Peer Gynt was inspired by a real or legendary person living in the valley in the 18th or 17th century. Ibsen travelled through the valley in 1862 and collected stories, legends. The name Gudbrandsdalen means the valley/dale of Gudbrand, Gudbrand is an old male name compounded of guð, god and brandr, sword. Dale-Gudbrand was the name of the first ruler of the valley, Gudbrand Valley includes the most arid area in Norway. At Skjåk the average precipitation is only 278 mm. Gudbrand Valley sits in the rain shadow of the mountains West, North. In July 1789 the Storofsen flood disaster occurred and Gudbrandsdalslågen overflooded and this is the largest flood recorded in Norway and the valley was particularly affected. About 3000 houses were damaged and some thousand livestock drowned. Lågen rose up to 7 meters above its level and covered most of the valley floor. A number of farmers abandoned their farms and settled in Målselv. The second largest flood occurred in the summer of 1995 and again the valley floor was covered by water. After Storofsen the valley upstream from Sel church changed into bogs and shallow lakes because stone
14.
Hydropower
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Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. A trompe, which compressed air from falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance. In the late 19th century, hydropower became a source for generating electricity, cragside in Northumberland was the first house powered by hydroelectricity in 1878 and the first commercial hydroelectric power plant was built at Niagara Falls in 1879. In 1881, street lamps in the city of Niagara Falls were powered by hydropower, since the early 20th century, the term has been used almost exclusively in conjunction with the modern development of hydroelectric power. In China and the rest of the Far East, hydraulically operated pot wheel pumps raised water into crop or irrigation canals, the power of a wave of water released from a tank was used for extraction of metal ores in a method known as hushing. The method was first used at the Dolaucothi Gold Mines in Wales from 75 AD onwards, hushing was also widely used in Britain in the Medieval and later periods to extract lead and tin ores. It later evolved into hydraulic mining when used during the California Gold Rush and these include an endless belt with jugs attached, a cow-powered shadoof, and a reciprocating device with hinged valves. In 1753, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique which described vertical-, the growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the source of power for new inventions such as Richard Arkwrights water frame. In the 1830s, at the peak in US canal-building, hydropower provided the energy to transport barge traffic up. Technological advances had moved the water wheel into an enclosed turbine or water motor. Francis, while working as engineer of Lowells Locks and Canals company. He applied scientific principles and testing methods to the problem of turbine design and his mathematical and graphical calculation methods allowed confident design of high efficiency turbines to exactly match a sites specific flow conditions. The Francis reaction turbine is still in use today. Hydraulic power networks used pipes to carrying pressurized water and transmit power from the source to end users. The power source was normally a head of water, which could also be assisted by a pump and these were extensive in Victorian cities in the United Kingdom. A hydraulic power network was developed in Geneva, Switzerland. The world-famous Jet dEau was originally designed as the relief valve for the network
15.
Tributary
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A tributary or affluent is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem river or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean, tributaries and the main stem river drain the surrounding drainage basin of its surface water and groundwater, leading the water out into an ocean. A confluence, where two or more bodies of water together, usually refers to the joining of tributaries. The opposite to a tributary is a distributary, a river or stream that branches off from, distributaries are most often found in river deltas. Right tributary and left tributary are terms stating the orientation of the relative to the flow of the main stem river. These terms are defined from the perspective of looking downstream, where tributaries have the same name as the river into which they feed, they are called forks. These are typically designated by compass direction, for example, the American River receives flow from its North, Middle, and South forks. The Chicago Rivers North Branch has the East, West, and Middle Fork, the South Branch has its South Fork, forks are sometimes designated as right or left. Here, the handedness is from the point of view of an observer facing upstream, for instance, Steer Creek has a left tributary which is called Right Fork Steer Creek. Tributaries are sometimes listed starting with those nearest to the source of the river, the Strahler Stream Order examines the arrangement of tributaries in a hierarchy of first, second, third, and higher orders, with the first-order tributary being typically the least in size. For example, a second-order tributary would be the result of two or more first-order tributaries combining to form the second-order tributary, another method is to list tributaries from mouth to source, in the form of a tree structure, stored as a tree data structure
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Bunad
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Bunad is a Norwegian umbrella term encompassing, in its broadest sense, a range of both traditional rural clothes as well as modern 20th-century folk costumes. In its narrow sense the word refers only to clothes designed in the early 20th century that are loosely based on traditional costumes. The word bunad in itself is a 20th-century invention, however, in Norway national romanticist ideas had a more lasting impact, as seen in the use of folk inspired costumes. The bunad movement has been carried forward by all over the country. Designers such as Lise Skjåk Bræk have developed entire lines of costumes based on the bunad tradition, in the field of folk costumes it is common to differentiate between bunad and folk costume, the latter being the local dress in previous times with all its variations and use. Modern interpretations of these costumes have often modified or done away with parts of the traditional dresses in order to align them with a more conventional idea of beauty. For example, few Norwegians still use the headdresses and headpieces that were a part of the costumes, preferring instead to show their hair. There is a debate about the extent to which bunads must conform to the standards. Some groups argue that bunads must be sewn and worn according to standards, others advocate a more creative. Bunads are nowadays often viewed as a symbol, ranging in the price of $2, 000−10,000, depending on the desired design, material, embroidery, gold, silver. The price also depends on whether the customer buys from a company like Husfliden. In recent years, Chinese companies have starting selling cheaper bunads made in China and it has caused concern that these China bunads may undermine the authenticity and the desirability of the bunads. In recent years, its use has reached far outside folk dancing, folk music, accepted as proper gala attire, it is increasingly common to see people, and especially women, dressed in bunad. The former Norwegian foreign minister, Thorvald Stoltenberg, made history by presenting his accreditation as ambassador to Margrethe II of Denmark dressed in a bunad. Moreover, people tend to wear bunads to festive celebrations such as anniversaries and birthdays, there is ongoing debate about the official status of various outfits, and what allowed variations are. Due to ongoing discussions on the status of bunads, it is not possible to state accurately the number of different types of bunads in Norway, but most estimates place the number at around 200. In 1947 an official institution, the National Committee for Bunad-related Questions was organized to act in a capacity on all questions dealing with bunads in Norway. That function is assigned to the Norwegian Institute for Costume and Folk Costume
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Fetsund
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Fetsund forms the center of the municipality Fet in the county of Akershus, Norway. The name comes from the geography, Fet means where water meets grass. As for the part, it simply means strait, inlet. Today, Fetsund and its surrounding areas is a town and is mainly a residential area with very little industry. The old log industry is gone, but its buildings and site is preserved as a national museum. Fetsunds close proximity to Lillestrøm and the capital, Oslo, have been contributing to the fact that the town has grown much larger in recent years. Its small-town qualities, low density, and closeness to the capital. Fetsunds history dates back to the ancient kings road going from the town of Oslo towards the neighbouring country Sweden. As Fetsund was the shortest distance by ferry or boat over the river Glomma, now there are two bridges in Fetsund spanning the Glomma, and it is still the only crossing within the area. Fetsund has a church with an altarpiece dating from the 17th century, fetsunds railway station was built in the 1860s, which is still standing today and is used by people working in Oslo and to a lesser extent Lillestrøm. Fetsund and its municipality is often referred as the green municipality, jan Stenerud, Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee, is a native. Fetsund Lensemuseum Øyeren information centre Fetsund municipality
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Silt
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Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or as sediment mixed in suspension with water in a body of such as a river. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water body, Silt has a moderate specific area with a typically non-sticky, plastic feel. Silt usually has a floury feel when dry, and a slippery feel when wet, Silt can be visually observed with a hand lens. Silt is created by a variety of physical processes capable of splitting the generally sand-sized quartz crystals of primary rocks by exploiting deficiencies in their lattice and these involve chemical weathering of rock and regolith, and a number of physical weathering processes such as frost shattering and haloclasty. The main process is abrasion through transport, including fluvial comminution, aeolian attrition and it is in semi-arid environments that substantial quantities of silt are produced. Silt is sometimes known as rock flour or stone dust, especially produced by glacial action. Mineralogically, silt is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar, sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt is known as siltstone. Liquefaction created by an earthquake is silt suspended in water that is hydrodynamically forced up from below ground level. In the Udden–Wentworth scale, silt particles range between 0.0039 and 0.0625 mm, larger than clay but smaller than sand particles, ISO14688 grades silts between 0.002 mm and 0.063 mm. In actuality, silt is chemically distinct from clay, and unlike clay, grains of silt are approximately the size in all dimensions, furthermore. Clays are formed from thin plate-shaped particles held together by electrostatic forces, according to the U. S. Department of Agriculture Soil Texture Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.05 mm particle size. The USDA system has been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization, in the Unified Soil Classification System and the AASHTO Soil Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.075 mm particle size. Silts and clays are distinguished mechanically by their plasticity, Silt is easily transported in water or other liquid and is fine enough to be carried long distances by air in the form of dust. Thick deposits of silty material resulting from deposition by aeolian processes are called loess. Silt and clay contribute to turbidity in water, Silt is transported by streams or by water currents in the ocean. When silt appears as a pollutant in water the phenomenon is known as siltation, Silt, deposited by annual floods along the Nile River, created the rich, fertile soil that sustained the Ancient Egyptian civilization. In south east Bangladesh, in the Noakhali district, cross dams were built in the 1960s whereby silt gradually started forming new land called chars, the district of Noakhali has gained more than 28 square miles of land in the past 50 years
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Akershus
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Akershus is a county in Norway, bordering Hedmark, Oppland, Buskerud, Oslo, and Østfold, it also has a short border with Sweden. Akershus, with more than half a million inhabitants, is the second-largest county by population after Oslo, the county is named after Akershus Fortress. The county administration is in Oslo, which is not part of the county per se and this resulted after the transfer of the great municipality of Aker from Akershus County to Oslo in 1948. Embracing numerous suburbs of Oslo, notably Bærum, Akershus is one of the most densely populated areas in the country, the main national railway lines into Oslo run through Akershus with many junctions and stations such as Asker, Sandvika, Ski, and Lillestrøm. Akershus includes some of the lake Mjøsa and some of the river Glomma, the county also includes the historical place Eidsvoll,48 km north of Oslo, in which the national assembly ratified the Norwegian constitution in 1814. South of Eidsvoll is the airport of Oslo Airport at Gardermoen. Oslos previous international airport, Fornebu, is located in Akershus. The estate of the prince is located in Asker. The county has two hospitals, Akershus University Hospital and Sykehuset Asker og Bærum. The main road from continental Europe, E6, enters Akershus in the south, and runs through eastern Oslo, further to Gardermoen, E18 enters Akershus in the south-east, merges for a short stretch with E6 at Vinterbro in Ås, before running under central Oslo. E18 then turns south-west through Bærum and Asker before entering Buskerud County north of Drammen, e16 runs from the intersection with E18 in Sandvika into Buskerud County west of Sollihøgda. In 1662, Akershus became an Amt, and in 1685, Buskerud was separated from Akershus, in 1768, Hedmark and Oppland were also separated from Akershus to become Oplandenes Amt. In 1842, the city of Christiania was made a separate Amt, in 1919, the term Amt was changed to Fylke. In 1948, Aker, the greatest and the most populous municipality of Akershus, was transferred to the county of Oslo, the county is named after Akershus Fortress. The fortress was built in 1299, and the meaning of the name is the house of Aker, the name is somewhat misleading now, since the fortress is now outside Akershus. In fact, the administration of Akershus sits outside the county, as well, the coat-of-arms is from modern times. It shows a gable from Akershus Fortress, Akershus has a total of 22 municipalities, Akershus county website Media related to Akershus at Wikimedia Commons Akershus travel guide from Wikivoyage
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Media related to Glomma at Wikimedia Commons
