1.
Ricotta
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Ricotta is an Italian whey cheese made from sheep, cow, goat, or Italian water buffalo milk whey left over from the production of cheese. Like other whey cheeses, it is made by coagulating the proteins that remain after the casein has been used to make cheese, Ricotta protein can be harvested if the whey is first allowed to become more acidic by additional fermentation. Then the acidified whey is heated to near boiling, the combination of low pH and high temperature denatures the protein and causes it to precipitate, forming a fine curd. Once cooled, it is separated by passing the liquid through a fine cloth, Ricotta curds are creamy white in appearance, and slightly sweet in taste. The fat content changes depending on the brand and the type of milk used, in this form, it is somewhat similar in texture to some cottage cheese variants, though considerably lighter. However, ricotta also is made in aged varieties which are preservable for much longer, the production of ricotta in the Italian peninsula is old, dating back to the Bronze Age. In the second millennium BC, ceramic vessels called milk boilers started to appear frequently and were unique to the peninsula. These were designed to boil milk at temperatures and prevent the milk from boiling over. The fresh acid-coagulated cheeses produced with these boilers were made with whole milk. However, the production of rennet-coagulated cheese overtook the production of fresh whole-milk cheeses during the first millennium BC, Bronze cheese graters found in the graves of the Etruscan elite prove that hard-grating cheeses were popular with the aristocracy. Cheese graters were also used in ancient Roman kitchens. Unlike the fresh acid-coagulated cheese, aged rennet-coagulated cheese could be preserved for much longer, the increased production of rennet-coagulated cheese led to a large supply of sweet whey as a byproduct. Cheesemakers then started using a new recipe which used a mixture of whey, the ancient Romans made ricotta, but writers on agriculture such as Cato the Elder, Marcus Terentius Varro, and Columella do not mention it. They described the production of rennet-coagulated cheese, but did not write about milk boilers or acid-coagulated cheese, a likely reason is that ricotta was not profitable, because its very short shelf life did not allow distribution to urban markets. Ricotta was most likely consumed by the shepherds who made it, even so, evidence from paintings and literature indicates that ricotta was known and likely eaten by Roman aristocrats, as well. Ceramic milk boilers were used by Apennine shepherds to make ricotta in the 19th century AD. Today, metal milk boilers are used, but production methods have changed little since ancient times and this means ricotta production is a low-yield process, considering the amount of whey required to produce it. The whey is heated, sometimes with additional acid such as vinegar or lemon juice to catalyze the coagulation through heat of albumin and globulin in the whey
2.
Dumpling
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Dumpling is a broad classification for a dish that consists of small pieces of dough, often wrapped around a filling. The dough can be based on bread, flour, or potatoes and they may be cooked by boiling, frying, simmering, or steaming. Dumplings can be savoury or sweet and can be eaten by themselves, with gravy or sauce, banku and kenkey fit the definition of a dumpling in that they are starchy balls of dough that are steamed. They are formed from fermented cornmeal dough, banku are boiled while kenkey are partly boiled then finished by steaming in banana leaves. Fufu may be described as a dumpling although in actual sense, fufu is made by pounding boiled cassava or yam in a wooden mortar with a wooden pestle. Plantain or cocoyam may be added, there are several other versions of fufu in Africa and the Caribbean. There have been versions of fufu which will fit better into the definition of dumplings. These are mostly common outside Africa where they originate and it is made by steaming cassava and plantain/cocoyam flour into thick starchy balls. Tihlo—prepared from roasted barley flour—originated in the Tigray region of Ethiopia and is now popular in Amhara as well. Souskluitjies are dumplings found in South Africa and they are a steamed sweet dumpling, sometimes made with plain flour and sometimes with the addition of dried fruits or other flavors. They are often served with a syrup flavored with cinnamon or a custard sauce, South Africa has another kind of dumpling known as melkkos. These dumplings are formed by putting milk, one teaspoon at a time, the flour clings to the milk and forms dumplings, which are then boiled in a mixture of milk and butter. They are served hot and sprinkled with cinnamon sugar, several types of dumplings are popular in the United States. Dumplings can be made with eggs, milk, baking powder or even yeast, or just from flour, rolled dumplings are rolled thin and cut into small pieces for cooking, while dropped dumplings are formed into small balls. Chicken and dumplings is a comfort food in the Midwestern and Southern U. S. where dumplings are often used as part of the regionally popular Burgoo stew. The baked dumpling is popular in American cuisine and these sweet dumplings are made by wrapping fruit, frequently a whole tart apple, in pastry, then baking until the pastry is browned and the filling is tender. As an alternative to simply baking them, these dumplings are surrounded by a sauce in the baking dish. Popular flavours for apple dumplings include brown sugar, caramel, or cinnamon sauces, boiled dumplings are made from flour to form a dough
3.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
4.
Potato
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The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. The word potato may refer either to the plant itself or to the edible tuber, in the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the half of the 16th century by the Spanish. It is the worlds fourth-largest food crop, following maize, wheat, the green leaves and green skins of tubers exposed to the light are toxic. Wild potato species can be throughout the Americas from the United States to southern Chile. Following centuries of breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. However, the importance of the potato is variable and changing rapidly. As of 2007 China led the world in production, and nearly a third of the worlds potatoes were harvested in China. The English word potato comes from Spanish patata, the Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taíno batata and the Quechua papa. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard used the terms bastard potatoes and Virginia potatoes for this species, potatoes are occasionally referred to as Irish potatoes or white potatoes in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil prior to the planting of potatoes, the word spud traces back to the 16th century. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools, around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself. It was Mario Peis 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the false origin. Pei writes, the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago, some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the words in this title gave rise to spud. Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens, in general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties
5.
Semolina
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Semolina is the coarse, purified wheat middlings of durum wheat mainly used in making pasta and couscous. The word semolina can also refer to sweet dessert made from semolina, the term semolina is also used to designate coarse middlings from other varieties of wheat, and from other grains, such as rice and maize. Semolina is derived from the Italian word semola, meaning bran and this is derived from the ancient Latin simila, meaning flour, itself a borrowing from Greek σεμίδαλις, groats. Modern milling of wheat flour is a process that employs grooved steel rollers. The rollers are adjusted so that the space between them is slightly narrower than the width of the wheat kernels, as the wheat is fed into the mill, the rollers flake off the bran and germ while the starch is cracked into coarse pieces in the process. Through sifting, these particles, the semolina, are separated from the bran. The semolina is then ground into flour, different grades of flour can thus be produced. Semolina made from wheat is yellow in color. Semolina is often used as the base for dried products such as couscous, in this case, the correct name is flour, not semolina. In the United States, coarser meal coming from softer types of wheats is known also as farina and it is lower grade and does not hold shape as well as durum. Boiled semolina turns into a porridge, known in areas as Cream of Wheat. In Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Slovenia, Romania and Croatia, semolina is known as Grieß and is mixed with egg to make Grießknödel, the particles are fairly coarse, between 0.25 and 0.75 millimeters in diameter. In South India, semolina is used to make savory foods, like Rava dosa and it is sometimes also used to coat slices of fish before it is pan-fried in oil, to give it a crispy coating. In much of North Africa, durum semolina is made into the staple couscous and it is also used to make harsha, a kind of griddle cake often eaten for breakfast, commonly with jam or honey. Semolina is a food in West Africa, especially among Nigerians. It is eaten as lunch or dinner with stew or soup. It is prepared just like eba or fufu with water and boiled for 5 to 10 minutes, the German Grießbrei and the Dutch griesmeelpap usually dont contain chocolate and are rather served as a dessert than a breakfast dish. In English this kind of dessert is known as semolina pudding
6.
Wheat flour
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Wheat flour is a powder made from the grinding of wheat used for human consumption. More wheat flour is produced than any other flour, wheat varieties are called soft or weak if gluten content is low, and are called hard or strong if they have high gluten content. Hard flour, or bread flour, is high in gluten, with 12% to 14% gluten content, soft flour is comparatively low in gluten and thus results in a loaf with a finer, crumbly texture. Soft flour is usually divided into cake flour, which is the lowest in gluten, and pastry flour, which has slightly more gluten than cake flour. In terms of the parts of the used in flour—the endosperm or protein/starchy part, the germ or protein/fat/vitamin-rich part. White flour is made from the endosperm only, brown flour includes some of the grains germ and bran, while whole grain or wholemeal flour is made from the entire grain, including the bran, endosperm, and germ. Germ flour is made from the endosperm and germ, excluding the bran, wheat flour is available in many varieties, the categorization is regional, and the same name may have several different regional meanings. Whole wheat flour in Canada may have up to 5% or the grain removed, whole grain flour contains the whole grain, including bran, germ, and endosperm, but not the chaff Sharp flour is produced in Fiji and primarily used in Indian cuisine. Indian flours are categorized by how much of the grain is stripped away. It is also used in Vietnamese cuisine, where it is called bột lọc trong, American flours are categorized by gluten/protein content, processing, and use. All-purpose or plain flour is a blended wheat with a content lower than bread flour. Depending on brand or the region where it is purchased, it may be composed of all hard or soft wheats and it is marketed as an inexpensive alternative to bakers flour which is acceptable for most household baking needs. Bread flour or strong flour is made from hard wheat. It has a high protein content, between 10% and 13%, making it excellent for yeast bread baking. It can be white or whole wheat or in between, Cake flour is a finely milled white flour made from soft wheat. It has very low protein content, between 8% and 10%, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies, the higher protein content of other flours would make the cakes tough. Highly sifted cake flours may require different volume amounts in recipes than all-purpose flour, using the scoop and level method, well-sifted flour usually produces 125 g per cup. However, most American recipes are written with 140 g of flour per cup, so weighing, small weight differences can greatly affect the texture
7.
Breadcrumbs
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The Japanese variety of bread crumbs is called panko. Dry breadcrumbs are made from dry breads which have been baked or toasted to remove most remaining moisture, and may have a sandy or even powdery texture. Bread crumbs are most easily produced by pulverizing slices of bread in a processor, using a steel blade to make coarse crumbs. A grater or similar tool will also do, the breads used to make soft or fresh bread crumbs are not quite as dry, so the crumbs are larger and produce a softer coating, crust, or stuffing. The crumb of bread crumb is also a term refers to the texture of the soft, inner part of a bread loaf, as distinguished from the crust. Panko is a variety of bread crumb used in Japanese cuisine as a crunchy coating for fried foods. Panko is made from bread baked by electrical current, which yields a bread without a crust and it has a crisper, airier texture than most types of breading found in Western cuisine and resists absorbing oil or grease when fried, resulting in a lighter coating. Panko is produced worldwide, particularly in Asian countries, including Japan, Korea, Thailand, China, and Vietnam. The Japanese first learned to make bread from the Europeans, and panko is derived from pan from the Portuguese and -ko, breading is a dry grain-derived food coating for a piece of food made from bread crumbs or a breading mixture with seasonings. Breading can also refer to the process of applying a coating to a food. Breading is well suited for frying as it lends itself to creating a coating around the food. Breading mixtures can be made of breadcrumb, flour, cornmeal, if the item to be breaded is too dry for the coating to stick, the item may first be moistened with buttermilk, raw egg, egg wash or other liquid. Breading contrasts with batter, which is a liquid coating for food that produces a smoother and finer texture
8.
Egg (food)
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Eggs are laid by female animals of many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, and fish, and have been eaten by humans for thousands of years. Bird and reptile eggs consist of an eggshell, albumen. The most popular choice for egg consumption are chicken eggs, other popular choices for egg consumption are duck, quail, roe, and caviar. Egg yolks and whole eggs store significant amounts of protein and choline, due to their protein content, the United States Department of Agriculture categorizes eggs as Meats within the Food Guide Pyramid. Despite the nutritional value of eggs, there are potential health issues arising from egg quality, storage. Chickens and other egg-laying creatures are widely kept throughout the world, in 2009, an estimated 62.1 million metric tons of eggs were produced worldwide from a total laying flock of approximately 6.4 billion hens. There are issues of variation in demand and expectation, as well as current debates concerning methods of mass production. In 2012, the European Union banned battery husbandry of chickens, bird eggs have been valuable foodstuffs since prehistory, in both hunting societies and more recent cultures where birds were domesticated. The chicken was probably domesticated for its eggs before 7500 BCE, chickens were brought to Sumer and Egypt by 1500 BCE, and arrived in Greece around 800 BCE, where the quail had been the primary source of eggs. In Thebes, Egypt, the tomb of Haremhab, built about 1420 BCE, shows a depiction of a man carrying bowls of ostrich eggs and other large eggs, presumably those of the pelican, as offerings. In ancient Rome, eggs were preserved using a number of methods, the Romans crushed the shells in their plates to prevent evil spirits from hiding there. In the Middle Ages, eggs were forbidden during Lent because of their richness, the word mayonnaise possibly was derived from moyeu, the medieval French word for the yolk, meaning center or hub. Egg scrambled with acidic fruit juices were popular in France in the 17th century, the dried egg industry developed in the 19th century, before the rise of the frozen egg industry. In 1878, a company in St. Louis, Missouri started to transform egg yolk and white into a light-brown, the production of dried eggs significantly expanded during World War II, for use by the United States Armed Forces and its allies. In 1911, the egg carton was invented by Joseph Coyle in Smithers, British Columbia, early egg cartons were made of paper. Bird eggs are a food and one of the most versatile ingredients used in cooking. They are important in many branches of the food industry. The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken, duck and goose eggs, and smaller eggs, such as quail eggs, are occasionally used as a gourmet ingredient in western countries
9.
Cheese
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Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
10.
Cavatelli
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Cavatelli are small pasta shells from eggless semolina dough that look like miniature hot dog buns. Ricotta cavatelli adds ricotta cheese to the dough mix and it is commonly cooked with garlic and broccoli or broccoli rabe. Many varieties and local names of Cavatelli exist, including orecchie di prete, in Apulia a number of varieties of Cavatelli have specific names including pizzicarieddi. In parts of Campania, they can be called parmarieddo
11.
Dough
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Dough is a thick, malleable, sometimes elastic, paste made out of any grains, leguminous or chestnut crops. Doughs are made from a variety of flours, commonly wheat but also flours made from maize, rice, rye, legumes, almonds. Doughs vary widely depending on ingredients, the kind of product being produced, the type of leavening agent, how the dough is mixed, there is no formal definition of what makes dough, though most doughs have viscoelastic properties. Leavened or fermented doughs are used all over the world to various breads. Salt, oils or fats, sugars or honey and sometimes milk or eggs are common ingredients in bread dough. Commercial bread doughs may also include dough conditioners, a class of ingredients that aid in dough consistency and final product. Flatbreads such as pita, lafa, lavash, matzah or matzo, naan, roti, sangak, tortilla, some flatbreads, such as naan, use leavening agents, others, such as matzo, do not. Crackers are also made from dough, and some are leavened, pasta and noodles are generally based on unleavened doughs that are worked until they are dry and smooth, and then shaped into their final form. The finished pasta may be cooked immediately or dried before cooking, doughs with higher fat content have a lesser water content, develop less gluten and are therefore generally less elastic than bread doughs, these doughs are often called short by bakers. This category includes many cookie and pie crust doughs, such as shortcrust pastry, in many parts of central India, people use the quick method of making an instant roasted dough ball or baati. In countries in the Sahel region of Africa, dough balls called aiysh or biya are made from sorghum or millet, and are ground and boiled. Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast, and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more, Techniques used in dough production depend on the type of dough and final product. For yeast-based and sponge breads, a production technique is the dough is mixed, kneaded. Many bread doughs call for a stage, where the dough is kneaded again, shaped into the final form. Kneading is the process of working a dough to produce a smooth, pasta is typically made from a dry dough that is kneaded and shaped, either through extrusion, rolling out in a pasta machine, or stretched or shaped by hand. Pasta may be cooked directly after production or dried, which renders it shelf-stable, doughs for biscuits and many flatbreads which are not leavened with yeast are typically mixed but not kneaded or left to rise, these doughs are shaped and cooked directly after mixing. While breads and other products made from doughs are often baked, some types of dough-based foods are cooked over direct heat, such as tortillas, fried dough foods are also common in many cultures. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network, the word dough is a common slang term for money in English-speaking countries, this usage is originally American, and dates to the mid-19th century
12.
Dumplings
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Dumpling is a broad classification for a dish that consists of small pieces of dough, often wrapped around a filling. The dough can be based on bread, flour, or potatoes and they may be cooked by boiling, frying, simmering, or steaming. Dumplings can be savoury or sweet and can be eaten by themselves, with gravy or sauce, banku and kenkey fit the definition of a dumpling in that they are starchy balls of dough that are steamed. They are formed from fermented cornmeal dough, banku are boiled while kenkey are partly boiled then finished by steaming in banana leaves. Fufu may be described as a dumpling although in actual sense, fufu is made by pounding boiled cassava or yam in a wooden mortar with a wooden pestle. Plantain or cocoyam may be added, there are several other versions of fufu in Africa and the Caribbean. There have been versions of fufu which will fit better into the definition of dumplings. These are mostly common outside Africa where they originate and it is made by steaming cassava and plantain/cocoyam flour into thick starchy balls. Tihlo—prepared from roasted barley flour—originated in the Tigray region of Ethiopia and is now popular in Amhara as well. Souskluitjies are dumplings found in South Africa and they are a steamed sweet dumpling, sometimes made with plain flour and sometimes with the addition of dried fruits or other flavors. They are often served with a syrup flavored with cinnamon or a custard sauce, South Africa has another kind of dumpling known as melkkos. These dumplings are formed by putting milk, one teaspoon at a time, the flour clings to the milk and forms dumplings, which are then boiled in a mixture of milk and butter. They are served hot and sprinkled with cinnamon sugar, several types of dumplings are popular in the United States. Dumplings can be made with eggs, milk, baking powder or even yeast, or just from flour, rolled dumplings are rolled thin and cut into small pieces for cooking, while dropped dumplings are formed into small balls. Chicken and dumplings is a comfort food in the Midwestern and Southern U. S. where dumplings are often used as part of the regionally popular Burgoo stew. The baked dumpling is popular in American cuisine and these sweet dumplings are made by wrapping fruit, frequently a whole tart apple, in pastry, then baking until the pastry is browned and the filling is tender. As an alternative to simply baking them, these dumplings are surrounded by a sauce in the baking dish. Popular flavours for apple dumplings include brown sugar, caramel, or cinnamon sauces, boiled dumplings are made from flour to form a dough
13.
Cornmeal
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Cornmeal is a meal ground from dried maize. It is a staple food, and is ground to fine, medium, and coarse consistencies. In the United States, very finely ground cornmeal is also referred to as corn flour. When fine cornmeal is made from maize that has been soaked in a solution, e. g. limewater, it is called masa. There are various types of cornmeal, Blue cornmeal is light blue or violet in color and it is ground from whole blue corn and has a sweet flavor. The cornmeal consists of dried corn kernels that have ground into a fine or medium texture. Steel-ground yellow cornmeal, which is mostly in the United States, has the husk. It is conserved for about a year if stored in a container in a cool. Stone-ground cornmeal retains some of the hull and germ, lending a little more flavor and it is more perishable, but will store longer if refrigerated. However, it too can have a life of many months if kept in a reasonably cool place. White cornmeal, made from corn, is more common in parts of Africa. It is also popular in the Southern United States for making cornbread, cou-cou - part of the national dish of Barbados, cou-cou and flying fish. Funchi also known as fungi/fungee - a cornmeal mush cooked and cooled into a stiff pudding and it is consumed on the island of Curaçao and is part of the national dish of Antigua and Barbuda. Tie Bing - This product can either be fluffy like a mantou or more flatbread-like and it is traditionally stuck around the outer rim of a large wok while meat or fish is being cooked. Generally, an agent such as baking soda is added to increase the nutrient value. It is also found in northern China, corn congee - A porridge made from plain cornmeal. It is normally thinner than grits or polenta and is eaten with Chinese pickles. Wo tou - Shaped like a cone, this cornbread looks like a birds nest
14.
Pasta
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Pasta is a staple food of traditional Italian cuisine, with the first reference dating to 1154 in Sicily. It can also be made with flour from other cereals or grains, pastas may be divided into two broad categories, dried and fresh. Most dried pasta is produced via an extrusion process although it can be produced in most homes. Both dried and fresh pasta come in a number of shapes and varieties, in Italy the names of specific pasta shapes or types often vary with locale. For example, the form cavatelli is known by 28 different names depending on region, common forms of pasta include long shapes, short shapes, tubes, flat shapes and sheets, miniature soup shapes, filled or stuffed and specialty or decorative shapes. As a category in Italian cuisine, both fresh and dried pastas are classically used in one of three kinds of prepared dishes, as pasta asciutta cooked pasta is plated and served with a complementary sauce or condiment. A second classification of pasta dishes is pasta in brodo in which the pasta is part of a soup-type dish, a third category is pasta al forno in which the pasta incorporated into a dish that is subsequently baked. Pasta is generally a dish, but comes in many varieties due to its versatility. Some pasta dishes are served as a first course in Italy because the portion sizes are small, Pasta is also prepared in light lunches, such as salads or large portion sizes for dinner. It can be prepared by hand or food processor and served hot or cold, Pasta sauces vary in taste, color and texture. When choosing which type of pasta and sauce to serve together, simple sauces like pesto are ideal for long and thin strands of pasta while tomato sauce combines well with thicker pastas. Thicker and chunkier sauces have the ability to cling onto the holes and cuts of short, tubular. The extra sauce left on the plate after all of the pasta is eaten is often mopped up with a piece of bread. First attested in English in 1874, the word comes from Italian pasta, in turn from Latin pasta dough, pastry cake. In the 1st century AD writings of Horace, lagana were fine sheets of fried dough and were an everyday foodstuff, an early 5th century cookbook describes a dish called lagana that consisted of layers of dough with meat stuffing, a possible ancestor of modern-day lasagna. The first concrete information concerning pasta products in Italy dates from the 13th or 14th century, historians have noted several lexical milestones relevant to pasta, none of which changes these basic characteristics. For example, the works of the 2nd century AD Greek physician Galen mention itrion, homogeneous compounds made of flour, the Jerusalem Talmud records that itrium, a kind of boiled dough, was common in Palestine from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD. A dictionary compiled by the 9th century Arab physician and lexicographer Isho bar Ali defines itriyya and its ever-flowing streams propel a number of mills
15.
Italian meal structure
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Italian meal structure is similar to most other European ones, consisting of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Late-morning and mid-afternoon snacks, called merenda, are often included in this meal structure. Italians also commonly divide a celebratory meal into several different courses, Italian breakfast consists of caffè latte or coffee with bread or rolls, butter and jam. A cookie-like rusk hard bread, called fette biscottate, and cookies are commonly eaten, children drink hot chocolate, plain milk, or hot milk with very little coffee. If breakfast is eaten in a bar, it is composed of cappuccino and cornetto or espresso, other products, such as breakfast cereals, fruit salad, muesli and yogurt, are becoming increasingly common as part of the meal. However, Italian breakfasts vary by region and by season, in some regions, such as Tuscany and Umbria, in the past, people used to drink red wine into which they would dip their biscuits. It is also common for Italians to have a quick breakfast snack during the middle of the morning. Lunch is usually regarded as the most important meal, most shops close for the pausa pranzo between 13,00 and 16,00. In most schools, children are given a break when they can go home for lunch, or eat at the school cafeteria. Many adults still make their own food and takeaways are still not very frequent, a typical Italian lunch consists of a first course il primo, a second-course il secondo served together with a side dish il contorno and fruit. Commuters and other workers tend to eat less often at home, many foreign fast-food chains operate in Italy, especially in big cities and along motorways. Italian fast-food chains are also prevalent, often featuring versions of dishes, including Autogrill. Many children and adults have a snack called merenda, generally consumed after school or in mid-afternoon. This may include a variety of foods. Dinner is usually a meal in Italy. For cena, people tend to have food, such as soup, broth, salad, cold meats. A structure of an Italian meal in its form, usually performed during festivities. Aperitivo The aperitivo opens a meal, and it is similar to an appetizer, most people gather around standing up and have alcoholic/non-alcoholic drinks such as wine, prosecco, spritz, vermouth, gingerino
16.
Italian cuisine
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Italian cuisine is the culinary typical or originating from Italy. It has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots stretching to antiquity, Italian cuisine is characterized by its simplicity, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the rather than on elaborate preparation. Ingredients and dishes vary by region, many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine, with many variations. Coffee, specifically espresso, has become important in Italian cuisine, Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries. Although the country known as Italy did not unite until the 19th century, Italian food started to form after the fall of the Roman Empire, when different cities began to separate and form their own traditions. Many different types of bread and pasta were made, and there was a variation in cooking techniques and preparation. For example, the north of Italy is known for its risottos, the central/middle of the country is known for its tortellini, the first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus from Syracuse in the 4th century BCE. He wrote a poem that spoke of using top quality and seasonal ingredients and he said that flavors should not be masked by spices, herbs or other seasonings. He placed importance on simple preparation of fish, simplicity was abandoned and replaced by a culture of gastronomy as the Roman Empire developed. By the time De re coquinaria was published in the 1st century CE, it contained 470 recipes calling for heavy use of spices, the Romans employed Greek bakers to produce breads and imported cheeses from Sicily as the Sicilians had a reputation as the best cheesemakers. The Romans reared goats for butchering, and grew artichokes and leeks, with culinary traditions from Rome and Athens, a cuisine developed in Sicily that some consider the first real Italian cuisine. Arabs invaded Sicily in the 9th century, introducing spinach, almonds, Normans also introduced casseroles, salt cod and stockfish, which remain popular. Food preservation was either chemical or physical, as refrigeration did not exist, meats and fish would be smoked, dried or kept on ice. Brine and salt were used to pickle items such as herring, root vegetables were preserved in brine after they had been parboiled. Other means of preservation included oil, vinegar or immersing meat in congealed, rendered fat, for preserving fruits, liquor, honey and sugar were used. The northern Italian regions show a mix of Germanic and Roman culture while the south reflects Arab influence, the oldest Italian book on cuisine is the 13th century Liber de coquina written in Naples
17.
Lombard cuisine
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The regional cuisine of Lombardy is heavily based upon ingredients like maize, rice, beef, pork, butter, and lard. In many aspects, Lombard cuisine has much in common with that of Austria, similarly to Italian cuisine, Lombard cuisine has much variety and every city and part of the region offers its own specialities. A characteristic Lombard dish is risotto, most famously risotto alla milanese, similarly to risotto, maize-based dishes such as polenta are also common parts of the regional cuisine. Famous Lombard dishes include cotoletta, cassoeula and ossobuco, the region also offers several delicacies and desserts, amongst which noted ones such as mostarda and panettone. Regional cheeses include Robiola, Crescenza, Taleggio, Gorgonzola and Grana Padano, the various Lombard provinces have their own specialties. The capital of Lombardy is also home to many culinary specialties, one of the best known is risotto alla milanese, flavoured with saffron and typically served with many typical Milanese main courses, such as ossobuco alla milanese and cotoletta alla milanese. Other Milanese specialities include cassoeula and the famous panettone Christmas cake, the cuisine in Como is heavily influenced by its lake. Typical are dishes of fish, like the missultin, agoni salted and sun-dried, there is even a special polenta, called toch, made with equal parts of corn flour, butter and cheese, a very difficult and rich dish. Some villages and valleys around the lake, such as Oliveto Lario, are one of the few parts of northern Italy where olive trees were historically grown, in Canzo, Nocciolini, made with hazelnut flour, and the liqueur Vespetrò are typical. Cremonas Mostarda is known thruought Italy and so is the Torrone which is a dessert from this province. Mantuan cuisine is noted for dishes of medieval origin and for sweet, tortelli di zucca accompanied by melted butter and followed by turkey stuffed with chicken or other stewed meats are one of the best known dishes from this area. Pavia province is divided in an area, the Oltrepo Pavese, which is one of the main winemaking areas of Lombardy, and a plains area to the north, Lomellina. Not surprisingly, local specialties are rice dishes, such as Risotto alla Certosina and Ris e Ran from Pavia and Risotto coi Peperoni, traditional wines from Oltrepo Pavese are Bonarda, Barbera and Pinot Noir. Many of the wines have curious names, like Buttafuoco, Sangue di Giuda. White wines are made from the varieties of Malvasia, Moscato. Oltrepo is becoming known for its sparkling wines, in particular Spumante. Voghera produces Agnolotti containing a filling which are known as Agnolotti di stufato di Voghera and are typically served asciutti. Zuppa alla Pavese was supposedly invented on the spot to feed the captive king Francis I of France after his defeat at the Battle of Pavia on February 24,1525
18.
Tuscan cuisine
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Italian cuisine is the culinary typical or originating from Italy. It has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots stretching to antiquity, Italian cuisine is characterized by its simplicity, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the rather than on elaborate preparation. Ingredients and dishes vary by region, many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine, with many variations. Coffee, specifically espresso, has become important in Italian cuisine, Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries. Although the country known as Italy did not unite until the 19th century, Italian food started to form after the fall of the Roman Empire, when different cities began to separate and form their own traditions. Many different types of bread and pasta were made, and there was a variation in cooking techniques and preparation. For example, the north of Italy is known for its risottos, the central/middle of the country is known for its tortellini, the first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus from Syracuse in the 4th century BCE. He wrote a poem that spoke of using top quality and seasonal ingredients and he said that flavors should not be masked by spices, herbs or other seasonings. He placed importance on simple preparation of fish, simplicity was abandoned and replaced by a culture of gastronomy as the Roman Empire developed. By the time De re coquinaria was published in the 1st century CE, it contained 470 recipes calling for heavy use of spices, the Romans employed Greek bakers to produce breads and imported cheeses from Sicily as the Sicilians had a reputation as the best cheesemakers. The Romans reared goats for butchering, and grew artichokes and leeks, with culinary traditions from Rome and Athens, a cuisine developed in Sicily that some consider the first real Italian cuisine. Arabs invaded Sicily in the 9th century, introducing spinach, almonds, Normans also introduced casseroles, salt cod and stockfish, which remain popular. Food preservation was either chemical or physical, as refrigeration did not exist, meats and fish would be smoked, dried or kept on ice. Brine and salt were used to pickle items such as herring, root vegetables were preserved in brine after they had been parboiled. Other means of preservation included oil, vinegar or immersing meat in congealed, rendered fat, for preserving fruits, liquor, honey and sugar were used. The northern Italian regions show a mix of Germanic and Roman culture while the south reflects Arab influence, the oldest Italian book on cuisine is the 13th century Liber de coquina written in Naples
19.
Flour
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Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
20.
Spinach
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Spinach is an edible flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae native to central and western Asia. Its leaves are eaten as a vegetable and it is an annual plant growing to 30 cm tall. Spinach may survive over winter in temperate regions, the flowers are inconspicuous, yellow-green, 3–4 mm in diameter, maturing into a small, hard, dry, lumpy fruit cluster 5–10 mm across containing several seeds. Common spinach, S. oleracea, was considered to be in the family Chenopodiaceae, but in 2003. Within the family Amaranthaceae sensu lato, Spinach belongs to subfamily Chenopodioideae, the English word spinach dates to the late 14th century, and is from espinache, of uncertain origin. The traditional view derives it from O. Prov, Spinach is thought to have originated in ancient Persia. It is not known by whom, or when, spinach was introduced to India, but the plant was introduced to ancient China. The earliest available record of the plant was recorded in Chinese. In AD827, the Saracens introduced spinach to Sicily, Spinach became a popular vegetable in the Arab Mediterranean and arrived in Spain by the latter part of the 12th century, where it was called raʼīs al-buqūl, the chieftain of leafy greens. Spinach was also the subject of a treatise in the 11th century by Ibn Ḥajjāj. The prickly-seeded form of spinach was known in Germany by no later than the 13th century, Spinach is mentioned in the first known English cookbook, the Forme of Cury, where it is referred to as spinnedge and/or spynoches. Smooth-seeded spinach was described in 1552, Spinach was supposedly the favourite vegetable of Catherine de Medici. Dishes served on a bed of spinach are known as Florentine, during World War I, wine fortified with spinach juice was given to French soldiers weakened by hemorrhage. In a 100 g serving providing only 23 calories, spinach has a high value, especially when fresh, frozen, steamed. It is a source of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K, magnesium, manganese, iron. Spinach is a source of the B vitamins riboflavin and vitamin B6, vitamin E, calcium, potassium. Spinach, along with green, leafy vegetables, contains an appreciable amount of iron attaining 21% of the Daily Value in a 100 g amount of raw spinach. For example, the United States Department of Agriculture states that a 100 g serving of cooked spinach contains 3.57 mg of iron, in addition to preventing absorption and use, high levels of oxalates remove iron from the body
21.
Gnudi
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Gnudi are gnocchi-like dumplings made with ricotta cheese instead of potato, with semolina. The result is often a lighter, pillowy dish, unlike the often denser, chewier gnocchi. Gnudi is an English-adopted Tuscan word for the Italian term nudi, in Italy, outside of tuscany, they are also sometmes called strangolapreti or simply as gnocchi di ricotta e spinaci. Gnudi became a dish after a special version was served at The Spotted Pig restaurant in New York City
22.
Campania
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Campania is a region in Southern Italy. Located on the Italian Peninsula, with the Mediterranean Sea to the west, it includes the small Phlegraean Islands, Campania was colonised by Ancient Greeks and was part of Magna Græcia. During the Roman era, the area maintained a Greco-Roman culture, the capital city of Campania is Naples. Campania is rich in culture, especially in regard to gastronomy, music, architecture, archeological and ancient sites such as Pompeii, Herculaneum, Paestum and Velia. The name of Campania itself is derived from Latin, as the Romans knew the region as Campania felix, the rich natural sights of Campania make it highly important in the tourism industry, especially along the Amalfi Coast, Mount Vesuvius and the island of Capri. During the 8th century BC, people from Euboea in Greece, known as Cumaeans, another Oscan tribe, the Samnites, moved down from central Italy into Campania. The Roman consul Quintus Publilius Filo recaptured Neapolis by 326 BC, the Second Samnite War ended with the Romans controlling southern Campania and additional regions further to the south. Campania was a part of the Roman Republic by the end of the 4th century BC, valued for its pastures. Its Greek language and customs made it a centre of Hellenistic civilization, during the Pyrrhic War the battle took place in Campania at Maleventum in which the Romans, led by consul Curius Dentatus, were victorious. They renamed the city Beneventum, which grew in stature until it was only to Capua in southern Italy. During the Second Punic War in 216 BC, Capua, in a bid for equality with Rome, the rebellious Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania, which remained allies of Rome. Naples resisted Hannibal due to the imposing walls, Capua was eventually starved into submission in the Roman retaking of 211 BC, and the Romans were victorious. The rest of Campania, with the exception of Naples, adopted the Latin language as official and was Romanised. As part of the Roman Empire, Campania, with Latium, Roman Emperors chose Campania as a holiday destination, among them Claudius and Tiberius, the latter of whom is infamously linked to the island of Capri. It was also during this period that Christianity came to Campania, Two of the apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul, are said to have preached in the city of Naples, and there were also several martyrs during this time. Unfortunately, the period of calm was violently interrupted by the epic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 which buried the cities of Pompeii. The area had many duchies and principalities during the Middle Ages, in the hands of the Byzantine Empire, under the Normans, the smaller independent states were brought together as part of the Kingdom of Sicily, before the mainland broke away to form the Kingdom of Naples. It was during this period elements of Spanish, French
23.
Apulia
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Apulia is a region of Italy in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its southernmost portion, known as the Salento peninsula, forms a stiletto on the boot of Italy, the region comprises 19,345 square kilometers, and its population is about 4 million. It is bordered by the other Italian regions of Molise to the north, Campania to the west, across the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, it faces Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, and Montenegro, The Apulia region extends as far north as Monte Gargano. Puglias coastline is longer than any other mainland Italian region, in the north, the Gargano promontory extends out into the Adriatic, while in the south, the flat and dry Salento peninsula forms the heel of Italys boot. It is home to the Alta Murgia and Gargano National Parks, see also, History of Apulia Apulia is one of the richest archaeological regions in Italy. It was first colonized by Mycenaean Greeks, a number of castles were built in the area by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, including Castel del Monte, sometimes called the Crown of Apulia. After 1282, when the island of Sicily was lost, Apulia was part of the Kingdom of Naples, as a result of the French–Spanish war of 1501–1504, Naples again came under the rule of Aragon and the Spanish Empire from 1504 to 1714. When Barbary pirates of North Africa sacked Vieste in 1554, they took an estimated 7,000 slaves, in 1861 the region became part of the Kingdom of Italy, with the new capital city at Turin. In the words of one historian, Turin was so far away that Otranto is today closer to seventeen foreign capitals than it is to Turin, the regions contribution to Italys gross value added was around 4. 6% in 2000, while its population was 7% of the total. The per capita GDP is low compared to the national average, in comparison with the country as a whole, the economy of Apulia is characterised by a greater emphasis on agriculture and services and a smaller part played by industry. In the last 20 years the base of the regions economy has changed radically. The majority of firms are financed by local capital. In certain of these sectors – especially textiles, clothing, footwear, vehicles, the region has a good network of roads but the railway network is somewhat inadequate, particularly in the south. Apulias 800 kilometers of coastline is studded with ports, which make this region an important terminal for transport and tourism to Greece, between 2007 and 2013 the economy of Apulia expanded more than that of the rest of southern Italy. Such growth, over decades, is a severe challenge to the hydrogeological system. Emigration from the depressed areas to northern Italy and the rest of Europe was very intense in the years between 1956 and 1971. Subsequently, the trend declined as economic conditions improved, to the point where there was net immigration in the years between 1982 and 1985, since 1986 the stagnation in employment has led to a new inversion of the trend, caused by a decrease in immigration. Since 1 June 2015, former judge and mayor of Bari Michele Emiliano of the Democratic Party has served as President, Apulia is divided into five administrative provinces and one metropolitan city, Cuisine plays an important role throughout Apulia
24.
Sardinia
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Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and an autonomous region of Italy. It is located in the Western Mediterranean, just south of the French island of Corsica, the regions official name is Regione Autonoma della Sardegna / Regione Autònoma de Sardigna, and its capital and largest city is Cagliari. It is divided into four provinces and a metropolitan city and its indigenous language and the other minority languages spoken by the Sardinians enjoy equal dignity with Italian under regional law. The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *srd-, later romanised as sardus and it makes its first appearance on the Nora Stone, where the word Šrdn testifies to the names existence when the Phoenician merchants first arrived. According to Timaeus, one of Platos dialogues, Sardinia and its people as well might have named after Sardò. There has also been speculation that identifies the ancient Nuragic Sards with the Sherden, in Classical antiquity, Sardinia was called Ichnusa, Σανδάλιον Sandal, Sardinia and Sardó. Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 24,100 square kilometres and it is situated between 38°51 and 41°18 latitude north and 8°8 and 9°50 east longitude. To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia, a unit of the Mediterranean Sea, to Sardinias east is the Tyrrhenian Sea, the nearest land masses are the island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia, the Balearic Islands, and Provence. The Tyrrhenian Sea portion of the Mediterranean Sea is directly to the east of Sardinia between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula, the Strait of Bonifacio is directly north of Sardinia and separates Sardinia from the French island of Corsica. The island has an ancient geoformation and, unlike Sicily and mainland Italy, is not earthquake-prone and its rocks date in fact from the Palaeozoic Era. Due to long erosion processes, the highlands, formed of granite, schist, trachyte, basalt, sandstone and dolomite limestone. The highest peak is Punta La Marmora, part of the Gennargentu Ranges in the centre of the island. The islands ranges and plateaux are separated by wide valleys and flatlands. Sardinia has few rivers, the largest being the Tirso,151 km long, which flows into the Sea of Sardinia, the Coghinas. There are 54 artificial lakes and dams that supply water and electricity, the main ones are Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas. The only natural lake is Lago di Baratz. A number of large, shallow, salt-water lagoons and pools are located along the 1,850 km of the coastline, the climate of the island is variable from area to area, due to several factors including the extension in latitude and the elevation. During the year there is a concentration of rainfall in the winter and autumn, some heavy showers in the spring
25.
Polenta
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Polenta is a dish of boiled cornmeal that was historically made from other grains. It may be served as a hot porridge, or it may be allowed to cool and solidify into a loaf that can be baked, fried, the dish is associated with Northern and Central Italy. Polenta has a creamy texture due to the gelatinization of starch in the grain, however, its consistency may not be completely homogeneous if a coarse grind or hard grain such as flint corn is used. The variety of cereal used is usually yellow maize, but buckwheat, white maize, coarse grinds make a firm, coarse polenta, finer grinds make a creamy, soft polenta. Polenta is a staple of Northern Italian cuisine and its consumption is associated with lower classes. As it is today, polenta derives from earlier forms of grain mush (known as puls or pulmentum in Latin that were commonly eaten since Roman times. Before the introduction of corn from America in the 16th century, polenta was made from ingredients like farro, chestnut flour, millet, spelt. Historically, polenta was served as a peasant food in North America, in the 1940s and 1950s, polenta was often eaten with salted anchovy or herring, sometimes topped with sauces. Latin polenta covered any hulled and crushed grain, especially barley-meal, and is derived from the Latin pollen for fine flour, polenta is typically simmered in a water-based liquid with other ingredients. Later, once the polenta is done, ingredients can also be added and it is often cooked in a large copper pot, known as a paiolo in Italian. Boiled polenta may be eaten as is, or it may be allowed to set, leftovers can be used the same way. Cooked polenta can be shaped into balls, patties, or sticks, polenta takes a long time to cook, simmering in four to five times its volume of watery liquid for about 45 minutes with near-constant stirring, necessary for even gelatinization of the starch. Some alternative cooking techniques have been invented to speed up the process, quick-cooking polenta is widely used and is prepared in just a few minutes, it is considered inferior to polenta made from unprocessed cornmeal and is best eaten after being baked or fried. In his book Heat, Bill Buford talks about his experiences as a cook in Mario Batalis Italian restaurant Babbo. If you dont have to stir it all the time, you can cook it for hours—what does it matter, cooks Illustrated magazine has described a method using a microwave oven that reduces cooking time to 12 minutes and requires only a single stirring. In March 2010, it presented a stovetop, near-stir-less method that uses a pinch of baking soda, kyle Phillips suggested making it in a polenta maker or in a slow cooker. In the Trieste area of northeastern Italy, it is either with cuttlefish and tomato broth, with sausage. Polenta can also be prepared with mushrooms, rapini, or other vegetables or meats
26.
Meal structure in Italy
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Italian meal structure is similar to most other European ones, consisting of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Late-morning and mid-afternoon snacks, called merenda, are often included in this meal structure. Italians also commonly divide a celebratory meal into several different courses, Italian breakfast consists of caffè latte or coffee with bread or rolls, butter and jam. A cookie-like rusk hard bread, called fette biscottate, and cookies are commonly eaten, children drink hot chocolate, plain milk, or hot milk with very little coffee. If breakfast is eaten in a bar, it is composed of cappuccino and cornetto or espresso, other products, such as breakfast cereals, fruit salad, muesli and yogurt, are becoming increasingly common as part of the meal. However, Italian breakfasts vary by region and by season, in some regions, such as Tuscany and Umbria, in the past, people used to drink red wine into which they would dip their biscuits. It is also common for Italians to have a quick breakfast snack during the middle of the morning. Lunch is usually regarded as the most important meal, most shops close for the pausa pranzo between 13,00 and 16,00. In most schools, children are given a break when they can go home for lunch, or eat at the school cafeteria. Many adults still make their own food and takeaways are still not very frequent, a typical Italian lunch consists of a first course il primo, a second-course il secondo served together with a side dish il contorno and fruit. Commuters and other workers tend to eat less often at home, many foreign fast-food chains operate in Italy, especially in big cities and along motorways. Italian fast-food chains are also prevalent, often featuring versions of dishes, including Autogrill. Many children and adults have a snack called merenda, generally consumed after school or in mid-afternoon. This may include a variety of foods. Dinner is usually a meal in Italy. For cena, people tend to have food, such as soup, broth, salad, cold meats. A structure of an Italian meal in its form, usually performed during festivities. Aperitivo The aperitivo opens a meal, and it is similar to an appetizer, most people gather around standing up and have alcoholic/non-alcoholic drinks such as wine, prosecco, spritz, vermouth, gingerino
27.
Supermarket
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A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger and has a wider selection than a grocery store. The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near an area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a selection of goods under a single roof. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend into the evening or even 24 hours of day, Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products, the shops are usually part of corporate chains that own or control other supermarkets located nearby—even transnationally—thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale. Supermarkets typically are supplied by the centres of their parent companies. Supermarkets usually offer products at low prices by using their buying power to buy goods from manufacturers at lower prices than smaller stores can. They also minimise financing costs by paying for goods at least 30 days after receipt, certain products are very occasionally sold as loss leaders, that is, with negative profit margins so as to attract shoppers to their store. There is some debate as to the effectiveness of this tactic, to maintain a profit, supermarkets make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items bought by the intended higher volume of shoppers. Customers usually shop by placing their selected merchandise into shopping carts or baskets, a larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. If the eatery in a supermarket is substantial enough, the facility may be called a grocerant, also, most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This also offered opportunities for interaction, many regarded this style of shopping as a social occasion. These practices were by nature very labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive, the shopping process was slow, as the number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store. The concept of a food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. The expectation was that customers would come from great distances, but in the end even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, the concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916, Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores
28.
Salvia officinalis
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Salvia officinalis is a perennial, evergreen subshrub, with woody stems, grayish leaves, and blue to purplish flowers. It is a member of the mint family Lamiaceae and native to the Mediterranean region and it has a long history of medicinal and culinary use, and in modern times as an ornamental garden plant. The common name sage is used for a number of related and unrelated species. S. officinalis has numerous common names, some of the best-known are sage, common sage, garden sage, golden sage, kitchen sage, true sage, culinary sage, Dalmatian sage, and broadleaf sage. Cultivated forms include purple sage and red sage, the specific epithet officinalis refers to plants with a well-established medicinal or culinary value. S. officinalis was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 and it has been grown for centuries in the Old World for its food and healing properties, and was often described in old herbals for the many miraculous properties attributed to it. The specific epithet, officinalis, refers to the plants medicinal use—the officina was the traditional storeroom of a monastery where herbs, S. officinalis has been classified under many other scientific names over the years, including six different names since 1940 alone. It is the species for the genus Salvia. Cultivars are quite variable in size, leaf and flower color, the Old World type grows to approximately 2 ft tall and wide, with lavender flowers most common, though they can also be white, pink, or purple. The plant flowers in spring or summer. The leaves are oblong, ranging in size up to 2.5 in long by 1 in wide, leaves are grey-green, rugose on the upper side, and nearly white underneath due to the many short soft hairs. Modern cultivars include leaves with purple, rose, cream, S. officinalis has been used since ancient times for warding off evil, snakebites, increasing womens fertility, and more. Theophrastus wrote about two different sages, a wild undershrub he called sphakos, and a cultivated plant he called elelisphakos. Pliny the Elder said the plant was called salvia by the Romans, and used as a diuretic, a local anesthetic for the skin, a styptic. Charlemagne recommended the plant for cultivation in the early Middle Ages, walafrid Strabo described it in his poem Hortulus as having a sweet scent and being useful for many human ailments—he went back to the Greek root for the name and called it lelifagus. The plant had a reputation throughout the Middle Ages, with many sayings referring to its healing properties. It was sometimes called S. salvatrix, and was one of the ingredients of Four Thieves Vinegar, dioscorides, Pliny, and Galen all recommended sage as a diuretic, hemostatic, emmenagogue, and tonic. In Britain, sage has for generations been listed as one of the herbs, along with parsley, rosemary
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Pesto
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Pesto or, in extenso, pesto alla genovese, is a sauce originating in Genoa, the capital city of Liguria, Italy. It traditionally consists of crushed garlic, European pine nuts, coarse salt, basil leaves, Parmigiano-Reggiano and pecorino sardo and this same Latin root, through Old French, also gave rise to the English noun pestle. Strictly speaking, pesto is a term for anything that is made by pounding. Nonetheless, pesto alla genovese remains the most popular pesto in Italy, Pesto is thought to have two predecessors in ancient times, going back as far as the Roman age. Then dissolve it with good and abundant oil, lasagne and Trofie are dressed with this mash, made more liquid by adding a little hot water without salt. This recipe for pesto alla genovese was often revised in the following years and this is the main reason why pesto recipes often differ from each other. In French Provence, the dish evolved into the modern pistou, in 1944, The New York Times mentioned an imported canned pesto paste. In 1946, Sunset magazine published a recipe by Angelo Pellegrini. Pesto did not become popular in North America until the 1980s and 1990s, Pesto is traditionally prepared in a marble mortar with a wooden pestle. First, garlic and pine nuts are placed in the mortar and reduced to a cream, then the washed and dried leaves are added with coarse salt. Only then is a mix of Parmigiano-Reggiano and Pecorino added, to help incorporate the cheese a little extra-virgin olive oil is added. In a tight jar, covered by a layer of olive oil, pesto can last in the refrigerator up to a week. Pesto is commonly used on pasta, traditionally with mandilli de sæa, potatoes and string beans are also traditionally added to the dish, boiled in the same pot in which the pasta has been cooked. Pasta, mixed with pesto, has become a dish in the majority of countries today. It is sometimes used in minestrone, Pesto is sometimes served with sliced beef tomatoes and sliced boiled potatoes. Pesto comes in a variety of recipes, some traditional and some modern, a slightly different version of this sauce exists in Provence, where it is known as pistou. Pistou is used in the typical soupe au pistou, a hearty vegetable soup with pistou flavour, the sauce did not originally contain basil, however, instead, cheese and olive oil were the main constituents. Sometimes almonds are used instead of nuts, and sometimes mint leaves are mixed in with the basil leaves
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Sieve
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The word sift derives from sieve. In cooking, a sifter is used to separate and break up clumps in dry ingredients such as flour, as well as to aerate, a strainer is a form of sieve used to separate solids from liquid. Some industrial strainers available are simplex basket strainers, duplex basket strainers, simple basket strainers are used to protect valuable or sensitive equipment in systems that are meant to be shut down temporarily. Some commonly used strainers are bell mouth strainers, foot valve strainers, most processing industries will opt for a self-cleaning strainer instead of a basket strainer or a simplex strainer due to limitations of simple filtration systems. The self-cleaning strainers or filters are more efficient and provide an automatic filtration solution, sieving is a simple technique for separating particles of different sizes. A sieve such as used for sifting flour has very small holes, coarse particles are separated or broken up by grinding against one-another and screen openings. Depending upon the types of particles to be separated, sieves with different types of holes are used, sieves are also used to separate stones from sand. Triage sieving refers to grouping people according to their severity of injury, the mesh in a wooden sieve might be made from wood or wicker. Use of wood to avoid contamination is important when the sieve is used for sampling, henry Stephens, in his Book of the Farm, advised that the withes of a wooden riddle or sieve be made from fir or willow with American elm being best. The rims would be made of fir, oak or, especially, a sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of a granular material. Sieve sizes used in combinations of four to eight sieves
31.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
32.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
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Roman legion
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A Roman legion was the largest unit of the Roman army involving from 3000 men in early times to over 5200 men in imperial times, consisting of centuries as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century,10 cohorts made up a Roman Legion and this was later changed to nine cohorts of standard size and one cohort, the first cohort, of double strength. In the early Roman Kingdom the legion may have meant the entire Roman army but sources on this period are few, Legions also included a small ala or cavalry unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men. In the fourth century AD, East Roman border guard legions may have even smaller. The Roman army, for most of the Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions, because legions were not permanent units until the Marian reforms, and were instead created, used, and disbanded again, several hundred legions were named and numbered throughout Roman history. To date, about 50 have been identified, toward the end of the 2nd Century BC, Rome started to experience manpower shortages brought about by property and financial qualifications to join the army. In the time of Augustus, there were nearly 50 upon his succession but this was reduced to about 25–35 permanent standing legions, a legion consisted of several cohorts of heavy infantry known as legionaries. The recruitment of non-citizens was rare but appears to have occurred in times of great need, For example, Caesar appears to have recruited the Legio V Alaudae mostly from non-citizen Gauls. In the period before the raising of the legio and the years of the Roman Kingdom. These centuries were grouped together as required and answered to the leader who had hired or raised them, the roles of century leader, second in command and standard bearer are referenced in this early period. Much Roman history of the era is shrouded in legend, but it is believed that during the reign of Servius Tullius, the census was introduced. Joining the army was both a duty and a mark of Roman citizenship, during the entire pre-Marian period the wealthiest land owners performed the most years of military service. These individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have fallen. The first and wealthiest common class was armed in the fashion of the hoplite with spear, sword, helmet, breast plate and round shield, there were 82 centuries of these, Roman soldiers had to purchase their own equipment. The second and third class also acted as spearmen but were heavily armoured and carried a larger oval or rectangular shield. The fourth class could afford no armour, perhaps bearing a shield and armed with spear. All three of the latter made up about 26 centuries
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Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
35.
Semolina porridge
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Semolina pudding or semolina porridge is a porridge-type pudding made from semolina, which is cooked with milk, or a mixture of milk and water. It is often served with sugar, cocoa powder, cinnamon, raisins, fruit, a similar consistency to rice pudding can also be made by using more semolina and by baking, rather than boiling. Semolina pudding is similar to the maize-based grits, and has been eaten in Europe since Roman times. Apicius describes an almond and semolina pudding, made from farina, semolina pudding is also for sale as an instant or finished convenience food. Cream, vanilla, fruit, spices or artificial flavouring is often added, some of these products must be prepared with milk or water. If only water is necessary, then powdered milk is an ingredient of the convenience food, in the Czech Republic it is called krupičná kaše or krupicová kaše and in Slovakia krupicová kaša. It is served warm, sprinkled with cocoa and sugar, sometimes other variations and flavours may be used, such as cinnamon, honey, grated chocolate, tuzemák, etc. In Romania it is called Griș cu lapte, jam, candied fruit, cinnamon and raisins may be added. Once cooked, the preparation is poured into a cake pan and it is served warm or cold. The word griș may come from German language Grieß similar to the English grit, cream of Wheat List of porridges Sago pudding Rice pudding Tapioca pudding Food portal
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Abruzzo
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Abruzzo is a region of Italy in Southern Italy, with an area of 10,763 square km and a population of 1.3 million. Its western border lies 80 km east of Rome, the region is divided into the four provinces of LAquila, Teramo, Pescara, and Chieti. Abruzzo borders the region of Marche to the north, Lazio to the west and south-west, Molise to the south-east, and the Adriatic Sea to the east. Geographically, Abruzzo is divided into an area to the west, which includes the Gran Sasso Ditalia. Abruzzo is considered culturally, linguistically, and historically a region of Southern Italy, the Italian Statistical Authority deems it to be part of Southern Italy, partially because of Abruzzos historic association with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. These ensure the survival of 75% of Europes living species including species, such as the small wading dotterel, golden eagle, the Abruzzo chamois, Apennine wolf. Abruzzo is also home to Calderone, Europes southernmost glacier, visiting nineteenth-century Italian diplomat and journalist Primo Levi said that forte e gentile best describes the beauty of the region and the character of its people. Forte e gentile has since become the motto of the region, Abruzzo is divided into four administrative provinces, Humans have inhabited Abruzzo since Neolithic times. A skeleton from Lama dei Peligni in the province of Chieti has been dated to 6,540 bp. The name Abruzzo appears to derive from the Latin Aprutium, although in Roman times the region was known at times as Picenum, Sabina et Samnium, Flaminia et Picenum. Until 1963 it was part of the Abruzzi region with Molise, Abruzzo Citeriore is present day Chieti province. Abruzzo Ulteriore I comprised the Teramo and Pescara provinces, Abruzzo Ulteriore II is now the Province of LAquila, in this province is found the city of Corfinio, the chief city of the Paeligni,7 m. N. of Sulmona in the valley of the Aternus. The site of the town is occupied by the village of Pentima. It appears also as a fortress of importance in the Civil War and these people were honored by Caesar as citizens of Rome. It is said that the name Italia came from this region because of ancient coins that have found here that date from about the 1st century BC. These coins have the name Italia on them and are proof of this fact. This theory of the origin of the name Italia is debated by scholars, archaeologists and it is also said by the Italian Government that Calabria was once called Italia by the ancient Greeks in honour of its inhabitants who were known as the Itali. This occurred hundreds of years before the coins of Corfinio were apparently minted, the late archaeologist Massimo Pallottino also claimed that the name was derived from the Italic tribes that settled in modern Calabria
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Friuli-Venezia Giulia
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Friuli Venezia Giulia is one of the 20 regions of Italy, and one of five autonomous regions with special statute. It has an area of 7,858 km² and about 1.2 million inhabitants, a natural opening to the sea for many Central European countries, the region is traversed by the major transport routes between the east and west of southern Europe. It encompasses the region of Friuli and a small portion of the historical region of Venezia Giulia, each with its own distinct history, traditions. Friuli Venezia Giulia is Italys most North-Eastern region and it covers an area of 7,858 km2 and is the fifth smallest region of the country. It borders Austria to the north and Slovenia to the east, to the south it faces the Adriatic Sea and to the west its internal border is with the Veneto region. The region spans a variety of climates and landscapes from the mild Oceanic in the south to Alpine continental in the north. The total area is subdivided into a 42. 5% mountainous-alpine terrain in the north,19. 3% is hilly, mostly to the south-east, morphologically the region can be subdivided into four main areas. The mountainous area in the north, this part of the region includes Carnia and its landscapes are characterised by vast pine forests and pastures, mountain lakes and numerous streams and small rivers descending from the mountains. The area is known for its tourist destinations, especially during the winter season. The hilly area, situated to the south of the mountains, the main product of agriculture in this area is wine, whose quality, especially the white, is known worldwide. The easternmost part of the area is also known as Slavia Friulana. The central plains are characterised by poor, arid and permeable soil, the soil has been made fertile with an extensive irrigation system and through the adoption of modern intensive farming techniques. In this part of the region most of the activities are concentrated. The coastal area can be subdivided in two, western-eastern, subsections separated by the river Isonzos estuary. To the west, the coast is shallow and sandy, with numerous tourist resorts, to the east, the coastline rises into cliffs, where the Kras plateau meets the Adriatic, all the way to Trieste and Muggia on the border with Slovenia. The rivers of the flow from the North and from Slovenia into the Adriatic. The Timavo is a river that flows for 38 km from Slovenia. The region Friuli Venezia Giulia has a temperate climate, however, due to the terrains diversity, it varies considerably from one area to another
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Veneto
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Veneto or Venetia is one of the twenty regions of Italy. Its population is five million, ranking fifth in Italy. The regions capital and largest city is Venice, Veneto was part of the Roman Empire until the 5th century AD. Later, after a period, it was part of the Republic of Venice until 1797. Venice ruled for centuries one of the largest and richest maritime republics. The Statute of Veneto describes Venetians as a people, besides Italian, most inhabitants also speak Venetian. The region is home to a notable nationalist movement, the regions largest party is the Venetist/Padanist Liga Veneta, a founding member of Lega Nord. The current President of Veneto is Luca Zaia, elected in 2010 with 60. 2% of the vote and the support of Lega Nord, The People of Freedom, Veneto is the 8th largest region in Italy, with a total area of 18,398.9 km2. At its northernmost corner it borders also on Austria, the north-south extension of Veneto is 210 km from the Austrian border to the mouth of the River Po. By area, 29% of its surface is mountainous, the highest massif in the Dolomites is the Marmolada-massif at 3,342 m. Other dolomitic peaks are the Tre Cime di Lavaredo and the Pale di San Martino, the Venetian Prealps are not as high and range between 700 m and 2,200 m. Fossil deposits are abundant there. The plain itself is subdivided into the plain and the lower plain. The lower plain is both a mainstay of production and the most populated part of the region. Several rivers flow through the region, the Po, Adige, Brenta, Bacchiglione, Livenza, Piave, the eastern shore of the largest lake in Italy, Lake Garda, belongs to Veneto. The coastline covers approximately 200 km, of which 100 km are beaches, the coasts of the Adriatic Sea are characterised by the Venetian Lagoon, a flat terrain with ponds, marshes and islands. The Po Delta to the south features sandbars and dunes along the coastline, the inland portion contains cultivable land recently reclaimed by a system of canals and dykes. Fish ponds have been created there as well, the delta and the lagoon are a stopping-point for migratory birds
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Lazio
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Lazio is one of the 20 administrative regions of Italy, situated in the central peninsular section of the country. With almost 5.9 million residents and a GDP of more than 170 billion euros, Lazio is the second most populated region of Italy and its capital is Rome, capital and largest city of Italy. Lazio comprises an area of 17,236 km2 and it has borders with Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo and Molise to the east, Campania to the south. The region is flat and hilly, with small mountainous areas in the most eastern and southern districts. The coast of Lazio is mainly composed of beaches, punctuated by the headlands of Circeo. The Pontine Islands, which are part of Lazio, lie opposite the southern coast, behind the coastal strip, to the north, lies the Maremma Laziale, a coastal plain interrupted at Civitavecchia by the Tolfa Mountains. The central section of the region is occupied by the Roman Campagna, the southern districts are characterized by the flatlands of Agro Pontino, a once swampy and malarial area, that was reclaimed over the centuries. To the south of the Tiber, other groups form part of the Preapennines, the Alban Hills, also of volcanic origin. The highest peak is Mount Gorzano on the border with Abruzzo, see also, History of Italy The Italian word Lazio descends from the Latin word Latium. The name of the region also survives in the designation of the ancient population of Latins, Latini in the Latin language spoken by them. Although the demography of ancient Rome was multi-ethnic, including, for example, Etruscans and other Italics besides the Latini, in Roman mythology, the tribe of the Latini took their name from king Latinus. Much of Lazio is in flat or rolling. The lands originally inhabited by the Latini were extended into the territories of the Samnites, the Marsi, the Hernici, the Aequi, the Aurunci and the Volsci, all surrounding Italic tribes. This larger territory was still called Latium, but it was divided into Latium adiectum or Latium Novum, the lands or New Latium, and Latium Vetus, or Old Latium. The northern border of Lazio was the Tiber river, which divided it from Etruria, the emperor Augustus officially united almost all of present-day Italy into a single geo-political entity, Italia, dividing it into eleven regions. However, the wars against the Longobards weakened the region. With the Donation of Sutri in 728, the Bishop of Rome acquired the first territory in the region beyond the Duchy of Rome, the strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between secular lords and the Pope until the middle of the 16th century. Other popes tried to do the same, during the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France, the feudal lords power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome
40.
Tuber
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Tubers are enlarged structures in some plant species used as storage organs for nutrients. They are used for the plants perennation, to energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing season. Stem tubers form from thickened rhizomes or stolons, common plant species with stem tubers include potato and yam. Some sources also treat modified lateral roots under the definition, these are encountered in sweet potato, cassava, the term originates from Latin tuber, meaning lump, bump, swelling. Some sources define the term tuber to mean only structures derived from stems, a stem tuber forms from thickened rhizomes or stolons. The top sides of the tuber produce shoots that grow into stems and leaves. They tend to form at the sides of the parent plant and are most often located near the soil surface, the underground stem tuber is normally a short-lived storage and regenerative organ developing from a shoot that branches off a mature plant. The offsprings or new tubers are attached to a parent tuber or form at the end of a hypogeogenous rhizome, some plants also form smaller tubers and/or tubercules which act like seeds, producing small plants that resemble seedlings. Stem tubers generally start off as enlargements of the section of a seedling. Tuberous begonia, yams, and Cyclamen are commonly grown stem tubers, mignonette vine produces aerial stem tubers on 12-to-25-foot-tall vines, the tubers fall to the ground and grow. Enlarged stolons thicken to develop into storage organs, the tuber has all the parts of a normal stem, including nodes and internodes. The nodes are the eyes and each has a leaf scar, the nodes or eyes are arranged around the tuber in a spiral fashion beginning on the end opposite the attachment point to the stolon. The terminal bud is produced at the farthest point away from the stolon attachment, internally, a tuber is filled with starch stored in enlarged parenchyma like cells. The inside of a tuber has the cell structures of any stem, including a pith, vascular zones. The tuber is produced in one growing season and used to perennate the plant, as the main shoot develops from the tuber, the base of the shoot close to the tuber produces adventitious roots and lateral buds on the shoot. The shoot also produces stolons that are long etiolated stems, the stolon elongates during long days with the presence of high auxins levels that prevent root growth off of the stolon. Before new tuber formation begins, the stolon must be a certain age, the enzyme lipoxygenase makes a hormone, jasmonic acid, which is involved in the control of potato tuber development. The stolons are easily recognized when potato plants are grown from seeds, as the plants grow, stolons are produced around the soil surface from the nodes
41.
Emulsifier
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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
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Preservative
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In general, preservation is implemented in two modes, chemical and physical. Chemical preservation entails adding chemical compounds to the product, physical preservation entails processes such as refrigeration or drying. Preservative food additives reduce the risk of infections, decrease microbial spoilage. Some physical techniques for preservation include dehydration, UV-C radiation, freeze-drying. Chemical preservation and physical preservation techniques are sometimes combined, antimicrobial preservatives prevent degradation by bacteria. This method is the most traditional and ancient type of preserving—ancient methods such as pickling and adding honey prevent microorganism growth by modifying the pH level, the most commonly used antimicrobial preservative is lactic acid. Common antimicrobial preservatives are presented in the table, nitrates and nitrites are also antimicrobial. The detailed mechanism of chemical compounds range from inhibiting growth of the bacteria to the inhibition of specific enzymes. The oxidation process spoils most food, especially those with a fat content. Fats quickly turn rancid when exposed to oxygen, antioxidants prevent or inhibit the oxidation process. The most common antioxidant additives are ascorbic acid and ascorbates, thus, antioxidants are commonly added to oils, cheese, and chips. Other antioxidants include the phenol derivatives BHA, BHT, TBHQ and these agents suppress the formation of hydroperoxides. Other preservatives include ethanol and methylchloroisothiazolinone, a variety of agents are added to sequester metal ions that otherwise catalyze the oxidation of fats. Common sequestering agents are disodium EDTA, citric acid, tartaric acid, citric and ascorbic acids target enzymes that degrade fruits and vegetables, e. g. phenolase which turns surfaces of cut apples and potatoes brown. Ascorbic acid and tocopherol, which are vitamins, are common preservatives, smoking entails exposing food to a variety of phenols, which are antioxidants. Natural preservatives include rosemary extract, hops, salt, sugar, vinegar, alcohol, diatomaceous earth, traditional preservatives, such as sodium benzoate have raised health concerns in the past. Benzoate was shown in a study to cause hypersensitivity in some asthma sufferers and this has caused reexamination of natural preservatives which occur in vegetables. Preservatives have been used since prehistoric times, smoked meat for example has phenols and other chemicals that retard spoilage
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Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
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France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
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Choux pastry
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It contains only butter, water, flour and eggs. Instead of an agent, it employs high moisture content to create steam during cooking to puff the pastry. The pastry is used in many European and European-derived cuisines, according to some cookbooks, a chef by the name of Pantarelli or Pantanelli invented the dough in 1540, seven years after he left Florence with Catherine de Medici and her court. He used the dough to make a gâteau and named it pâte à Pantanelli, over time, the recipe of the dough evolved, and the name changed to pâte à popelin, which was used to make popelins, small cakes made in the shape of a womans breasts. Then, Avice, a pâtissier in the century, created what were then called choux buns. The name of the changed to pâte à choux, as Avices buns resembled cabbages—choux in French. From there, Antoine Carême made modifications to the recipe, resulting in the recipe most commonly used now for profiteroles, the ingredients for choux pastry are butter, water, flour and eggs. Like Yorkshire Pudding or David Eyres pancake, instead of a raising agent, the high moisture content is achieved by boiling the water and butter, then adding the flour. The mixture is cooked a few minutes longer, then cooled before adding enough eggs to achieve the desired consistency, the boiling step causes the starch in the flour to gel, allowing the incorporation of more water. This pastry is used to make profiteroles, croquembouches, éclairs, French crullers, beignets, St. Honoré cake, quenelles, Parisian gnocchi, dumplings, choux pastry is usually baked but for beignets it is fried. In Spain and Latin America, churros are made of fried choux pastry, in Austrian cuisine, one variation of Marillenknödel, a sweet apricot dumpling cooked in simmering water, uses choux pastry, in that case it does not puff, but remains relatively dense. Choux pastries are filled with cream after baking to make cream puffs or éclairs. Chouquettes, named for the diminutive of choux, are small, round, craquelins are covered in a crackly sugar topping - and often filled with pastry cream, much like eclairs. List of choux pastry dishes List of pastries food portal
Cookbook: Gnocchi 
Media: Gnocchi
