1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Entrepreneurship
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What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
3.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
4.
Alexa Internet
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Alexa Internet, Inc. is a California-based company that provides commercial web traffic data and analytics. It is an owned subsidiary of Amazon. com. Founded as an independent company in 1996, Alexa was acquired by Amazon in 1999 and its toolbar collects data on browsing behavior and transmits them to the Alexa website, where they are stored and analyzed. This is the basis for the web traffic reporting. According to its website, Alexa provides traffic data, global rankings, as of 2015, its website has been visited by over 6.5 million people monthly. Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle, Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited, to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how other sites pointed to it. Alexas operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are crawled and this database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its vision of providing an intelligent search engine. Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003, in May 2006, replaced Google with Bing as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search, built in-house, it was the first major application built on the companys Web platform. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a set of Web services. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexas own servers or elsewhere. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements. In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, Alexa v. Hornbaker, in the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexas servers. Hornbaker removed the term Alexa from his name on March 19,2007. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company, on March 31,2009, Alexa launched a major website redesign
5.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
6.
Standard Chinese
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Its pronunciation is based on the Beijing dialect, its vocabulary on the Mandarin dialects, and its grammar is based on written vernacular Chinese. Like other varieties of Chinese, Standard Chinese is a language with topic-prominent organization. It has more initial consonants but fewer vowels, final consonants, Standard Chinese is an analytic language, though with many compound words. There exist two standardised forms of the language, namely Putonghua in Mainland China and Guoyu in Taiwan, aside from a number of differences in pronunciation and vocabulary, Putonghua is written using simplified Chinese characters, while Guoyu is written using traditional Chinese characters. There are many characters that are identical between the two systems, in English, the governments of China and Hong Kong use Putonghua, Putonghua Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, and Mandarin, while those of Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia, use Mandarin. The name Putonghua also has a long, albeit unofficial, history and it was used as early as 1906 in writings by Zhu Wenxiong to differentiate a modern, standard Chinese from classical Chinese and other varieties of Chinese. For some linguists of the early 20th century, the Putonghua, or common tongue/speech, was different from the Guoyu. The former was a prestige variety, while the latter was the legal standard. Based on common understandings of the time, the two were, in fact, different, Guoyu was understood as formal vernacular Chinese, which is close to classical Chinese. By contrast, Putonghua was called the speech of the modern man. The use of the term Putonghua by left-leaning intellectuals such as Qu Qiubai, prior to this, the government used both terms interchangeably. In Taiwan, Guoyu continues to be the term for Standard Chinese. The term Putonghua, on the contrary, implies nothing more than the notion of a lingua franca, Huayu, or language of the Chinese nation, originally simply meant Chinese language, and was used in overseas communities to contrast Chinese with foreign languages. Over time, the desire to standardise the variety of Chinese spoken in these communities led to the adoption of the name Huayu to refer to Mandarin and it also incorporates the notion that Mandarin is usually not the national or common language of the areas in which overseas Chinese live. The term Mandarin is a translation of Guānhuà, which referred to the lingua franca of the late Chinese empire, in English, Mandarin may refer to the standard language, the dialect group as a whole, or to historic forms such as the late Imperial lingua franca. The name Modern Standard Mandarin is sometimes used by linguists who wish to distinguish the current state of the language from other northern. Chinese has long had considerable variation, hence prestige dialects have always existed. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán rather than colloquial regional dialects, rime books, which were written since the Northern and Southern dynasties, may also have reflected one or more systems of standard pronunciation during those times
7.
Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
8.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
9.
Baidu
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Baidu, Inc. incorporated on January 18,2000, is a Chinese-American web services company headquartered at the Baidu Campus in Beijings Haidian District. It is one of the largest Internet companies in the world, Baidu offers many services, including a Chinese search engine for websites, audio files and images. Baidu offers 57 search and community services including Baidu Baike and a searchable, Baidu was established in 2000 by Robin Li and Eric Xu. Both of the co-founders are Chinese nationals who studied and worked overseas before returning to China, in December 2016, Baidu ranked 4th overall in the Alexa Internet rankings. During Q4 of 2010, it is estimated there were 4.02 billion search queries in China of which Baidu had a market share of 56. 6%. Chinas Internet-search revenue share in second quarter 2011 by Baidu is 76%, in December 2007, Baidu became the first Chinese company to be included in the NASDAQ-100 index. As of 2006, Baidu provided an index of over 740 million web pages,80 million images, Baidu offers multimedia content including MP3 music, and movies, and is the first in China to offer Wireless Application Protocol and personal digital assistant -based mobile search. Baidu Baike is similar to Wikipedia as an encyclopedia, however, unlike Wikipedia. The company also hosts a service, called Baidu Music. On December 4,2015, Baidu announced plans to merge with Taihe Entertainment Group to help the service compete with Apple Inc. s Apple Music, the name Baidu literally means countless times, or alternatively, a hundred times. In 1994, Robin Li joined IDD Information Services, a New Jersey division of Dow Jones and Company and he also worked on developing better algorithms for search engines and remained at IDD Information Services from May 1994 to June 1997. In 1996, while at IDD, Li developed the RankDex site-scoring algorithm for search results page ranking. He later used this technology for the Baidu search engine, in 2000, the company Baidu launched in Beijing, China. The first office was located in a room, which was near Peking University from where Robin graduated. In 2003, Baidu launched a search engine and picture search engine. On January 12,2010, Baidu. coms DNS records in the United States were altered such that browsers to baidu, Internet users were met with a page saying This site has been attacked by Iranian Cyber Army. Chinese hackers later responded by attacking Iranian websites and leaving messages, on August 6,2012, the BBC reported that three employees of Baidu were arrested on suspicion that they accepted bribes. The bribes were paid for deleting posts from the forum service
10.
Mainland China
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Mainland China, also known as the Chinese mainland, is the geopolitical area under the direct jurisdiction of the Peoples Republic of China. It generally includes Hainan island and excludes the special regions of Hong Kong and Macau. The term mainland China was coined by the Kuomintang after receiving control of Taiwan from Japan after World War II. By 1949, the KMT-led Republic of China government was defeated in the Chinese Civil War, there are two terms in Chinese for mainland, Dàlù, which means continent, and Nèidì, literally inland or inner land. In the PRC, the usage of the two terms are interchangeable and there is no prescribed method of reference in any jurisdiction. To emphasize equal footing in Cross-Strait relations, the term is used in official contexts with reference to Taiwan, but in its relations with Hong Kong and Macau, the PRC government refers to itself as the Central Peoples Government. Mainland area is the term to free area of the Republic of China used in the ROC Constitution. It treats the mainland as part of ROCs territory despite the lack of effective control, by 1949, the Communist Party of Chinas Peoples Liberation Army had largely defeated the Kuomintang s National Revolutionary Army in the Chinese Civil War on the mainland. This has resulted in a situation in which two co-existing governments compete for legitimacy and recognition as the government of China. The phrase mainland China emerged as a neutral term to refer to the area under control of the Communist Party of China. Until the late 1970s, both the PRC and ROC envisioned a military takeover of the other, during this time the ROC referred to the PRC government as Communist Bandits while the PRC referred to the ROC as Chiang Bandits. Later, as a military solution became less feasible, the ROC referred to the PRC as Communist China, due to their status as colonies of foreign states during the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949, the phrase mainland China excludes Hong Kong and Macau. Since the return of Hong Kong and Macau to Chinese sovereignty in 1997 and 1999, respectively, the territories also have their distinct identities. Therefore, mainland China generally continues to exclude these territories, because of the One country, the term is also used in economic indicators, such as the IMD Competitiveness Report. International news media often use China to refer only to mainland China or the Peoples Republic of China, in the PRC, the term 内地 is often contrasted with the term 境外 for things outside of the mainland region. Examples include Administration of Foreign-funded Banks or the Measures on Administration of Representative Offices of Foreign Insurance Institutions, Hainan is an offshore island, therefore geographically not part of the continental mainland. Nonetheless, Hainanese people still refer to the mainland as the mainland. In some coastal provinces such as Guangdong, Fujian and Jiangsu, in contrast, the pro-Taiwan independence Democratic Progressive Party prefer to use the term China instead, referring to the PRC, to imply that Taiwan is separate from China
11.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
12.
Free area of the Republic of China
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As the island of Taiwan is the main component of the whole area, it is therefore also referred to as the Taiwan Area of the Republic of China or simply the Taiwan Area. This term is used in the Additional Articles to the Constitution of the Republic of China, the term free area or Free China was used during the Second Sino-Japanese War to describe the territories under the control of the Kuomintang government in Chongqing. The Japanese occupation ended with the surrender in 1945. Prior to the Battle of Dachen Archipelago in 1955, the Free Area also encompassed a group of islands off Zhejiang, the islands have since been administered exclusively by the PRC. Various names used to describe the area include, The term free area of the Republic of China has persisted to the present day in the ROC legislation. This term was first used in the Constitution with the promulgation of the first set of amendments to the Constitution in 1991 and has retained in the most recent revision passed in 2005. In the absence of such changes, the Republic of Chinas official borders were to be regarded as all of mainland China. In ordinary legislation, the term Taiwan Area is usually used, especially in contexts of trade, however, on more practical grounds, the mainland area refers simply to mainland China. In addition, there are two other Acts defining other areas, the Hong Kong Area and the Macau Area, the hand-over of these former European colonies to the Peoples Republic of China necessitated laws governing the relations of the Taiwan Area with them. The Acts are worded in a manner to avoid discussing whether the Republic of China claims sovereignty over Hong Kong and Macau
13.
Kai-Fu Lee
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Kai-Fu Lee is an American venture capitalist, technology executive, writer, and computer scientist. He is currently based in Beijing, China, Lee developed the worlds first speaker-independent, continuous speech recognition system as his Ph. D. thesis at Carnegie Mellon. He later became an executive at Apple, SGI, Microsoft. One of the most prominent figures in the Chinese internet sector, he was the president of Google China. He has created personal website, Woxuewang dedicated to helping young Chinese people achieve in their studies and he is one of the most followed micro-bloggers in China, in particular on Sina Weibo, where he has over fifty million followers. Lee was born in Taipei, Taiwan and he is the son of Li Tianmin, a legislator and historian from Sichuan, China. Lee has detailed his life and career history in his autobiography in both Chinese and English, Making a World of Difference, published in October 2011. In 1973, Lee immigrated to the United States and attended school in Oak Ridge. He graduated summa cum laude from Columbia University, earning a B. S. degree in science in 1983. He went on to earn a Ph. D. in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University in 1988, at Carnegie Mellon, Lee worked on topics in machine learning and pattern recognition. In 1986, he and Sanjoy Mahajan developed Bill, a Bayesian learning-based system for playing the board game Othello that won the US national tournament of computer players in 1989. In 1988, he completed his dissertation on Sphinx, the first large-vocabulary, speaker-independent. Lee has written two books on speech recognition and more than 60 papers in computer science and his doctoral dissertation was published in 1988 as a Kluwer monograph, Automatic Speech Recognition, The Development of the Sphinx Recognition System. Together with Alex Waibel, another Carnegie Mellon researcher, Lee edited Readings in Speech Recognition, after two years as a faculty member at Carnegie Mellon, Lee joined Apple Computer in 1990 as a principal research scientist. While at Apple, he headed R&D groups responsible for Apple Bandai Pippin, PlainTalk, Casper, GalaTea for Mac Computers. Lee moved to Silicon Graphics in 1996 and spent a year as the Vice President of its Web Products division, in 1998, Lee moved to Microsoft and went to Beijing, China where he played a key role in establishing the Microsoft Research division there. MSR China later became known as MSR Asia, regarded as one of the best computer science labs in the world. Lee returned to the United States in 2000 and was president of interactive services division at Microsoft from 2000 to 2005
14.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
15.
Microsoft Research Asia
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Microsoft Research Asia, Microsoft’s fundamental research arm in the Asia Pacific region, was founded in Beijing China on November 5,1998. The lab conducts research in natural user interfaces, next-generation multimedia, data-intensive computing, search and online advertising. Microsoft Research Asia operates under a mission of advancing the state of the art in computing through a combination of basic, more than 300 research results have been transferred to Microsoft products, including Windows, Office, Bing, Xbox, Kinect, and Windows Phone. In addition, technologies from the lab have been adopted by international bodies such as MPEG4, IETF. The lab maintains a research agenda focuses on five areas, Natural User Interfaces that enable users to interact with a computer using speech, gestures. Next-generation multimedia that allows people to search for and to be immersed in interactive online shopping, education, meeting, data-intensive computing that explores infrastructures, algorithms, tools, and applications to collect, analyze, and mine results for data-intensive endeavors. Search and Online Ads by applying data-mining, machine-learning, and knowledge-discovery techniques to information analysis, organization, retrieval, fundamental Computer Science, including areas such as theoretical computer science, systems, networking, and machine learning. MSR Asia cooperates with universities in Asian countries, mainly through Joint Laboratories. Since 1998, UR has sponsored more than 600 events in some 10 countries, UR has partnered with nearly 100 universities and institutes. In recent years, UR has launched a series of initiatives to develop relations with governments. One component of new initiatives is an emphasis on regional programs that extend collaborations with universities in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea
16.
Zhongguancun
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Zhongguancun, or Zhong Guan Cun, is a technology hub in Haidian District, Beijing, China. It is geographically situated in the part of Beijing city. Zhongguancun is very known in China, and is often referred to as Chinas Silicon Valley. Zhongguancun has long existed since 1950s and only became a name in the early 1980s. S. as part of a government-sponsored trip. The location of the Chinese Academy of Sciences within Zhongguancun reinforced, Zhongguancun was officially recognized by the central government of China in 1988. It was given the wordy name Beijing High-Technology Industry Development Experimental Zone, the current designation Zhongguancun refers commonly to the original site. However, officially Zhongguancun has become the Zhongguancun Science & Technology Zone and it is a zone with seven parks, including Haidian Park, Fengtai Park, Changping Park, Electronics City, Yizhuang Park, Desheng Park, and Jianxiang Park. The original Zhongguancun is now known as the Haidian Park of the Zhongguancun Zone, the area and environs, however, remain the same. Hailong Market, Guigu Market, Taipingyang Market, Dinghao Market and Kemao Market are the five prominent IT and they are technology bazaars, famous for their shops with a shop, where prices are easily but grudgingly bargained. Zhongguancun shops mainly deal in PC-compatible hardware, peripherals and software, appleCentre and Apple Experience Centre are also close by. A very particular sight to visit is the Haidian Christian Church, designed by Hamburg-based architects Gerkan, Marg, notable high schools in Zhongguancun include Affiliated High School of Peking University and High School Affiliated to Renmin University of China. The most famous companies that grew up in Zhongguancun are Stone Group, Founder Group and they were all founded in 1984-85. Stone was the first successful company to be operated by private individuals outside the government of China. Founder is a company that spun off Peking University. Lenovo Group spun off from Chinese Academy of Sciences with Liu Chuanzhi, Lenovo purchased IBMs PC division with $1.75 billion in 2005, making it the worlds third-largest PC maker. Both Founder and Lenovo Group maintain strong connections to their academic backers, according to the 2004 Beijing Statistical Yearbook, there are over 12,000 high-tech enterprises throughout Zhongguancuns seven parks, with 489,000 technicians employed. Eastdawn Corporation is in the Sinosteel building, the development center of Loongson, which is Chinas first general-purpose microprocessor design, is also in the Zhongguancun area. In addition, many conferences are held in location, including the annual ChinICT conference - which is the largest Information technology Development
17.
Tsinghua University
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Tsinghua University is a research university located in Beijing, China, established in 1911. With strong research and training, Tsinghua University is consistently ranked as one of the top institutions in China. In the aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion, American Secretary of State John Hay suggested that the US $30 million plus Boxer indemnity paid by China to the United States was excessive. The faculty members for sciences were recruited by the YMCA from the United States, in 1925, the school established its College Department and started its research institute on Chinese studies. In 1928, Tsinghua changed its name to National Tsing Hua University, after the war, Tsinghua moved back to Beijing and resumed its operations. When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966, many university students walked out of the classrooms and it was not until 1978, after the Cultural Revolution had ended, that the university began to take in students again. Even so, Tsinghua University remained in the top tier of schools in China, since the 1980s, the university has incorporated a multidisciplinary system. As a result, several schools were re-incorporated, in 1996, Tsinghua School of Economics and Management established partnership with the Sloan School of Management at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. One year later, Tsinghua and MIT founded the MBA program Tsinghua-MIT Global MBA, most national and international university rankings place Tsinghua amongst the best universities in Mainland China. Admission to Tsinghua is extremely competitive, admission to Tsinghuas graduate schools is also very competitive, with, for example, only about 16% of MBA applicants admitted each year. With its motto of Self-Discipline and Social Commitment, Tsinghua University describes itself as being dedicated to academic excellence, the well-being of Chinese society and to global development. The motto goes back to a speech with the title Gentleman given by Liang Qichao in 1914, as of 2003, Tsinghua University has 12 colleges and 48 departments,41 research institutes,35 research centers, and 167 laboratories, including 15 national key laboratories. The university offers 51 bachelors degree programs,139 masters degree programs and 107 PhD programs, recently, Tsinghua has become the first Chinese university to offer a Master of Laws program in American law, through a cooperative venture with the Temple University Beasley School of Law. The university is a member of LAOTSE, a network of leading universities in Europe. Each year, the University celebrates the Intellectual Property Summer Institute in cooperation with Franklin Pierce Law Center of Concord and it has its own editorial, Tsinghua University Press. These scholars will live on the university campus at Schwarzman College, as of 2014, Tsinghua University has 19 schools and 55 departments covering a broad range of subjects, including science, engineering, arts and literature, social sciences, medicine. Department of Mathematical Sciences was established in 1927, as one of the premier Departments of Mathematical Sciences in China, DMS has produced many famous Chinese mathematicians such as Shiing-Shen Chern and Luogeng Hua. In 1952, Tsinghua DMS was merged with the Peking University Department of Mathematical Sciences, then in 1979 it was renamed Department of Applied Mathematics, and renamed again in 1999 to its current title
18.
Operation Aurora
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Operation Aurora was a series of cyber attacks conducted by advanced persistent threats such as the Elderwood Group based in Beijing, China, with ties to the Peoples Liberation Army. First publicly disclosed by Google on January 12,2010, in a blog post, the attack has been aimed at dozens of other organizations, of which Adobe Systems, Juniper Networks and Rackspace have publicly confirmed that they were targeted. According to media reports, Yahoo, Symantec, Northrop Grumman, Morgan Stanley, official Chinese sources claimed this was part of a strategy developed by the U. S. government. The attack was named Operation Aurora by Dmitri Alperovitch, Vice President of Threat Research at cyber security company McAfee. Research by McAfee Labs discovered that “Aurora” was part of the path on the attacker’s machine that was included in two of the malware binaries McAfee said were associated with the attack. We believe the name was the name the attacker gave to this operation. According to McAfee, the goal of the attack was to gain access to and potentially modify source code repositories at these high tech, security. “ were wide open, ” says Alperovitch, on January 12,2010, Google revealed on its blog that it had been the victim of a cyber attack. The company said the attack occurred in mid-December and originated from China, Google stated that over 20 other companies had been attacked, other sources have since cited that more than 34 organizations were targeted. As a result of the attack, Google said it was reviewing its business in China, on the same day, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton issued a brief statement condemning the attacks and requesting a response from China. In Beijing, visitors left flowers outside of Googles office, however, these were later removed, with a Chinese security guard stating that this was an illegal flower tribute. The Chinese government has yet to issue a response, although an anonymous official stated that China is seeking more information on Googles intentions. The two largest groups may employ hundreds of people, and work to compromise security and siphon business ideas, advanced designs, the group behind the Operation Aurora attacks were dubbed Elderwood by Symantec after a source-code variable used by the attackers, and Beijing Group by Dell Secureworks. The group obtained some of Googles source code, as well as access to information about Chinese activists, Elderwood specializes in attacking and infiltrating second-tier defense industry suppliers that make electronic or mechanical components for top defense companies. Those firms then become a stepping stone to gain access to top-tier defense contractors. Elderwood infects these less-secure sites with malware that downloads to a computer that clicks on the site, in its blog posting, Google stated that some of its intellectual property had been stolen. It suggested that the attackers were interested in accessing Gmail accounts of Chinese dissidents, however, the attackers were only able to view details on two accounts and those details were limited to things such as the subject line and the accounts creation date. Security experts immediately noted the sophistication of the attack, two days after the attack became public, McAfee reported that the attackers had exploited purported zero-day vulnerabilities in Internet Explorer and dubbed the attack Operation Aurora
19.
Judicial power
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The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes, in some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, the Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review, Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive, the latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics and it is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary, the state, and the private. For instance, in France, the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law, in common law jurisdictions, courts interpret law, this includes constitutions, statutes, and regulations. They also make law based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law, for instance, the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions. The term common law refers to this kind of law, in civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are prohibited from creating law, and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged. Jurisprudence plays a role to case law. State courts, which try 98% of litigation, may have different names and organization, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts superior courts or commonwealth courts. The judicial system, whether state or federal, begins with a court of first instance, is appealed to an appellate court, and then ends at the court of last resort. In France, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases. In the Peoples Republic of China, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the National Peoples Congress. Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts, appeals courts, a cassation court, in this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority, but criminal cases have four stages, one more than civil law does. On the court sits a total of nine justices and this number has been changed several times. Japans process for selecting judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States, assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the Legal Training and Research Institute located in Wako. Once appointed, assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years, Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs, as a public prosecutor or practicing attorney
20.
Internet censorship in China
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Internet censorship in China is extreme due to a wide variety of laws and administrative regulations. More than sixty Internet regulations have been created by the government of China, which have implemented by provincial branches of state-owned ISPs, companies. The apparatus of Chinas Internet control is considered extensive and more advanced than in any other country in the world. The governmental authorities not only block website content but also monitor the Internet access of individuals, the offences of which they are accused include communicating with groups abroad, signing online petitions, and calling for reform and an end to corruption. The size of the Chinese Internet police force was reported by the government to be 2 million in 2013. In April 2015, Wikipedia sites in Chinese were blocked after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS which increased the difficulty of censorship, the saying is related to a period of the economic reform of China that became known as the socialist market economy. Superseding the political ideologies of the Cultural Revolution, the reform led China towards a market economy, nonetheless the Communist Party of China has wished to protect its values and political ideas from swatting flies of other ideologies. The Internet arrived in China in 1994 as a consequence of, and supporting tool for. Since then, and with gradual increasing availability, the Internet has become a communication platform. In 1998 the Communist Party of China feared the China Democracy Party would breed a new network that the party elites might not be able to control. The CDP was immediately banned followed by arrests and imprisonment and that same year the Golden Shield Project was started. The first part of the project lasted eight years and was completed in 2006, the second part began in 2006 and ended in 2008. At the exhibition, many western high-tech products including Internet security, video monitoring, According to Amnesty International, around 30, 000–50,000 internet police are employed to enforce Chinese internet laws. The government of China defends its right to censor the internet by claiming that the country has the right to govern the internet according to its own rules inside its borders, the white paper, released in June 2010, called the internet a crystallization of human wisdom. But in the document the government lays out some of the reasons why its citizens cannot get access to all of that wisdom, another section of the same white paper reaffirms the governments determination to govern the internet within its borders according to its own rules. Within Chinese territory the internet is under the jurisdiction of Chinese sovereignty, the internet sovereignty of China should be respected and protected, it says. It adds that foreign individuals and firms can use the internet in China, the central government of China started its Internet censorship with three regulations. The first regulation was called the Temporary Regulation for the Management of Computer Information Network International Connection, the regulation was passed in the 42nd Standing Convention of the State Council on 23 January 1996
21.
Domain Name System
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The Domain Name System is a hierarchical decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities, by providing a worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet, that has been in use since 1985. The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names, Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault tolerant service and was designed to avoid a large central database. The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS. Historically, other directory services preceding DNS were not scalable to large or global directories as they were based on text files. The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the Internet Protocol address spaces, the Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System, a DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain, a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database. The most common types of stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority, IP addresses, SMTP mail exchangers, name servers, pointers for reverse DNS lookups. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also used in combating unsolicited email by storing a real-time blackhole list. The DNS database is stored in a structured zone file. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the name www. example. com translates to the addresses 93.184.216.119 and 2606,2800,220, 6d, 26bf,1447,1097. Unlike a phone book, DNS can be updated, allowing a services location on the network to change without affecting the end users. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators, an important and ubiquitous function of DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL and this process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services. The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility in the Internet, each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager
22.
Google Maps
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Google Maps is a web mapping service developed by Google. It offers satellite imagery, street maps, 360° panoramic views of streets, real-time traffic conditions, Google maps began as a C++ desktop program designed by Lars and Jens Eilstrup Rasmussen at Where 2 Technologies. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google, which converted it into a web application, after additional acquisitions of a geospatial data visualization company and a realtime traffic analyzer, Google Maps was launched in February 2005. The services front end utilizes JavaScript, XML, and Ajax, Google Maps offers an API that allows maps to be embedded on third-party websites, and offers a locator for urban businesses and other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Map Maker allows users to expand and update the services mapping worldwide. Much of the satellite imagery is no more than three years old and is updated on a regular basis. Google Maps uses a variant of the Mercator projection. The current redesigned version of the application was made available in 2013. Google Maps for mobile was released in September 2008 and features GPS turn-by-turn navigation, in August 2013, it was determined to be the worlds most popular app for smartphones, with over 54% of global smartphone owners using it at least once. In 2012, Google reported having over 7,100 employees, Google Maps provides a route planner under Get Directions. Up to four modes of transportation are available depending on the area, driving, public transit, walking, in combination with Google Street View, issues such as parking, turning lanes, and one-way streets can be viewed before traveling. China mainland, Hong Kong, Macau, Jordan, Lebanon, only public transit directions are provided for South Korea. All countries of mainland North and Central America are covered contiguously, all countries of mainland South America are covered. All countries including Trinidad and Tobago* are treated contiguously, all inhabited countries and territories in the Caribbean are covered, though in general there are no connections between islands. Like many other Google web applications, Google Maps uses JavaScript extensively, as the user drags the map, the grid squares are downloaded from the server and inserted into the page. When a user searches for a business, the results are downloaded in the background for insertion into the panel and map. Locations are drawn dynamically by positioning a red pin on top of the map images, a hidden IFrame with form submission is used because it preserves browser history. The site also uses JSON for data rather than XML
23.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
24.
Gmail
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Gmail is a free, advertising-supported email service developed by Google. Users can access Gmail on the web and through the apps for Android and iOS. Gmail started as a beta release on April 1,2004. It exited beta status on July 7,2009, Gmail at launch had an initial storage capacity offer of 1 gigabyte per user, a significantly higher number than the 2 megabytes of storage its competitors such as Hotmail offered at that time. Today, the service comes with 15 gigabytes of free storage, users can receive emails up to 50 megabytes in size, including attachments, while they can send emails up to 25 megabytes. In order to send files, users can insert files from Google Drive into the message. Gmail has an interface and a conversation view similar to an Internet forum. Gmail is noted by web developers for its use of Ajax. Googles mail servers automatically scan emails for multiple purposes, including to add context-sensitive advertisements next to emails, Google has been the subject of lawsuits concerning the issues, both from Gmail users and from non-Gmail users. Google also claims that Gmail refrains from displaying ads next to potentially sensitive messages, such as those that mention race, religion, sexual orientation, health, or financial statements. As of February 2016, Gmail has one billion active users worldwide, according to a 2014 estimate, 60% of mid-sized US companies, and 92% of startups, were using Gmail. On April 1,2004, Gmail was launched with 1 gigabyte of storage space, on April 1,2005, the first anniversary of Gmail, the limit was doubled to 2 gigabytes of storage. Georges Harik, the product management director for Gmail, stated that Google would keep giving people more space forever, on April 24,2012, Google announced the increase of free storage in Gmail from 7.5 to 10 gigabytes as part of the launch of Google Drive. On May 13,2013, Google announced the merge of storage across Gmail, Google Drive. Users can buy additional storage, shared among Gmail, Google Drive and Google Photos, as of 2017, storage of up to 15 gigabytes is free, and paid plans are available for up to 30 terabytes for personal use. There are also limits to individual Gmail messages. One message, including all attachments, cannot be larger than 25 megabytes and this was changed in March 2017, to allow receiving of email up to 50 megabytes, with the limit for sending email staying at 25 megabytes. In order to send files, users can insert files from Google Drive into the message
25.
Android (operating system)
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Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
26.
China National Convention Center
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The China National Convention Center, previously known as the Olympic Green Convention Center is a convention center located in the Olympic Green in Beijing. It was designed by RMJM and was used for the 2008 Summer Olympics and Paralympics. It covers an area of 270,000 square metres and it was one of the four principal buildings of the Olympic Green. The International Broadcast Centre was located in this venue, the nearest subway station is Olympic Green on line 8 Official website
27.
Beijing
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Beijing is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and the worlds third most populous city proper. It is also one of the worlds most populous capital cities, the city, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by population after Shanghai and is the nations political, cultural. It is home to the headquarters of most of Chinas largest state-owned companies, and is a hub for the national highway, expressway, railway. The citys history dates back three millennia, as the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been the political centre of the country for much of the past eight centuries. Beijing was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium A. D, the city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates. Its art treasures and universities have made it centre of culture, encyclopædia Britannica notes that few cities in the world have served for so long as the political headquarters and cultural centre of an area as immense as China. Siheyuans, the traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing. The city hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics and was chosen to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, many of Beijings 91 universities consistently rank among the best in China, of which Peking University and Tsinghua University are ranked in the top 60 universities in the world. Beijings Zhongguancun area is known as Chinas Silicon Valley and Chinas center of innovation. According to the 2016 InterNations Expat Insider Survey, Beijing ranked first in Asia in the subcategory Personal Finance Index, expats live primarily in urban districts such as Dongcheng and Chaoyang in the east, or in suburban districts such as Shunyi. Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had other names. The name Beijing, which means Northern Capital, was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming Dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing, the English spelling is based on the pinyin romanisation of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. Those dialects preserve the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 京 as kjaeng, the single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, which appears on automobile license plates in the city. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is BJ, the earliest traces of human habitation in the Beijing municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District, where Peking Man lived. Homo erectus fossils from the date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago. Paleolithic Homo sapiens also lived more recently, about 27,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality, including in Wangfujing, the first walled city in Beijing was Ji, a city from the 11th to 7th century BC
28.
Sogou
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Sogou, Inc. is a subsidiary of Sohu, Inc. founded on 9 August 2010. It is the owner and developer of Sogou search engine, Sogou Input, Sogou search engine was launched on 3 August 2004. Sogous web application products are designed to classify online information, such as music, picture, video clip, news, map, initially released in 2006, Sogou Pinyin is the most popular Chinese input software in China. It makes use of its search engine techniques which are the analysis, started in December 2008, Sogou browser adopts a dual-core techniques and it connects to the cloud to recognize malicious websites and software. On 17 September 2013, it was announced that Tencent has acquired a 36. 5% stake in Sogou. com for US$448 million, Sogou – Official website Censorship in China
29.
Google Play Music
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Google Play Music is a music and podcast streaming service and online music locker operated by Google. Users with standard accounts can upload and listen to up to 50,000 songs from their personal libraries at no cost, an All Access subscription, sold in combination with YouTube Red, entitles users to on-demand streaming of any song in the Google Play Music catalogue. Users can purchase additional tracks for their library through the music section of Google Play. In addition to offering music streaming for Internet-connected devices, the Google Play Music mobile apps allow music to be stored and listened to offline. The service was announced on May 10,2011, and after a six-month, invitation-only beta period, it was publicly launched on November 16. Google Play Music offers all users storage of up to 50,000 files from their music collection online at no cost, songs purchased through the Google Play Store do not count against the 50, 000-song upload limit. Songs can be downloaded on the apps for offline playback. Standard users located in the United States and Canada can listen to free, curated radio, based on an activity, your mood, american and Canadian users of a Standard account can skip up to six songs per hour when listening to curated radio. When subscribing to Google Play Music, users get access to 40 million songs, without advertisements during listening, no limit on number of skips, a one-time 30-day free trial for a Premium subscription to Google Play Music is offered for new users. On computers, music can be listened to from a dedicated Google Play Music section of the Google Play website, on smartphones and tablets, music can be listened to through the Google Play Music mobile app for the Android and iOS operating systems. Up to five smartphones can be used to access the library in Google Play Music, listening is limited to one device at a time. Music can be downloaded for offline playback on the mobile apps, for music uploaded to Google Play Music, files can be up to 300 MB, and must be in one of the following file formats, MP3, AAC, WMA, FLAC, Ogg, or ALAC. In January 2012, a feature was added to Google Music allowing users to download MP3 copies of any file in their library from the web, Google Play Music was one of the first four apps compatible with Googles Chromecast digital media player that launched in July 2013. In October 2014, a new Listen Now feature was introduced, providing contextual and curated recommendations, the feature was adapted from technology by Songza, which Google acquired earlier in the year. In February 2015, Google expanded the capacity of each users upload limit from 20,000 music files to 50,000, in November 2016, Google introduced the Google Home smart speaker system, with built-in support for Google Play Music. A music service was announced at the following years I/O conference on May 10,2011. After a six-month beta period, Google publicly launched the service in the US on November 16,2011, as Google Music with its These Go to Eleven announcement event.11.2011 Toronto, Canada. Google announced in October 2012 that they had signed deals with Warner Music Group that would bring their music catalog to the service
30.
Censorship by Google
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In February 2003, Google stopped showing the advertisements of Oceana, a non-profit organization protesting a major cruise ship operations sewage treatment practices. Google cited its editorial policy at the time, stating Google does not accept advertising if the ad or site advocates against other individuals, groups, Google removed the Web search ads after an investigation by NARAL found evidence that the ads violate Googles policy against deceptive advertising. According to NARAL, people using Google to search for abortion clinics got ads advertising crisis pregnancy centers that were in fact anti-abortion. Google said in a statement that it had followed normal procedures in applying its ad policy standards related to ad relevance, clarity. Googles official blog of April revealed that the imagery was still available in KML format on Google Earth or Google Maps, in March 2008, Google removed Street View and 360 degree images of military bases per The Pentagons request. To protect the privacy and anonymity of individuals, Google selectively blurred photographs containing car license plates and peoples faces in Google Street View. Users may request further blurring of images that feature the user, their family, users can also request the removal of images that feature inappropriate content. In some countries it modifies images of specific buildings, in the United States, Google Street View adjusts or omits certain images deemed of interest to national security by the federal government. In the United Kingdom, it was reported that Google had delisted Inquisition 21st century, Google later released a press statement suggesting Inquisition 21 had attempted to manipulate search results. Google has complied with laws by not including sites containing such material in its search results. However, Google does list the number of excluded results at the bottom of the search result page, as of December 12,2012, in the U. S. Australia and some other countries Google removed the option to turn off the SafeSearch image filter entirely, prior to the change three SafeSearch settings—on, moderate, and off—were available to users. Following the change, two Filter explicit results settings—on and off—were newly established, the former and new on settings are similar, and exclude explicit images from search results. The change brings image search results into line with Googles existing settings for web, some users have stated that the lack of a completely unfiltered option amounts to censorship by Google. In January 2010, Google was reported to have stopped providing automatic suggestions for any search beginning with the term Islam is, according to Wired. com, a Google spokesperson stated, this is a bug and we’re working to fix it as quickly as we can. Suggestions for Islam is were available later that month, the word Bilderberg and the family name Buchanan were also reportedly censored in the auto-complete results, but were available by February 2010 as well. Nonetheless, Google continues to filter certain words from autocomplete suggestions, the publication 2600, The Hacker Quarterly has compiled a list of words that are restricted by Google Instant. These are terms that the companys Instant Search feature will not search, most terms are often vulgar and derogatory in nature, but some apparently irrelevant searches including Myleak are removed
31.
Golden Shield Project
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The Golden Shield Project, a major part of which is the Great Firewall of China, is a censorship and surveillance project that blocks potentially unfavorable incoming data from foreign countries. It is operated by the Ministry of Public Security of the government of China, the project was initiated in 1998 and began operations in November 2003. It has also seemingly been used to attack international web sites using Man-on-the-side DDoS, the saying is related to a period of the economic reform of China that became known as the socialist market economy. Superseding the political ideologies of the Cultural Revolution, the reform led China towards a market economy, nonetheless, despite the economic freedom, values and political ideas of the Communist Party of China have had to be protected by swatting flies of other unwanted ideologies. The Internet in China arrived in 1994, as the consequence of. Gradually, while Internet availability has been increasing, the Internet has become a communication platform. The Ministry of Public Security took initial steps to control Internet use in 1997, the key sections, Articles 4-6, are, Individuals are prohibited from using the Internet to, harm national security, disclose state secrets, or injure the interests of the state or society. Users are prohibited from engaging in activities that harm the security of information networks. In 1998, the Communist Party of China feared that the China Democracy Party would breed a new network that the party elites might not be able to control. The CDP was immediately banned, followed by arrests and imprisonment and that same year, the Golden Shield project was started. The first part of the project lasted eight years and was completed in 2006, the second part began in 2006 and ended in 2008. At the exhibition, many western high-tech products, including Internet security, video monitoring and it is estimated that around 30, 000-50,000 police are employed in this gigantic project. A subsystem of the Golden Shield has been nicknamed the Great Firewall in reference to its role as a network firewall and to the ancient Great Wall of China. This part of the project includes the ability to block content by preventing IP addresses from being routed through and consists of standard firewalls, the system also selectively engages in DNS cache poisoning when particular sites are requested. The government does not appear to be systematically examining Internet content, because of its disconnection from the larger world of IP routing protocols, the network contained within the Great Firewall has been described as the Chinese autonomous routing domain. The empirical study by the OpenNet Initiative found that China has the most sophisticated content-filtering Internet regime in the world, compared to similar efforts in other countries, CPC Government effectively filters content by employing multiple methods of regulation and technical controls. In contrast, the PRC-sponsored news agency, Xinhua, stated that censorship targets only superstitious, pornographic, violence-related, gambling and these sites include Voice of America and the Chinese edition of BBC News. Sites related to the Taiwanese government, media, or other organizations, including dedicated to religious content
32.
Tank Man
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As the lead tank maneuvered to pass by the man, he repeatedly shifted his position in order to obstruct the tanks attempted path around him. The incident was filmed and seen worldwide, there were only a few sources who caught the incident on tape. More than 25 years after the incident, there is no information about the identity or fate of the man. At least one witness has stated that Tank Man was not the person who had opposed the tanks during the protest. Shao Jiang, who was a student leader, said, I witnessed a lot of the standing up. Tank Man is unique in that he is the one who was photographed and videoed. The incident took place at the edge of Tiananmen Square, along Changan Avenue, on June 5,1989. The man stood in the middle of the avenue, directly in the path of a column of approaching Type 59 tanks. He wore a shirt and black trousers, and he held two shopping bags. As the tanks came to a stop, the man gestured towards the tanks with one of the bags, in response, the lead tank attempted to drive around the man, but the man repeatedly stepped into the path of the tank in a show of nonviolent action. After repeatedly attempting to go rather than crush the man, the lead tank stopped its engines. There was a pause with the man and the tanks having reached a quiet. He then climbed atop the turret and seemed to have a conversation with a crew member at the gunners hatch. After ending the conversation, the man descended from the tank, the tank commander briefly emerged from his hatch, and the tanks restarted their engines, ready to continue on. At that point, the man, who was standing within a meter or two from the side of the lead tank, leaped in front of the vehicle once again. Video footage shows two figures in blue pulling the man away and disappearing with him into a nearby crowd, eyewitnesses are unsure who pulled him aside. In April 1998, Time included the Unknown Rebel in a feature titled Time 100, little is publicly known of the mans identity or that of the commander of the lead tank. One party member was quoted as saying, We can’t find him and we got his name from journalists
33.
Public Broadcasting Service
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The Public Broadcasting Service is an American non-profit public broadcaster and television program distributor headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is funded by member dues, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, government agencies, corporations, foundations. All proposed funding is subjected to a set of standards to ensure the program is free of influence from the funding source, since the mid 2000s, Roper polls commissioned by PBS have consistently placed the service as the most-trusted national institution in the United States. This arbitrary distinction is a frequent source of viewer confusion and it also operates National Datacast, a subsidiary which offers datacasting services via member stations, and provides additional revenue for PBS and its member stations. Founded by Hartford N. Gunn Jr, in 1973, it merged with Educational Television Stations. Each station is charged with the responsibility of programming content for their individual market or state that supplements content provided by PBS. By contrast, PBS member stations pay fees for the acquired and distributed by the national organization. Under this relationship, PBS member stations have greater latitude in local scheduling than their commercial broadcasting counterparts, scheduling of PBS-distributed series may vary greatly depending on the market. This can be a source of tension as stations seek to preserve their localism, however, PBS has a policy of common carriage, which requires most stations to clear the national prime time programs on a common programming schedule to market them nationally more effectively. Management at former Los Angeles member KCET cited unresolvable financial and programming disputes among its reasons for leaving PBS after over 40 years in January 2011. Most PBS stations timeshift some distributed programs, once PBS accepts a program offered for distribution, PBS, rather than the originating member station, retains exclusive rebroadcasting rights during an agreed period. Suppliers retain the right to sell the program in non-broadcast media such as DVDs, books, in 1991, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting resumed production for most PBS shows that debuted prior to 1977, with the exceptions of Washington Week in Review and Wall Street Week. In 1994, The Chronicle of Philanthropy released the results of the largest study on the popularity and credibility of charitable, the strategy began that fall, with the intent to expand the in-program breaks to the remainder of the schedule if successful. In 2011, PBS released apps for iOS and Android to allow viewing of videos on mobile devices. An update in 2015 added Chromecast support, PBS initially struggled to compete with online media such as YouTube for market share. In a 2012 speech to 850 top executives from PBS stations, in the speech, later described as a “seminal moment” for public television, he laid out his vision for a new style of PBS digital video production. Station leadership rallied around his vision and Seiken formed PBS Digital Studios, which began producing educational but edgy videos, something Seiken called “PBS-quality with a YouTube sensibility. ”The studio’s first hit, in 2012, PBS began organizing much of its prime time programming around a genre-based schedule. PBS broadcasts childrens programming as part of the morning and afternoon schedule
34.
Sergey Brin
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Sergey Mikhaylovich Brin is an American computer scientist, internet entrepreneur, and philanthropist. Together with Larry Page, he co-founded Google, Brin is the President of Googles parent company Alphabet Inc. In October 2016, Brin was the 12th richest person in the world, Brin immigrated to the United States with his family from the Soviet Union at the age of 6. He earned his bachelors degree at the University of Maryland, following in his fathers and grandfathers footsteps by studying mathematics, after graduation, he moved to Stanford University to acquire a PhD in computer science. There he met Page, with whom he became friends. They crammed their dormitory room with computers and applied Brins data mining system to build a web search engine. The program became popular at Stanford, and they suspended their PhD studies to start up Google in a rented garage, Brin was born in Moscow in the Soviet Union, to Russian Jewish parents, Yevgenia and Mikhail Brin, both graduates of Moscow State University. His father is a professor at the University of Maryland. In May 1979, when Brin was five years old, his family felt compelled to emigrate out of the Soviet Union. In an interview with Mark Malseed, co-author of The Google Story, Mikhail Brin therefore changed his major to mathematics where he received nearly straight As. In another interview with Dominic Lawson of The Independent, Mikhail said and he went on to tell Lawson how MSU required Jews to take their entrance exams in different rooms from non-Jewish applicants, and how they were marked on a harsher scale. The Brin family lived in an apartment in central Moscow. Brin told Malseed, Ive known for a time that my father wasnt able to pursue the career he wanted. In 1977, after his returned from a mathematics conference in Warsaw, Poland. We cannot stay here any more, he told his wife, at the conference, he was able to mingle freely with colleagues from the United States, France, England and Germany and discovered that his intellectual brethren in the West were not monsters. He added, I was the one in the family who decided it was really important to leave. Sergeys mother was willing to leave their home in Moscow. Malseed writes, For Genia, the decision came down to Sergey
35.
Input method
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An input method is an operating system component or program that allows any data, such as keyboard strokes or mouse movements, to be received as input. In this way users can enter characters and symbols not found on their input devices, using an input method is obligatory for any language that has more graphemes than there are keys on the keyboard. On some operating systems, a method is also used to define the behaviour of the dead keys. Although originally coined for CJK computing, the term is now used generically to refer to a program to support the input of any language. To illustrate, in the X Window System, the facility to allow the input of Latin characters with diacritics is also called an input method. On Windows XP or later Windows, Input method, or IME, are also called Text Input Processor and this term has, for example, gained general acceptance on the GNU/Linux operating system, it is also used on the Mac OS. The term input method generally refers to a way to use the keyboard to input a particular language, for example the Cangjie method. On the other hand, the input method editor on Microsoft products refers to the actual program that allows an input method to be used. PRIME, or SCIM prefer the term of Input Method Engine, Input Method platform or Input Method environment and it can also refer to a character palette, which allows any Unicode character to be input individually. One might also interpret IME to refer to the used for creating or modifying the data files upon which an input method relies. T9/XT9—Type the key for every letter once, then, if needed, may also correct misspellings and regional typos. ITap—Similar to first-generation T9, with word autocomplete, letterWise—Hit the key with the letter you want, if it doesnt come up, hit Next until it does. Fleksy—Eyes-free touch typing for touchscreen devices, also used by blind / visually impaired people, swiftKey - context-sensitive word-prediction FITALY An array, almost square, which minimizes distance traveled from one letter to another. Google Transliteration IMEs UrduIME An IME for Urdu Language InputKing Online Input System, with this online IME, CJKV Input Method Editors for MS Word VBA macros for input Asian characters and for text conversion
36.
Sohu
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Sohu, Inc. is a Chinese Internet company headquartered in the Sohu Internet Plaza in Haidian District, Beijing. This company and its subsidiaries offer advertising, an engine, on-line multiplayer gaming. For the fiscal year ended December 31,2007, Sohu Inc. s revenues increased 41% to $188. 9M, net income increased 31% to $35M. Sohu was ranked as the worlds third- and twelfth-fastest growing company by Fortune in 2009 and 2010, as of August 2011, Sohu is the 44th overall in Alexas internet rankings. On February 8,2005, the company reported a drop in net income to $6.5 million. On December 23,2005, the company was to operate an online TV station to provide point-to-point video services in 2006, on April 9,2007, Googles spokesman Cui Jin has admitted that the pinyin Google IME was built leveraging some non-Google database resources. In November 2005, Sohu was selected to be the Official Internet Content Service Sponsor of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, Sohu was provided exclusive services to construct, operate and host the official Beijing Olympics website. Sohu has been listed on NASDAQ since 2000, on 7 March 2013, reports surfaced that the company wanted to go private. However, Carol Yu, the Chief Financial Officer, of Sohu denied the rumor, sohu’s Sogou. com search engine was in talks to be sold in July 2013 to Qihoo for around $1.4 billion. On September 17,2013, it was announced that Tencent has invested $448 million for a minority share in Chinese search engine Sogou. com, Sohu Home page Sohu English, a portal for English learners
37.
Human rights in China
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Human rights in China are a highly contested topic, on which the government of the Peoples Republic of China and various foreign governments and human rights organizations have often disagreed. PRC authorities, their supporters, and other proponents claim that existing policies, authorities in the PRC, referring to this definition, claim that human rights are being improved. They do not, however, use the used by most countries. PRC politicians have repeatedly maintained that, according to the PRC Constitution, PRC officials interpret the primacy of the Four Cardinal Principles as a legal basis for the arrest of people who the government says seek to overthrow the principles. Other areas of concern include the lack of recognition of human rights and the lack of an independent judiciary, rule of law. Some Chinese activist groups are trying to expand these freedoms, including Human Rights in China, Chinese Human Rights Defenders, Chinese human rights attorneys who take on cases related to these issues, however, often face harassment, disbarment, and arrest. Since the legal reforms of the late 1970s and 1980s, the Communist Party of China has officially moved to embrace the language of the rule of law, in the process, it has enacted thousands of new laws and regulations, and has begun training more legal professionals. The concept of rule of law has been emphasized in the constitution, at the same time, however, a fundamental contradiction exists in the constitution itself, in which the Communist Party insists that its authority supersedes that of the law. Thus, the constitution enshrines the rule of law, yet simultaneously stresses the principle that the leadership of the Communist Party holds primacy over the law. The judiciary is not independent of the Communist Party, and judges face political pressure, in many instances, in this way, the CPC effectively controls the judiciary through its influence. This influence has produced a system described as rule by law. Moreover, the system lacks protections for civil rights. Foreign experts estimate that in 2000, there were between 1.5 million and 4 million people in prison in China, China does not allow outsiders to inspect the penal system. During the 2008 Summer Olympics, the government promised to issue permits authorizing people to protest in specifically designated protest parks in Beijing, however, a majority of the applications were withdrawn, suspended, or vetoed, and the police detained some of the people who applied. Foreign Internet search engines including Microsoft Bing, Yahoo. and Google China have come under criticism for aiding these practices, Yahoo. in particular, stated that it will not protect the privacy and confidentiality of its Chinese customers from the authorities. Skype president Josh Silverman said it was common knowledge that TOM Online had established procedures to. block instant messages containing certain words deemed offensive by the Chinese authorities, critics argue that the CPC has failed to live up to its promises about the freedom of the mainland Chinese media. Freedom House consistently ranks China as Not Free in its annual press freedom survey, in 2008, ITV News reporter John Ray was arrested while covering a Free Tibet protest. International media coverage of Tibetan protests only a few months before the Beijing Olympics in 2008 triggered a strong reaction inside China, Foreign journalists also reported that their access to certain websites, including those of human rights organizations, was restricted
38.
Human rights
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Human rights are moral principles or norms, which describe certain standards of human behaviour, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They are applicable everywhere and at time in the sense of being universal. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on circumstances, for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture. The doctrine of human rights has been influential within international law. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide, the idea of human rights suggests that if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights. The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature, ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the family is the foundation of freedom. All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties, conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, one theory is that human rights were developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, for example, McIntyre argues there is no word for right in any language before 1400. One of the oldest records of rights is the statute of Kalisz, giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship. The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating from natural law, in particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of extending rights to indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions, additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the term had been used by at least one author as early as 1742, in the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery
39.
Falun Gong
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Through moral rectitude and the practice of meditation, practitioners of Falun Gong aspire to eliminate attachments, and ultimately to achieve spiritual enlightenment. Falun Gong was first taught publicly in Northeast China in 1992 by Li Hongzhi and it emerged toward the end of Chinas qigong boom—a period which saw the proliferation of similar practices of meditation, slow-moving exercises and regulated breathing. It differs from other schools in its absence of fees or formal membership, lack of daily rituals of worship, its greater emphasis on morality. Western academics have described Falun Gong as a discipline, a spiritual movement. By 1999, government estimates placed the number of Falun Gong practitioners at 70 million and this demonstration is widely seen as catalyzing the persecution that followed. On 20 July 1999, the Communist Party leadership initiated a nationwide crackdown and it blocked Internet access to websites that mention Falun Gong, and in October 1999 it declared Falun Gong a heretical organization that threatened social stability. As of 2009, human rights groups estimated that at least 2,000 Falun Gong practitioners had died as a result of abuse in custody, some observers put the number much higher, and report that tens of thousands may have been killed to supply Chinas organ transplant industry. In the years since the persecution began, Falun Gong practitioners have become active in advocating for human rights in China. Falun Gong founder Li Hongzhi has lived in the United States since 1996, inside China, estimates suggest that tens of millions continued to practice Falun Gong in spite of the persecution. Hundreds of thousands are estimated to practice Falun Gong outside China in over 70 countries worldwide, Falun Gong is most frequently identified with the qigong movement in China. Qigong is a term that refers to a variety of practices involving slow movement, meditation. Qigong-like exercises have historically practiced by Buddhist monks, Daoist martial artists, and Confucian scholars as a means of spiritual, moral. The modern qigong movement emerged in the early 1950s, when Communist cadres embraced the techniques as a way to improve health, the new term was constructed to avoid association with religious practices, which were prone to being labeled as feudal superstition and persecuted during the Maoist era. Early adopters of qigong eschewed its religious overtones and regarded qigong principally as a branch of Chinese medicine, in the late 1970s, Chinese scientists purported to have discovered the material existence of the qi energy which qigong seeks to harness. At one time, over 2,000 disciplines of qigong were being taught, the state-run China Qigong Science Research Society was established in 1985 to oversee and administer the movement. On 13 May 1992, Li Hongzhi gave his first public seminar on Falun Gong in the city of Changchun. Falun Dafa is said to be the result of his reorganizing and writing down the teachings that were passed to him, the practice identifies with the Buddhist School but also draws on concepts and language found in Taoism and Confucianism. This has led scholars to label the practice as a syncretic faith
40.
Encryption
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In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only authorized parties can access it. Encryption does not of itself prevent interference, but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor, in an encryption scheme, the intended information or message, referred to as plaintext, is encrypted using an encryption algorithm, generating ciphertext that can only be read if decrypted. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses an encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is in possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key. An authorized recipient can decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients. In symmetric-key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the same, communicating parties must have the same key before they can achieve secure communication. In public-key encryption schemes, the key is published for anyone to use. However, only the party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read. Public-key encryption was first described in a document in 1973. Encryption has long used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. It is now used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. Encryption can be used to protect data at rest, such as stored on computers. In recent years, there have been reports of confidential data, such as customers personal records. Encrypting such files at rest helps protect them should physical security measures fail, in response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. There have been reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years. Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against eavesdropping of network traffic by unauthorized users, standards for cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption, see, e. g. traffic analysis, TEMPEST, or Trojan horse
41.
Intellectual property
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Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, the Statute of Monopolies and the British Statute of Anne are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. The first known use of the intellectual property dates to 1769. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, the German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property to the confederation. According to Lemley, it was only at point that the term really began to be used in the United States. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I for monopoly privileges, the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown. The statement that discoveries are. property goes back earlier, in Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time, the concepts origins can potentially be traced back further. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one years patent to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury. Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, a copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed, an industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern, an industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant breeders rights or plant variety rights are the rights to use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined, a trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders
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