1.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
2.
Cattle
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Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
3.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
4.
Piedmont
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Piedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,402 square kilometres and a population of about 4.6 million, the capital of Piedmont is Turin. The name Piedmont comes from medieval Latin Pedemontium or Pedemontis, i. e. ad pedem montium, meaning “at the foot of the mountains”. Other towns of Piedmont with more than 20,000 inhabitants sorted by population and it borders with France, Switzerland and the Italian regions of Lombardy, Liguria, Aosta Valley and for a very small fragment with Emilia Romagna. The geography of Piedmont is 43. 3% mountainous, along with areas of hills. Piedmont is the second largest of Italys 20 regions, after Sicily and it is broadly coincident with the upper part of the drainage basin of the river Po, which rises from the slopes of Monviso in the west of the region and is Italy’s largest river. The Po collects all the waters provided within the semicircle of mountains which surround the region on three sides, from the highest peaks the land slopes down to hilly areas, and then to the upper, and then to the lower great Padan Plain. 7. 6% of the territory is considered protected area. There are 56 different national or regional parks, one of the most famous is the Gran Paradiso National Park located between Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celtic-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They were later subdued by the Romans, who founded several colonies there including Augusta Taurinorum, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks. In the 9th–10th centuries there were incursions by the Magyars. At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks, in 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main territory of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry. Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful comuni of Asti and Alessandria, the County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, founding what evolved into the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Republic of Alba was created in 1796 as a French client republic in Piedmont. A new client republic, the Piedmontese Republic, existed between 1798 and 1799 before it was reoccupied by Austrian and Russian troops, in June 1800 a third client republic, the Subalpine Republic, was established in Piedmont. It fell under full French control in 1801 and it was annexed by France in September 1802, in the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and furthermore received the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a barrier against France. Piedmont was a springboard for Italys unification in 1859–1861, following earlier unsuccessful wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820–1821 and this process is sometimes referred to as Piedmontisation. However, the efforts were countered by the efforts of rural farmers
5.
Lombardy
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Lombardy is one of the twenty administrative regions of Italy, in the northwest of the country, with an area of 23,844 square kilometres. Milan, Lombardys capital, is the second-largest city and the largest metropolitan area in Italy, the word Lombardy comes from Lombard, which in turn is derived from Late Latin Longobardus, Langobardus, derived from the Proto-Germanic elements *langaz + *bardaz, equivalent to long beard. Some sources derive the second element instead from Proto-Germanic *bardǭ, *barduz, Lombardy referred during the early Middle Ages to the entire territory of Italy ruled by the Lombards, a Germanic tribe who conquered much of the Italian peninsula beginning in the 6th century. During the late Middle Ages, the term shifted meaning and was used to identify the whole of Northern Italy, with a surface of 23,861 km2, Lombardy is the 4th largest region of Italy. It is bordered by Switzerland and by the Italian regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, three distinct natural zones can be fairly easily distinguished in the Lombardy region, mountains, hills and plains – the latter being divided in Alta and Bassa. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above made is the subregion of Oltrepò Pavese, formed by the Apennine foothills beyond the Po River. The mighty Po river marks the border of the region for a length of about 210 km. In its progress it receives the waters of the Ticino River, the other streams which contribute to the great river are, the Olona, the Lambro, the Adda, the Oglio and the Mincio. The numerous lakes of Lombardy, all of glacial origin, lie in the northern highlands, from west to east these are Lake Maggiore, Lake Lugano, Lake Como, Lake Iseo, Lake Idro, then Lake Garda, the largest in Italy. A minor mountainous area, the Oltrepò Pavese, lies south of the Po, in the plains, intensively cultivated for centuries, little of the original environment remains. The most commons trees are elm, alder, sycamore, poplar, willow, in the area of the foothills lakes, however, grow olive trees, cypresses and larches, as well as varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolias, azaleas, acacias. Numerous species of flora in the Prealpine area include some kinds of saxifrage, the Lombard garlic, groundsels bellflowers. The highlands are characterized by the vegetation of the whole range of the Italian Alps. At a lower levels oak woods or broadleafed trees grow, on the slopes beech trees grow at the lowest limits. Shrubs such as rhododendron, dwarf pine and juniper are native to the summital zone, Lombardy has a wide array of climates, due to local variances in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. In addition, there is a seasonal temperature variation. A peculiarity of the climate is the thick fog that covers the plains between October and February. In the Alpine foothills, characterised by an Oceanic climate, numerous lakes exercise a mitigating influence, in the hills and mountains, the climate is humid continental
6.
Province of Brescia
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The Province of Brescia is a Province in Lombardy, northern Italy. It has a population of some 1,200,000 As of 2016, the province of Brescia stretches between Lake Iseo in the west, Lake Garda in the east, the Southern Rhaetian Alps in the north and the Lombardian plains in the south. The main rivers of the province are the Oglio, the Mella, rock Drawings in Valcamonica, Brescia, one of the places of Longobard power, Prehistoric settlements of Lavagnone, Lugana Vecchia, Lucone, San Sivino and Gabbiano. Communes of the province of Brescia Official website
7.
Casale Monferrato
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Casale Monferrato is a town in the Piedmont region in Italy, in the province of Alessandria. It is situated about 60 km east of Turin on the bank of the Po. Beyond the river lies the vast plain of the Po valley, since it became a Roman municipium the town has been the most important center of the zone. Then the Gonzaga got hold of the town and built one of the biggest and most important citadel of Europe, thousands of inhabitants of Casale have died from mesothelioma, a fatal disease caused by the breathing of asbestos. The origins of the town are fairly obscure and it is known that the Gaulish settlement of Vardacate existed on the Po in this area, and that it became a Roman municipium. By the beginning of the 8th century, there was a town under Lombard rule. It was here that one Saint Evasius, along with 146 followers, was decapitated on the orders of the Arian Duke Attabulo, liutprand, King of the Lombards is said to have supported the construction of a church in honour of Evasius. Certainly the martyr’s cult flourished, and by 988 AD, the town had become known as Casale di Sant’Evasio. At the time of Charlemagne, the town came under the temporal and religious power of the bishops of Vercelli, from which it was freed by Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Italy. It was sacked by the troops of Vercelli, Alessandria and Milan in 1215. It fell under the power of the Marquess of Montferrat in 1292, Gian Galeazzo spent 300,000 golden florins in attempting to turn from their courses the river Mincio from the city of Mantua, but Gian Galeazzo died. In 1536 it passed to the Gonzagas of Mantua, who fortified it strongly, thereafter it was of considerable importance as a fortress. In 1745, following the defeat of the Piedmontese army at the Battle of Bassignano, Casale was occupied by the victorious French, much damage was caused to the city’s buildings, the subsequent renovation and rebuilding in the Baroque style made a substantial contribution to the urban texture. It successfully resisted the Austrians in 1849, and was strengthened in 1852, the historic centre of the town is itself centred on Piazza Mazzini, the site of the Roman forum. Locally the square is called Piazza Cavallo, a little to the east of the square is the Lombard Romanesque cathedral of SantEvasio, founded in 742, rebuilt in the early 12th century and consecrated on 7 January 1107 by Pope Paschal II. It occupies a site once was a Roman temple dedicated to Jupiter. It underwent restoration in 1706 and again in the 19th century, the cathedral has an asymmetric façade, including a complex narthex with two galleries connected by a tribune and closed by round arches. The interior houses the relics of Saint Evasius and, near the presbytery, work on the building ceased for some time, as a result of political instability, in the early 16th century a fine, if slightly incongruous, Renaissance portal was imposed on the late Gothic façade
8.
Risotto
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Risotto /rᵻˈzɒtoʊ/ is a northern Italian rice dish cooked in a broth to a creamy consistency. The broth can be derived from meat, fish, or vegetables, many types of risotto contain butter, wine, and onion. It is one of the most common ways of cooking rice in Italy, Risotto in Italy is normally a primo, served on its own before the main course, but risotto alla milanese, is often served together with ossobuco alla milanese. A high-starch, low-amylose round medium- or short- grain white rice is used for making risotto. Such rices have the ability to absorb liquids and to release starch, the principal varieties used in Italy are Arborio, Baldo, Carnaroli, Maratelli, Padano, Roma, and Vialone Nano. Carnaroli, Maratelli and Vialone Nano are considered to be the best varieties, for example, Carnaroli is less likely than Vialone Nano to get overcooked, but the latter, being smaller, cooks faster and absorbs condiments better. Other varieties like Roma, Baldo, Ribe and Originario may be used and these varieties are considered better for soups and other non-risotto rice dishes and for making sweet rice desserts. Rice designations of Superfino, Semifino and Fino refer to the size and shape of the grains, there are many different risotto recipes with different ingredients, but they are all based on rice of an appropriate variety, cooked in a standard procedure. The rice is first cooked briefly in a soffritto of onion and butter or olive oil, to coat each grain in a film of fat, called tostatura, white or red wine is added and must be absorbed by the grains. At that point, the pot is taken off the heat for the mantecatura, to make the texture as creamy and it may be removed from the heat a few minutes earlier and left to cook with its residual heat. Properly cooked risotto is rich and creamy, but has some resistance or bite and separate grains, the traditional texture is fairly fluid, or allonda. It is served on flat dishes and should easily spread out and it must be eaten at once, as it continues to cook in its own heat and can become too dry with the grains too soft. Many variations have their own names, Maratelli rice, historical variety of Italian rice production Paella Pilaf List of Italian dishes List of rice dishes Barrett, Judith, and Wasserman, Norma. Risotto Secrets, The Six Steps to Risotto Perfection—Italy In SF WNYC - Last Chance Foods, Common Sense Risotto, Lidia Bastianichs How to Cook Risotto How RISOTTO ALLA MILANESE was born
9.
Spaghetti
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Spaghetti is a long, thin, cylindrical, solid pasta. It is a food of traditional Italian cuisine. Like other pasta, spaghetti is made of milled wheat and water, Italian spaghetti is made from durum wheat semolina, but elsewhere it may be made with other kinds of flour. Originally spaghetti was notably long, but shorter lengths gained in popularity during the half of the 20th century. A variety of dishes are based on it. Spaghetti is the form of the Italian word spaghetto, which is a diminutive of spago. The first written record of pasta comes from the Talmud in the 5th century AD and refers to dried pasta that could be cooked through boiling, some historians think that Arabs introduced pasta to Europe during a conquest of Sicily. The popularity of spaghetti spread throughout Italy after the establishment of factories in the 19th century. Spaghetti is made from grain and water. Whole-wheat and multigrain spaghetti are also available, at its simplest, spaghetti can be formed using no more than a rolling pin and a knife. A home pasta machine simplifies the rolling, and makes the cutting more uniform, fresh spaghetti would normally be cooked within hours of being formed. Commercial versions of fresh spaghetti are manufactured, the bulk of dried spaghetti is produced in factories using auger extruders. While essentially simple, the process requires attention to detail to ensure that the mixing and kneading of the ingredients produces a homogeneous mix, the forming dies have to be water cooled to prevent spoiling of the pasta by overheating. Drying of the newly formed spaghetti has to be controlled to prevent strands sticking together. Packaging for protection and display has developed from paper wrapping to plastic bags, fresh or dry spaghetti is cooked in a large pot of salted, boiling water and then drained in a colander. In Italy, spaghetti is cooked al dente, fully cooked. It may also be cooked to a softer consistency, spaghettoni is a thicker spaghetti which takes more time to cook. Spaghettini is a form which takes less time to cook
10.
Pizza
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Pizza is a yeasted flatbread generally topped with tomato sauce and cheese and baked in an oven. It is commonly topped with a selection of meats, vegetables, the term was first recorded in the 10th century, in a Latin manuscript from Gaeta in Central Italy. The modern pizza was invented in Naples, Italy, and the dish and its variants have become popular. In 2009, upon Italys request, Neapolitan pizza was safeguarded in the European Union as a Traditional Speciality Guaranteed dish, the Associazione Verace Pizza Napoletana is a non-profit organization founded in 1984 with headquarters in Naples. It promotes and protects the true Neapolitan pizza, Pizza is sold fresh or frozen, either whole or in portions, and is a common fast food item in Europe and North America. Various types of ovens are used to them and many varieties exist. Several similar dishes are prepared from ingredients used in pizza preparation, such as calzone. Suggested etymologies include, Byzantine Greek and Late Latin pitta > pizza, modern Greek pitta bread and the Apulia and Calabrian pitta, a round flat bread baked in the oven at high temperature sometimes with toppings. The word pitta can in turn be traced to either Ancient Greek πικτή, fermented pastry, the Lombardic word bizzo or pizzo meaning mouthful, which was brought to Italy in the middle of the 6th century AD by the invading Lombards. Foods similar to pizza have been made since the neolithic age, Records of people adding other ingredients to bread to make it more flavorful can be found throughout ancient history. An early reference to a pizza-like food occurs in the Aeneid, in Book VII, Aeneas and his men are served a meal that includes round cakes topped with cooked vegetables. When they eat the bread, they realize that these are the tables prophesied by Celaeno, modern pizza evolved from similar flatbread dishes in Naples, Italy in the 18th or early 19th century. Prior to that time, flatbread was often topped with ingredients such as garlic, salt, lard, cheese and it is uncertain when tomatoes were first added and there are many conflicting claims. Until about 1830, pizza was sold from open-air stands and out of pizza bakeries, of the three different pizzas he created, the Queen strongly preferred a pizza swathed in the colors of the Italian flag, red, green, and white. Supposedly, this kind of pizza was named after the Queen. Pizza was brought to the United States with Italian immigrants in the nineteenth century. The countrys first pizzeria, Lombardis, opened in 1905, following World War II, veterans returning from the Italian Campaign after being introduced to Italys native cuisine proved a ready market for pizza in particular. Since then pizza consumption has exploded in the U. S, Pizza chains such as Dominos, Pizza Hut, and Papa Johns, pizzas from take and bake pizzerias, and chilled or frozen pizzas from supermarkets make pizza readily available nationwide
11.
Ulysses (novel)
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Ulysses is a modernist novel by Irish writer James Joyce. It is considered to be one of the most important works of modernist literature, according to Declan Kiberd, Before Joyce, no writer of fiction had so foregrounded the process of thinking. Ulysses chronicles the peripatetic appointments and encounters of Leopold Bloom in Dublin in the course of a day,16 June 1904. The novel imitates registers of centuries of English literature and is highly allusive, Ulysses is approximately 265,000 words in length and is divided into eighteen episodes. Since publication, the book has attracted controversy and scrutiny, ranging from early obscenity trials to protracted textual Joyce Wars, Joyce fans worldwide now celebrate 16 June as Bloomsday. Joyce first encountered the figure of Odysseus/Ulysses in Charles Lambs Adventures of Ulysses—an adaptation of the Odyssey for children, at school he wrote an essay on the character, entitled My Favourite Hero. Joyce told Frank Budgen that he considered Ulysses the only character in literature. Leopold Blooms home at 7 Eccles Street - Episode 4, Calypso, Episode 17, Ithaca, sweny’s pharmacy, Lombard Street, Lincoln Place. Episode 15, Circe Cabman’s shelter, Butt Bridge, - Episode 16, Eumaeus The action of the novel takes place from one side of Dublin Bay to the other, opening in Sandycove to the South of the city and closing on Howth Head to the North. Joyce divided Ulysses into 18 episodes, every episode of Ulysses has a theme, technique and correspondence between its characters and those of the Odyssey. The original text did not include these episode titles and the correspondences, instead, they originate from the Linati, Joyce referred to the episodes by their Homeric titles in his letters. It is 8 a. m. Buck Mulligan, a medical student. The three men eat breakfast and walk to the shore, where Mulligan demands from Stephen the key to the tower, departing, Stephen declares that he will not return to the tower tonight, as Mulligan, the usurper, has taken it over. Stephen is teaching a class on the victories of Pyrrhus of Epirus. After class, one student, Cyril Sargent, stays behind so that Stephen can show him how to do a set of arithmetic exercises, Stephen looks at the ugly face of Sargent and tries to imagine Sargents mothers love for him. Stephen then visits school headmaster Garrett Deasy, from whom he collects his pay, the two discuss Irish history and the role of Jews in the economy. As Stephen leaves, Deasy said that Ireland has never persecuted the Jews because the country never let them in. This episode is the source of some of the novels most famous lines, such as Dedaluss claim that history is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake and that God is a shout in the street
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