1.
Laboratory
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A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
2.
Polypropylene
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An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. Polypropylene has a relatively low energy surface that means that many common glues will not form adequate joints. Joining of polypropylene is often done using welding processes, in 2013, the global market for polypropylene was about 55 million tonnes. Polypropylene is the worlds second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after polyethylene, Polypropylene is in many aspects similar to polyethylene, especially in solution behaviour and electrical properties. The additionally present methyl group improves mechanical properties and thermal resistance, the properties of polypropylene depend on the molecular weight and molecular weight distribution, crystallinity, type and proportion of comonomer and the isotacticity. In isotactic polypropylene, for example, the CH3 groups are oriented on one side of the carbon backbone and this creates a greater degree of crystallinity and results in a stiffer material that is more resistant to creep than both atactic polypropylene and polyethylene. The density of PP is between 0.895 and 0.92 g/cm³, therefore, PP is the commodity plastic with the lowest density. With lower density, moldings parts with lower weight and more parts of a mass of plastic can be produced. Unlike polyethylene, crystalline and amorphous regions differ only slightly in their density, however, the density of polyethylene can significantly change with fillers. The Youngs modulus of PP is between 1300 and 1800 N/mm², Polypropylene is normally tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This allows polypropylene to be used as a plastic, competing with materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Polypropylene has good resistance to fatigue, the melting point of polypropylene occurs at a range, so a melting point is determined by finding the highest temperature of a differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a point of 171 °C. Commercial isotactic PP has a point that ranges from 160 to 166 °C, depending on atactic material. Syndiotactic PP with a crystallinity of 30% has a point of 130 °C. Below 0 °C, PP becomes brittle, the thermal expansion of polypropylene is very large, but somewhat less than that of polyethylene. Polypropylene is at room temperature resistant to fats and almost all organic solvents, non-oxidizing acids and bases can be stored in containers made of PP. At elevated temperature, PP can be dissolved in nonpolarity solvents such as xylene, due to the tertiary carbon atom PP is chemically less resistant than PE
3.
Glass
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Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
4.
Autoclave
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An autoclave is a pressure chamber used to carry out industrial processes requiring elevated temperature and pressure different from ambient air pressure. Autoclaves are used in applications to perform sterilization and in the chemical industry to cure coatings and vulcanize rubber. They are also used in applications, especially regarding composites. Many autoclaves are used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to saturated steam at 121 °C for around 15–20 minutes depending on the size of the load. The autoclave was invented by Charles Chamberland in 1879, although a precursor known as the steam digester was created by Denis Papin in 1679, the name comes from Greek auto-, ultimately meaning self, and Latin clavis meaning key, thus a self-locking device. Sterilization autoclaves are used in microbiology, medicine, podiatry, tattooing, body piercing, veterinary medicine, mycology, funeral homes, dentistry. They vary in size and function depending on the media to be sterilized, typical loads include laboratory glassware, other equipment and waste, surgical instruments, and medical waste. A notable recent and increasingly popular application of autoclaves is the treatment and sterilization of waste material. A new generation of waste converters is capable of achieving the effect without a pressure vessel to sterilize culture media, rubber material, gowns, dressings, gloves. It is particularly useful for materials which cannot withstand the temperature of a hot air oven. Autoclaves are also used to cure composites and in the vulcanization of rubber. The high heat and pressure that autoclaves allow help to ensure that the best possible properties are repeatable. The aerospace industry and sparmakers have autoclaves well over 50 feet long, other types of autoclave are used to grow crystals under high temperatures and pressures. Synthetic quartz crystals used in the industry are grown in autoclaves. Packing of parachutes for specialist applications may be performed under vacuum in an autoclave and it is very important to ensure that all of the trapped air is removed from the autoclave before activation, as trapped air is a very poor medium for achieving sterility. Steam at 134 °C can achieve in three minutes the same sterility that hot air at 160 °C can take two hours to achieve. Methods of air removal include, Downward displacement, As steam enters the chamber and this process compresses the air to the bottom, forcing it out through a drain which often contains a temperature sensor. Only when air evacuation is complete does the discharge stop, flow is usually controlled by a steam trap or a solenoid valve, but bleed holes are sometimes used, often in conjunction with a solenoid valve
5.
Ground glass joint
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Ground glass joints are used in laboratories to quickly and easily fit leak-tight apparatus together from commonly available parts. For example, a round bottom flask, Liebig condenser, to connect the hollow inner spaces of the glassware components, ground glass joints are hollow on the inside and open at the ends, except for stoppers. Crude versions of conically tapered ground glass joints have been made for quite a while, particularly for stoppers for glass bottles and these days, ground glass joints can be precisely ground to a reproducible taper or shape. They are made to join two pieces together. Two general types of glass joints are fairly commonly used, joints which are slightly conically tapered and ball. The conically tapered ground glass joints typically have a 1,10 taper and are labeled with a symbol consisting of a capital T overlaid on a capital S. This symbol is followed by a number, a slash, the first number represents the outer diameter in millimeters at the widest point of the inner joint. If possible - mark on picture The second number represents the ground glass length of the joint in millimeters, internationally the ISO sizes are used with 14/23, 19/26 and 24/29 very common in research laboratories, with 24/29 the most common. In the US the ASTM sizes are used with common sizes being 14/20, 19/22, 24/40, in the US 24/40 is most common. The ball tip is a hemisphere with a surface on the outside, which fits inside of the socket. Ball-and-socket joints are labeled with a code consisting of a number, a slash. The second number represents the diameter of the hole in the middle of the ball or socket. If the angle standard taper fittings make with glassware is not perfectly set, a common example of this is the collection flask on a rotary evaporator, whose weight increases significantly as it fills. A ball and socket allows the flask to plumb itself without placing a load on the joint. Such a socket might also be used on a larger, but more typical, distillation setup at the head, generally, when considering smaller glassware, ball and sockets are far outnumbered by standard tapers. Another type of glass uses a O-ring between the parts to form a leak-tight seal. Such joints are symmetric, with a joint on each side having a widened tip with a concentric circular groove into which an elastomer O-ring can be inserted between the two joint pieces. O-ring joints are sized based on the diameter of the joint in millimeters
6.
Titration
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Titration, also known as titrimetry, is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified analyte. Since volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is known as volumetric analysis. A reagent, called the titrant or titrator is prepared as a standard solution, a known concentration and volume of titrant reacts with a solution of analyte or titrand to determine concentration. The volume of titrant reacted is called titration volume, the word titration comes from the Latin word titulus, meaning inscription or title. The French word titre, also from this origin, means rank, volumetric analysis originated in late 18th-century France. François-Antoine-Henri Descroizilles developed the first burette in 1791, joseph Louis Gay-Lussac developed an improved version of the burette that included a side arm, and coined the terms pipette and burette in an 1824 paper on the standardization of indigo solutions. Depending on the endpoint desired, single drops or less than a drop of the titrant can make the difference between a permanent and temporary change in the indicator. Typical titrations require titrant and analyte to be in a liquid form, though solids are usually dissolved into an aqueous solution, other solvents such as glacial acetic acid or ethanol are used for special purposes. Concentrated analytes are diluted to improve accuracy. Many non-acid-base titrations require a constant pH throughout the reaction, therefore, a buffer solution may be added to the titration chamber to maintain the pH. Some redox reactions may require heating the solution and titrating while the solution is still hot to increase the reaction rate. For instance, the oxidation of some oxalate solutions requires heating to 60 °C to maintain a rate of reaction. In an acid-base titration, the titration curve reflects the strength of the corresponding acid, for a strong acid and a strong base, the curve will be relatively smooth and very steep near the equivalence point. Because of this, a change in titrant volume near the equivalence point results in a large pH change. If one reagent is an acid or base and the other is a strong acid or base, the titration curve is irregular. For example, the curve for the titration between oxalic acid and sodium hydroxide is pictured. The equivalence point occurs between pH 8-10, indicating the solution is basic at the point and an indicator such as phenolphthalein would be appropriate. Titrations between an acid and a weak base have titration curves which are highly irregular
7.
Alcohol burner
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An alcohol burner or spirit lamp is a piece of laboratory equipment used to produce an open flame. It can be made from brass, glass, stainless steel or aluminium, alcohol burners are preferred for some uses over Bunsen burners for safety purposes, as their flame is limited to approximately two inches in height, with a comparatively lower temperature. Typical fuel is denatured alcohol, methanol, or isopropanol, a cap is used as a snuffer for extinguishing the flame. Bunsen burner Heating mantle Beverage-can stove Portable stove
8.
Kiln
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A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles, various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/, which was adapted from the Latin culīna kitchen, cooking-stove, burning-place. During the Middle English Period, the n was not pronounced, as evidenced by kiln having frequently been spelled without the n, Another word, miln, a place where wheat is ground, also had a silent n. Whereas the spelling of miln was changed to mill to match its pronunciation, kiln maintained its spelling, which most likely led to a common mispronunciation, however, there are small bastions where the original pronunciation has endured. Kiln, Mississippi, a town known for its wood drying kilns that once served the timber industry, is still referred to as the Kill by locals. Unwittingly adding the n sound at the end of kiln is due to people being introduced to the word through the language before ever hearing the actual pronunciation. Phonetically, the ln in kiln is categorized as a digraph, from English Words as Spoken and Written for Upper Grades by James A. Bowen 1900, The digraph ln, n silent, occurs in kiln. A fall down the kiln can kill you, Bowen was pointing out the humorous fact that kill and kiln are homophones. A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, the earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq. Neolithic kilns were able to produce greater than 900 °C. Ceramics require heat at high temperatures so chemical and physical reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body, in the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, after a first firing glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration, modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical control systems to firing regime, although pyrometric devices are often also used. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a clay body. Part of the process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores, through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly
9.
Laboratory water bath
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A water bath is laboratory equipment made from a container filled with heated water. It is used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature over a period of time. All water baths have a digital or an interface to allow users to set a desired temperature. Utilisations include warming of reagents, melting of substrates or incubation of cell cultures and it is also used to enable certain chemical reactions to occur at high temperature. Water bath is a heat source for heating flammable chemicals instead of an open flame to prevent ignition. Different types of baths are used depending on application. For all water baths, it can be used up to 99.9 °C, when temperature is above 100 °C, alternative methods such as oil bath, silicone bath or sand bath may be used. It is not recommended to use water bath with moisture sensitive or pyrophoric reactions, do not heat a bath fluid above its flash point. Water level should be monitored, and filled with distilled water only. This is required to prevent salts from depositing on the heater, disinfectants can be added to prevent growth of organisms. Raise the temperature to 90 °C or higher to once a week for half an hour for the purpose of decontamination, markers tend to come off easily in water baths. If application involves liquids that give off fumes, it is recommended to operate water bath in fume hood or in a ventilated area. The cover is closed to prevent evaporation and to help reaching high temperatures, set up on a steady surface away from flammable materials. Circulating water baths are ideal for applications when temperature uniformity and consistency are critical, water is thoroughly circulated throughout the bath resulting in a more uniform temperature. This type of water bath relies primarily on convection instead of water being uniformly heated, therefore, it is less accurate in terms of temperature control. In addition, there are add-ons that provide stirring to non-circulating water baths to create more heat transfer. This type of water bath has extra control for shaking, which moves liquids around and this shaking feature can be turned on or off. In microbiological practices, constant shaking allows liquid-grown cell cultures grown to constantly mix with the air, heated bath Hot plate Sand bath Oil bath
10.
Mortar and pestle
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A pestle and mortar is a kitchen device used since ancient times to prepare ingredients or substances by crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder. The mortar is a bowl, typically made of hard wood, the pestle is a heavy and blunt club-shaped object, the end of which is used for crushing and grinding. The substance to be ground is placed in the mortar and ground, mortars and pestles have been used in cooking up to the present day, they are frequently also associated with the profession of pharmacy due to their historical use in preparing medicines. They can also be used in masonry and in types of construction. Scientists have found ancient mortars and pestles that date back to approximately 35,000 B. C, the English word mortar derives from classical Latin mortarium, meaning, among several other usages, receptacle for pounding and product of grinding or pounding. The classical Latin pistillum, meaning pounder, led to English pestle, the Roman poet Juvenal applied both mortarium and pistillum to articles used in the preparation of drugs, reflecting the early use of the mortar and pestle as a symbol of a pharmacist or apothecary. The antiquity of these tools is well documented in writing, such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus of ~1550 BCE. Mortars and pestles were used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients prior to preparing an extemporaneous prescription. The mortar and pestle, with the Rod of Asclepius, the Orange Cross, for pharmaceutical use, the mortar and the head of the pestle are usually made of porcelain, while the handle of the pestle is made of wood. This is known as a Wedgwood mortar and pestle and originated in 1759, today the act of mixing ingredients or reducing the particle size is known as trituration. Mortars and pestles are used as drug paraphernalia to grind up pills to speed up absorption when they are ingested. Mortars are also used in cooking to prepare ingredients such as guacamole, gazpacho and pesto, the molcajete, a version used by pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican cultures including the Aztec and Maya, stretching back several thousand years, is made of basalt and is used widely in Mexican cooking. Other Native American nations use mortars carved into the bedrock to grind acorns, many such depressions can be found in their territories. In Japan, very large mortars are used with wooden mallets to prepare mochi, a regular sized Japanese mortar and pestle are called a suribachi and surikogi, respectively. Granite mortars and pestles are used in Southeast Asia, as well as Pakistan, in India, it is used extensively to make spice mixtures for various delicacies as well as day to day dishes. With the advent of motorized grinders, use of the mortar and it is traditional in various Hindu ceremonies to crush turmeric in these mortars. In Malay, it is known as batu lesung, large stone mortars, with long wood pestles were used in West Asia to grind meat for a type of meatloaf, or kibbeh, as well as the hummus variety known as masabcha. In Indonesia and the Netherlands mortar is known as Cobek or Tjobek and it is often used to make fresh sambal, a spicy chili condiment, hence the sambal ulek/oelek denote its process using pestle
11.
Shaker (laboratory)
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A shaker is a piece of laboratory equipment used to mix, blend, or to agitate substances in tube or flask by shaking them, which is mainly used in the fields of chemistry and biology. A shaker contains a board which is used to place the flasks, beakers, test tubes. Kraft in 1962, a Vortex Shaker is usually a small device used to shake and its most standout characteristic is that it works by the user putting a vial on the shaking platform and turn it on, thus the vial is shaken along with the platform. Vortex Shaker is vary variable in term of speed adjustment, one can change the shaking speed while shaking by turning the switch. A kind of shaker that has a board that oscillates horizontally. The liquids to be stirred are held in beakers, jars, or erlenmeyer flasks that are placed over the table, or, sometimes, orbital Shaker has a circular shaking motion with a slow speed. It is suitable for culturing microbes, washing blots, and general mixing, some of its characteristics are that they do not create vibrations, and they produce low heat compared to other kinds of shakers, which make it ideal for culturing microbes. Moreover, it can be modified by placing it in an incubator to create an incubator shaker due to its low temperature, incubator Shaker can be considered a mix of an incubator and a shaker. It has an ability to shake, while maintain optimal conditions for incubating microbes or DNA replications. This equipment is useful since in order for a cell to grow, it needs Oxygen, and nutrients. Magnetic stirrer Vortex mixer Stirring rod Static mixer
