1.
Laboratory
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A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
2.
Polypropylene
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An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. Polypropylene has a relatively low energy surface that means that many common glues will not form adequate joints. Joining of polypropylene is often done using welding processes, in 2013, the global market for polypropylene was about 55 million tonnes. Polypropylene is the worlds second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after polyethylene, Polypropylene is in many aspects similar to polyethylene, especially in solution behaviour and electrical properties. The additionally present methyl group improves mechanical properties and thermal resistance, the properties of polypropylene depend on the molecular weight and molecular weight distribution, crystallinity, type and proportion of comonomer and the isotacticity. In isotactic polypropylene, for example, the CH3 groups are oriented on one side of the carbon backbone and this creates a greater degree of crystallinity and results in a stiffer material that is more resistant to creep than both atactic polypropylene and polyethylene. The density of PP is between 0.895 and 0.92 g/cm³, therefore, PP is the commodity plastic with the lowest density. With lower density, moldings parts with lower weight and more parts of a mass of plastic can be produced. Unlike polyethylene, crystalline and amorphous regions differ only slightly in their density, however, the density of polyethylene can significantly change with fillers. The Youngs modulus of PP is between 1300 and 1800 N/mm², Polypropylene is normally tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This allows polypropylene to be used as a plastic, competing with materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Polypropylene has good resistance to fatigue, the melting point of polypropylene occurs at a range, so a melting point is determined by finding the highest temperature of a differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a point of 171 °C. Commercial isotactic PP has a point that ranges from 160 to 166 °C, depending on atactic material. Syndiotactic PP with a crystallinity of 30% has a point of 130 °C. Below 0 °C, PP becomes brittle, the thermal expansion of polypropylene is very large, but somewhat less than that of polyethylene. Polypropylene is at room temperature resistant to fats and almost all organic solvents, non-oxidizing acids and bases can be stored in containers made of PP. At elevated temperature, PP can be dissolved in nonpolarity solvents such as xylene, due to the tertiary carbon atom PP is chemically less resistant than PE
3.
Polymethylpentene
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Polymethylpentene, also known as Poly, is a thermoplastic polymer of 4-methyl-1-pentene. It is used for gas permeable packaging, autoclavable medical and laboratory equipment, microwave components and it is commonly called TPX, which is a trademark of Mitsui Chemicals. Polymethylpentene is a 4-methyl-1-pentene based linear isotactic polyolefin and is made by Ziegler-Natta type catalysis, the commercially available grades are usually copolymers. It can be extruded and molded, polymethylpentene melts at ≈235 °C. It has a low density and is transparent. It has low absorption, and exceptional acoustical and electrical properties. Its properties are similar to those of other polyolefins, although it is more brittle. The polymer also has a high stability, excellent dielectric characteristics. The crystalline phase has a lower density than the amorphous phase, applications include sonar covers, speaker cones, ultrasonic transducer heads, and lightweight structural parts. It is also FDA compliant for use in food processing machinery, polymethylpentene is often used in films and coatings for gas permeable packaging. Because of its melting point and good temperature stability, polymethylpentene is used for autoclavable medical and laboratory equipment, microwave components. It is also used in electrical components e. g. LED molds because it is an excellent electrical insulator. TPX is a hard, solid material, which can be shaped into various optical components like lenses. Also specifically TPX is used in CO2 laser pumped molecular lasers as a window because it is transparent in the whole terahertz range. Polymers and Copolymers of Higher a-Olefins, Hanser Publishers, New York,1997, properties of Standard TPX Grades,2004. FDA CFR Title 21 Sec.177.1520 Olefin polymers 3. 3b for TPX Mitsui Chemicals, - Manufacturer of polished TPX lenses and windows
4.
Brittleness
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A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength, breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound. Brittle materials include most ceramics and glasses and some polymers, such as PMMA, many steels become brittle at low temperatures, depending on their composition and processing. When used in science, it is generally applied to materials that fail when there is little or no evidence of plastic deformation before failure. One proof is to match the broken halves, which should fit exactly since no plastic deformation has occurred, when a material has reached the limit of its strength, it usually has the option of either deformation or fracture. Improving material toughness is therefore a balancing act and this principle generalizes to other classes of material. Naturally brittle materials, such as glass, are not difficult to toughen effectively, the first principle is used in laminated glass where two sheets of glass are separated by an interlayer of polyvinyl butyral, which as a viscoelastic polymer absorbs the growing crack. The second method is used in toughened glass and pre-stressed concrete, a demonstration of glass toughening is provided by Prince Ruperts Drop. Brittle polymers can be toughened by using metal particles to initiate crazes when a sample is stressed, the least brittle structural ceramics are silicon carbide and transformation-toughened zirconia. A different philosophy is used in materials, where brittle glass fibres. When strained, cracks are formed at the interface, but so many are formed that much energy is absorbed. The same principle is used in creating metal matrix composites, generally, the brittle strength of a material can be increased by pressure. Supersonic fracture is crack motion faster than the speed of sound in a brittle material and this phenomenon was first discovered by scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart and IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California. Izod impact strength test Charpy impact test Fractography Forensic engineering Ductility Strengthening mechanisms of materials Lewis, Peter Rhys, Reynolds, K, Gagg, rösler, Joachim, Harders, Harald, Bäker, Martin. Mechanical behaviour of engineering materials, metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites
5.
Glass
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Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
6.
Autoclave
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An autoclave is a pressure chamber used to carry out industrial processes requiring elevated temperature and pressure different from ambient air pressure. Autoclaves are used in applications to perform sterilization and in the chemical industry to cure coatings and vulcanize rubber. They are also used in applications, especially regarding composites. Many autoclaves are used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to saturated steam at 121 °C for around 15–20 minutes depending on the size of the load. The autoclave was invented by Charles Chamberland in 1879, although a precursor known as the steam digester was created by Denis Papin in 1679, the name comes from Greek auto-, ultimately meaning self, and Latin clavis meaning key, thus a self-locking device. Sterilization autoclaves are used in microbiology, medicine, podiatry, tattooing, body piercing, veterinary medicine, mycology, funeral homes, dentistry. They vary in size and function depending on the media to be sterilized, typical loads include laboratory glassware, other equipment and waste, surgical instruments, and medical waste. A notable recent and increasingly popular application of autoclaves is the treatment and sterilization of waste material. A new generation of waste converters is capable of achieving the effect without a pressure vessel to sterilize culture media, rubber material, gowns, dressings, gloves. It is particularly useful for materials which cannot withstand the temperature of a hot air oven. Autoclaves are also used to cure composites and in the vulcanization of rubber. The high heat and pressure that autoclaves allow help to ensure that the best possible properties are repeatable. The aerospace industry and sparmakers have autoclaves well over 50 feet long, other types of autoclave are used to grow crystals under high temperatures and pressures. Synthetic quartz crystals used in the industry are grown in autoclaves. Packing of parachutes for specialist applications may be performed under vacuum in an autoclave and it is very important to ensure that all of the trapped air is removed from the autoclave before activation, as trapped air is a very poor medium for achieving sterility. Steam at 134 °C can achieve in three minutes the same sterility that hot air at 160 °C can take two hours to achieve. Methods of air removal include, Downward displacement, As steam enters the chamber and this process compresses the air to the bottom, forcing it out through a drain which often contains a temperature sensor. Only when air evacuation is complete does the discharge stop, flow is usually controlled by a steam trap or a solenoid valve, but bleed holes are sometimes used, often in conjunction with a solenoid valve
7.
Ground glass joint
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Ground glass joints are used in laboratories to quickly and easily fit leak-tight apparatus together from commonly available parts. For example, a round bottom flask, Liebig condenser, to connect the hollow inner spaces of the glassware components, ground glass joints are hollow on the inside and open at the ends, except for stoppers. Crude versions of conically tapered ground glass joints have been made for quite a while, particularly for stoppers for glass bottles and these days, ground glass joints can be precisely ground to a reproducible taper or shape. They are made to join two pieces together. Two general types of glass joints are fairly commonly used, joints which are slightly conically tapered and ball. The conically tapered ground glass joints typically have a 1,10 taper and are labeled with a symbol consisting of a capital T overlaid on a capital S. This symbol is followed by a number, a slash, the first number represents the outer diameter in millimeters at the widest point of the inner joint. If possible - mark on picture The second number represents the ground glass length of the joint in millimeters, internationally the ISO sizes are used with 14/23, 19/26 and 24/29 very common in research laboratories, with 24/29 the most common. In the US the ASTM sizes are used with common sizes being 14/20, 19/22, 24/40, in the US 24/40 is most common. The ball tip is a hemisphere with a surface on the outside, which fits inside of the socket. Ball-and-socket joints are labeled with a code consisting of a number, a slash. The second number represents the diameter of the hole in the middle of the ball or socket. If the angle standard taper fittings make with glassware is not perfectly set, a common example of this is the collection flask on a rotary evaporator, whose weight increases significantly as it fills. A ball and socket allows the flask to plumb itself without placing a load on the joint. Such a socket might also be used on a larger, but more typical, distillation setup at the head, generally, when considering smaller glassware, ball and sockets are far outnumbered by standard tapers. Another type of glass uses a O-ring between the parts to form a leak-tight seal. Such joints are symmetric, with a joint on each side having a widened tip with a concentric circular groove into which an elastomer O-ring can be inserted between the two joint pieces. O-ring joints are sized based on the diameter of the joint in millimeters
8.
Cannula
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A cannula is a tube that can be inserted into the body, often for the delivery or removal of fluid or for the gathering of data. In simple terms, a cannula can surround the inner or outer surfaces of a trocar needle thus extending the effective needle length by at least half the length of the original needle and it is also called as IV cannula. Its size mainly ranges from 14 to 24 gauge, different sized cannula have different colours on it. Decannulation is the permanent removal of a cannula, especially of a tracheostomy cannula, cannulae normally come with a trocar attached, which allows puncturing of the body in order to get into the intended space. Many types of cannulae exist, Intravenous cannulae are the most common in hospital use, a variety of cannulae are used to establish cardiopulmonary bypass in cardiac surgery. A nasal cannula is a piece of tubing that runs under the nose and is used to administer oxygen. A venous cannula is inserted into a vein, primarily for the administration of fluids, for obtaining blood samples. Insertion of the cannula is a painful procedure that can lead to anxiety. Use of a vapocoolant immediately before cannulation reduces pain during the procedure, selection of an appropriate vein and gently applying pressure slightly above the insertion point on removal of the cannula may prevent this. Infiltration, when infusate enters the subcutaneous tissue instead of the vein, to prevent this, a cannula with accurate trim distances may be used. It is essential to fix the cannula in place firmly, Embolism, this can be caused by air, a thrombus, or fragment of a catheter breaking off and entering the venous system. It can cause a Pulmonary Embolism, air emboli can be avoided by making sure that there is no air in the system. A thromboembolism can be avoided by using a smaller cannula, phlebitis, an inflammation of the vein resulting from mechanical or chemical irritation or from an infection. Phlebitis can be avoided by choosing the site for cannulation. The removal of a tube is referred to as decannulation. Cannulas are a component used in the insertion of the Verichip, much larger cannulas are used to research about the digestive system of cows. Depending on the size of the diameter, it can be used either for the injection of cosmetic wrinkle fillers like hyaluronic acid, collagen, poly-L-lactic acid, CaHA. The advantage of using these is that they are painful, have less risk of bruising, have less swelling
9.
Laboratory flask
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Laboratory flasks are vessels which fall into the category of laboratory equipment known as glassware. In laboratory and other settings, they are usually referred to simply as flasks. Laboratory flask sizes are specified by the volume they can hold, Laboratory flasks have traditionally been made of glass, but can also be made of plastic. At the opening at top of the neck of some glass flasks such as flasks, retorts, or sometimes volumetric flasks. Some flasks, especially volumetric flasks, come with a stopper or cap for capping the opening at the top of the neck, such stoppers can be made of glass or plastic. Glass stoppers typically have a tapered inner ground glass joint surface. Flasks which do not come with such stoppers or caps included may be capped with a bung or cork stopper. There are several types of laboratory flasks, all of which have different functions within the laboratory, schlenk flask is a spherical flask with a ground glass opening and a hose outlet with a vacuum stopcock. Similar to the flask, the distillation flasks usually have only one narrow neck. They are sometimes spherical, test tube shaped, or pear-shaped, also known as a Kjeldahl Flask, reagent flasks are usually a flat-bottomed flask, which can thus be conveniently placed on the table or in a cabinet. These flasks cannot withstand too much pressure or temperature differences, due to the stresses which arise in a flat bottom, the flasks are often long neck, sometimes they have the incision on the neck, which precisely defines the volume of flask. They can be used in distillations, or in the heating a product and these types of flask are alternatively called Florence flasks. Cassia flasks, for the analysis of essential oils and aldehyde determination,100 ml, neck graduated 0 -6,0,1 ml. It is a flask with an approximately pear-shaped body and a neck with a circumferential fill line. Dewar flask is a double-walled flask having a near-vacuum between the two walls and these come in a variety of shapes and sizes, some are large and tube-like, others are shaped like regular flasks. Evaporating flasks centered, pear shaped, with socket or with flange, powder flasks, for drying of powdered substances, pear shaped, with socket Retorts are simplified distillation apparatuses, with long, down turned necks, and round bases. They have largely replaced by condensers. Büchner flask or Sidearm flask or Suction flask - they are a flat-bottomed flask and they are usually a cone shape - similar to the shape of an Erlenmeyer flask, but also have side neck, usually affixed to the side,2 /3 up from the bottom
