1.
Laboratory
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A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
2.
Polypropylene
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An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. Polypropylene has a relatively low energy surface that means that many common glues will not form adequate joints. Joining of polypropylene is often done using welding processes, in 2013, the global market for polypropylene was about 55 million tonnes. Polypropylene is the worlds second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after polyethylene, Polypropylene is in many aspects similar to polyethylene, especially in solution behaviour and electrical properties. The additionally present methyl group improves mechanical properties and thermal resistance, the properties of polypropylene depend on the molecular weight and molecular weight distribution, crystallinity, type and proportion of comonomer and the isotacticity. In isotactic polypropylene, for example, the CH3 groups are oriented on one side of the carbon backbone and this creates a greater degree of crystallinity and results in a stiffer material that is more resistant to creep than both atactic polypropylene and polyethylene. The density of PP is between 0.895 and 0.92 g/cm³, therefore, PP is the commodity plastic with the lowest density. With lower density, moldings parts with lower weight and more parts of a mass of plastic can be produced. Unlike polyethylene, crystalline and amorphous regions differ only slightly in their density, however, the density of polyethylene can significantly change with fillers. The Youngs modulus of PP is between 1300 and 1800 N/mm², Polypropylene is normally tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This allows polypropylene to be used as a plastic, competing with materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Polypropylene has good resistance to fatigue, the melting point of polypropylene occurs at a range, so a melting point is determined by finding the highest temperature of a differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a point of 171 °C. Commercial isotactic PP has a point that ranges from 160 to 166 °C, depending on atactic material. Syndiotactic PP with a crystallinity of 30% has a point of 130 °C. Below 0 °C, PP becomes brittle, the thermal expansion of polypropylene is very large, but somewhat less than that of polyethylene. Polypropylene is at room temperature resistant to fats and almost all organic solvents, non-oxidizing acids and bases can be stored in containers made of PP. At elevated temperature, PP can be dissolved in nonpolarity solvents such as xylene, due to the tertiary carbon atom PP is chemically less resistant than PE
3.
Polymethylpentene
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Polymethylpentene, also known as Poly, is a thermoplastic polymer of 4-methyl-1-pentene. It is used for gas permeable packaging, autoclavable medical and laboratory equipment, microwave components and it is commonly called TPX, which is a trademark of Mitsui Chemicals. Polymethylpentene is a 4-methyl-1-pentene based linear isotactic polyolefin and is made by Ziegler-Natta type catalysis, the commercially available grades are usually copolymers. It can be extruded and molded, polymethylpentene melts at ≈235 °C. It has a low density and is transparent. It has low absorption, and exceptional acoustical and electrical properties. Its properties are similar to those of other polyolefins, although it is more brittle. The polymer also has a high stability, excellent dielectric characteristics. The crystalline phase has a lower density than the amorphous phase, applications include sonar covers, speaker cones, ultrasonic transducer heads, and lightweight structural parts. It is also FDA compliant for use in food processing machinery, polymethylpentene is often used in films and coatings for gas permeable packaging. Because of its melting point and good temperature stability, polymethylpentene is used for autoclavable medical and laboratory equipment, microwave components. It is also used in electrical components e. g. LED molds because it is an excellent electrical insulator. TPX is a hard, solid material, which can be shaped into various optical components like lenses. Also specifically TPX is used in CO2 laser pumped molecular lasers as a window because it is transparent in the whole terahertz range. Polymers and Copolymers of Higher a-Olefins, Hanser Publishers, New York,1997, properties of Standard TPX Grades,2004. FDA CFR Title 21 Sec.177.1520 Olefin polymers 3. 3b for TPX Mitsui Chemicals, - Manufacturer of polished TPX lenses and windows
4.
Brittleness
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A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength, breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound. Brittle materials include most ceramics and glasses and some polymers, such as PMMA, many steels become brittle at low temperatures, depending on their composition and processing. When used in science, it is generally applied to materials that fail when there is little or no evidence of plastic deformation before failure. One proof is to match the broken halves, which should fit exactly since no plastic deformation has occurred, when a material has reached the limit of its strength, it usually has the option of either deformation or fracture. Improving material toughness is therefore a balancing act and this principle generalizes to other classes of material. Naturally brittle materials, such as glass, are not difficult to toughen effectively, the first principle is used in laminated glass where two sheets of glass are separated by an interlayer of polyvinyl butyral, which as a viscoelastic polymer absorbs the growing crack. The second method is used in toughened glass and pre-stressed concrete, a demonstration of glass toughening is provided by Prince Ruperts Drop. Brittle polymers can be toughened by using metal particles to initiate crazes when a sample is stressed, the least brittle structural ceramics are silicon carbide and transformation-toughened zirconia. A different philosophy is used in materials, where brittle glass fibres. When strained, cracks are formed at the interface, but so many are formed that much energy is absorbed. The same principle is used in creating metal matrix composites, generally, the brittle strength of a material can be increased by pressure. Supersonic fracture is crack motion faster than the speed of sound in a brittle material and this phenomenon was first discovered by scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart and IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California. Izod impact strength test Charpy impact test Fractography Forensic engineering Ductility Strengthening mechanisms of materials Lewis, Peter Rhys, Reynolds, K, Gagg, rösler, Joachim, Harders, Harald, Bäker, Martin. Mechanical behaviour of engineering materials, metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites
5.
Glass
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Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
6.
Autoclave
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An autoclave is a pressure chamber used to carry out industrial processes requiring elevated temperature and pressure different from ambient air pressure. Autoclaves are used in applications to perform sterilization and in the chemical industry to cure coatings and vulcanize rubber. They are also used in applications, especially regarding composites. Many autoclaves are used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to saturated steam at 121 °C for around 15–20 minutes depending on the size of the load. The autoclave was invented by Charles Chamberland in 1879, although a precursor known as the steam digester was created by Denis Papin in 1679, the name comes from Greek auto-, ultimately meaning self, and Latin clavis meaning key, thus a self-locking device. Sterilization autoclaves are used in microbiology, medicine, podiatry, tattooing, body piercing, veterinary medicine, mycology, funeral homes, dentistry. They vary in size and function depending on the media to be sterilized, typical loads include laboratory glassware, other equipment and waste, surgical instruments, and medical waste. A notable recent and increasingly popular application of autoclaves is the treatment and sterilization of waste material. A new generation of waste converters is capable of achieving the effect without a pressure vessel to sterilize culture media, rubber material, gowns, dressings, gloves. It is particularly useful for materials which cannot withstand the temperature of a hot air oven. Autoclaves are also used to cure composites and in the vulcanization of rubber. The high heat and pressure that autoclaves allow help to ensure that the best possible properties are repeatable. The aerospace industry and sparmakers have autoclaves well over 50 feet long, other types of autoclave are used to grow crystals under high temperatures and pressures. Synthetic quartz crystals used in the industry are grown in autoclaves. Packing of parachutes for specialist applications may be performed under vacuum in an autoclave and it is very important to ensure that all of the trapped air is removed from the autoclave before activation, as trapped air is a very poor medium for achieving sterility. Steam at 134 °C can achieve in three minutes the same sterility that hot air at 160 °C can take two hours to achieve. Methods of air removal include, Downward displacement, As steam enters the chamber and this process compresses the air to the bottom, forcing it out through a drain which often contains a temperature sensor. Only when air evacuation is complete does the discharge stop, flow is usually controlled by a steam trap or a solenoid valve, but bleed holes are sometimes used, often in conjunction with a solenoid valve
7.
Ground glass joint
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Ground glass joints are used in laboratories to quickly and easily fit leak-tight apparatus together from commonly available parts. For example, a round bottom flask, Liebig condenser, to connect the hollow inner spaces of the glassware components, ground glass joints are hollow on the inside and open at the ends, except for stoppers. Crude versions of conically tapered ground glass joints have been made for quite a while, particularly for stoppers for glass bottles and these days, ground glass joints can be precisely ground to a reproducible taper or shape. They are made to join two pieces together. Two general types of glass joints are fairly commonly used, joints which are slightly conically tapered and ball. The conically tapered ground glass joints typically have a 1,10 taper and are labeled with a symbol consisting of a capital T overlaid on a capital S. This symbol is followed by a number, a slash, the first number represents the outer diameter in millimeters at the widest point of the inner joint. If possible - mark on picture The second number represents the ground glass length of the joint in millimeters, internationally the ISO sizes are used with 14/23, 19/26 and 24/29 very common in research laboratories, with 24/29 the most common. In the US the ASTM sizes are used with common sizes being 14/20, 19/22, 24/40, in the US 24/40 is most common. The ball tip is a hemisphere with a surface on the outside, which fits inside of the socket. Ball-and-socket joints are labeled with a code consisting of a number, a slash. The second number represents the diameter of the hole in the middle of the ball or socket. If the angle standard taper fittings make with glassware is not perfectly set, a common example of this is the collection flask on a rotary evaporator, whose weight increases significantly as it fills. A ball and socket allows the flask to plumb itself without placing a load on the joint. Such a socket might also be used on a larger, but more typical, distillation setup at the head, generally, when considering smaller glassware, ball and sockets are far outnumbered by standard tapers. Another type of glass uses a O-ring between the parts to form a leak-tight seal. Such joints are symmetric, with a joint on each side having a widened tip with a concentric circular groove into which an elastomer O-ring can be inserted between the two joint pieces. O-ring joints are sized based on the diameter of the joint in millimeters
8.
Cannula
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A cannula is a tube that can be inserted into the body, often for the delivery or removal of fluid or for the gathering of data. In simple terms, a cannula can surround the inner or outer surfaces of a trocar needle thus extending the effective needle length by at least half the length of the original needle and it is also called as IV cannula. Its size mainly ranges from 14 to 24 gauge, different sized cannula have different colours on it. Decannulation is the permanent removal of a cannula, especially of a tracheostomy cannula, cannulae normally come with a trocar attached, which allows puncturing of the body in order to get into the intended space. Many types of cannulae exist, Intravenous cannulae are the most common in hospital use, a variety of cannulae are used to establish cardiopulmonary bypass in cardiac surgery. A nasal cannula is a piece of tubing that runs under the nose and is used to administer oxygen. A venous cannula is inserted into a vein, primarily for the administration of fluids, for obtaining blood samples. Insertion of the cannula is a painful procedure that can lead to anxiety. Use of a vapocoolant immediately before cannulation reduces pain during the procedure, selection of an appropriate vein and gently applying pressure slightly above the insertion point on removal of the cannula may prevent this. Infiltration, when infusate enters the subcutaneous tissue instead of the vein, to prevent this, a cannula with accurate trim distances may be used. It is essential to fix the cannula in place firmly, Embolism, this can be caused by air, a thrombus, or fragment of a catheter breaking off and entering the venous system. It can cause a Pulmonary Embolism, air emboli can be avoided by making sure that there is no air in the system. A thromboembolism can be avoided by using a smaller cannula, phlebitis, an inflammation of the vein resulting from mechanical or chemical irritation or from an infection. Phlebitis can be avoided by choosing the site for cannulation. The removal of a tube is referred to as decannulation. Cannulas are a component used in the insertion of the Verichip, much larger cannulas are used to research about the digestive system of cows. Depending on the size of the diameter, it can be used either for the injection of cosmetic wrinkle fillers like hyaluronic acid, collagen, poly-L-lactic acid, CaHA. The advantage of using these is that they are painful, have less risk of bruising, have less swelling
9.
Laboratory flask
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Laboratory flasks are vessels which fall into the category of laboratory equipment known as glassware. In laboratory and other settings, they are usually referred to simply as flasks. Laboratory flask sizes are specified by the volume they can hold, Laboratory flasks have traditionally been made of glass, but can also be made of plastic. At the opening at top of the neck of some glass flasks such as flasks, retorts, or sometimes volumetric flasks. Some flasks, especially volumetric flasks, come with a stopper or cap for capping the opening at the top of the neck, such stoppers can be made of glass or plastic. Glass stoppers typically have a tapered inner ground glass joint surface. Flasks which do not come with such stoppers or caps included may be capped with a bung or cork stopper. There are several types of laboratory flasks, all of which have different functions within the laboratory, schlenk flask is a spherical flask with a ground glass opening and a hose outlet with a vacuum stopcock. Similar to the flask, the distillation flasks usually have only one narrow neck. They are sometimes spherical, test tube shaped, or pear-shaped, also known as a Kjeldahl Flask, reagent flasks are usually a flat-bottomed flask, which can thus be conveniently placed on the table or in a cabinet. These flasks cannot withstand too much pressure or temperature differences, due to the stresses which arise in a flat bottom, the flasks are often long neck, sometimes they have the incision on the neck, which precisely defines the volume of flask. They can be used in distillations, or in the heating a product and these types of flask are alternatively called Florence flasks. Cassia flasks, for the analysis of essential oils and aldehyde determination,100 ml, neck graduated 0 -6,0,1 ml. It is a flask with an approximately pear-shaped body and a neck with a circumferential fill line. Dewar flask is a double-walled flask having a near-vacuum between the two walls and these come in a variety of shapes and sizes, some are large and tube-like, others are shaped like regular flasks. Evaporating flasks centered, pear shaped, with socket or with flange, powder flasks, for drying of powdered substances, pear shaped, with socket Retorts are simplified distillation apparatuses, with long, down turned necks, and round bases. They have largely replaced by condensers. Büchner flask or Sidearm flask or Suction flask - they are a flat-bottomed flask and they are usually a cone shape - similar to the shape of an Erlenmeyer flask, but also have side neck, usually affixed to the side,2 /3 up from the bottom
10.
Beaker (glassware)
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A beaker is a simple container for stirring, mixing and heating liquids commonly used in many laboratories. Beakers are generally cylindrical in shape, with a flat bottom, most also have a small spout to aid pouring as shown in the picture. Beakers are available in a range of sizes, from one millilitre up to several litres. Standard or low-form beakers typically have a height about 1.4 times the diameter, the common low form with a spout was devised by John Joseph Griffin and is therefore sometimes called a Griffin beaker. In short, low form beakers are likely to be used in some way when performing just about any chemical experiment, tall-form beakers have a height about twice their diameter. These are sometimes called Berzelius beakers and are used for titration. Flat beakers are often called crystallizers because most are used to perform crystallization and these beakers usually do not have a flat scale. A beaker is distinguished from a flask by having straight rather than sloping sides, the exception to this definition is a slightly conical-sided beaker called a Philips beaker. Beakers are commonly made of glass, but can also be in metal or certain plastics, a common use for polypropylene beakers is gamma spectral analysis of liquid and solid samples. Beakers are often graduated, that is, marked on the side with lines indicating the volume contained, most beakers are accurate to within ~10%. The presence of a means that the beaker cannot have a lid. However, when in use, beakers may be covered by a glass to prevent contamination or loss of the contents. Alternatively, a beaker may be covered with another larger beaker that has been inverted, though a watch glass is preferable
11.
Titration
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Titration, also known as titrimetry, is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified analyte. Since volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is known as volumetric analysis. A reagent, called the titrant or titrator is prepared as a standard solution, a known concentration and volume of titrant reacts with a solution of analyte or titrand to determine concentration. The volume of titrant reacted is called titration volume, the word titration comes from the Latin word titulus, meaning inscription or title. The French word titre, also from this origin, means rank, volumetric analysis originated in late 18th-century France. François-Antoine-Henri Descroizilles developed the first burette in 1791, joseph Louis Gay-Lussac developed an improved version of the burette that included a side arm, and coined the terms pipette and burette in an 1824 paper on the standardization of indigo solutions. Depending on the endpoint desired, single drops or less than a drop of the titrant can make the difference between a permanent and temporary change in the indicator. Typical titrations require titrant and analyte to be in a liquid form, though solids are usually dissolved into an aqueous solution, other solvents such as glacial acetic acid or ethanol are used for special purposes. Concentrated analytes are diluted to improve accuracy. Many non-acid-base titrations require a constant pH throughout the reaction, therefore, a buffer solution may be added to the titration chamber to maintain the pH. Some redox reactions may require heating the solution and titrating while the solution is still hot to increase the reaction rate. For instance, the oxidation of some oxalate solutions requires heating to 60 °C to maintain a rate of reaction. In an acid-base titration, the titration curve reflects the strength of the corresponding acid, for a strong acid and a strong base, the curve will be relatively smooth and very steep near the equivalence point. Because of this, a change in titrant volume near the equivalence point results in a large pH change. If one reagent is an acid or base and the other is a strong acid or base, the titration curve is irregular. For example, the curve for the titration between oxalic acid and sodium hydroxide is pictured. The equivalence point occurs between pH 8-10, indicating the solution is basic at the point and an indicator such as phenolphthalein would be appropriate. Titrations between an acid and a weak base have titration curves which are highly irregular
12.
Volumetric flask
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A volumetric flask is a piece of laboratory glassware, a type of laboratory flask, calibrated to contain a precise volume at a particular temperature. Volumetric flasks are used for precise dilutions and preparation of standard solutions and these flasks are usually pear-shaped, with a flat bottom, and made of glass or plastic. The flasks mouth is either furnished with a plastic snap/screw cap or fitted with a joint to accommodate a PTFE or glass stopper, the neck of the volumetric flasks is elongated and narrow with an etched ring graduation marking. The marking indicates the volume of liquid contained when filled up to that point, the marking is typically calibrated to contain at 20 °C and indicated correspondingly on a label. The flasks label also indicates the volume, tolerance, precision class, relevant manufacturing standard. The volumetric flasks are of various sizes, containing from 1 to 20000 mL of liquid, Calibration and toleration standards for volumetric flasks are defined in the following standard specifications and practices, ASTM E288, E542, E694, ISO1042, and GOST 1770-74. According to these specifications, volumetric flasks come in two different classes, the higher standard flasks are made with a more accurately placed graduation mark, and have a unique serial number for traceability. Where this is not required, a standard is used for qualitative or educational work. Volumetric flasks are generally colourless but may be amber-coloured for the handling of compounds such as silver nitrate or vitamin A. A modification of the volumetric flask exists for dealing with large quantities of solids that are to be transferred into a vessel for dissolution. Such a flask has a mouth and known as Kohlrausch volumetric flask. This kind of volumetric flask is used in analysis of the sugar content in sugar beets. A highly specialized kind of the flask is Le Chatelier flask for use with the volumetric procedure in the specific gravity determination. Testing of Glass Volumetric Apparatus, NBS Circular 602, procedures for the Calibration of Volumetric Test Measures, NBSIR 73-287. Lembeck, J. Calibration of Small Volumetric Laboratory Glassware, NBSIR 74-461
13.
Volumetric pipette
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A volumetric pipette or bulb pipette allows extremely accurate measurement a volume of solution. These pipettes have a bulb with a long narrow portion above with a single graduation mark as it is calibrated for a single volume. Typical volumes are 1,2,5,10,20,25,50 and 100 mL, Volumetric pipettes are commonly used in analytical chemistry to make laboratory solutions from a base stock as well as to prepare solutions for titration. ASTM standard E969 defines the standard tolerance for volumetric transfer pipettes, the tolerance depends on the size, a 0. 5-mL pipette has a tolerance of ±0.006 mL, while a 50-mL pipette has a tolerance of ±0.05 mL. A specialized example of a volumetric pipette is the microfluid pipette designed with a circulating liquid tip that generates a self-confining volume in front of its outlet channels, helpful Hints on the Use of a Volumetric Pipet by Oliver Seely
14.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
15.
Alcohol burner
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An alcohol burner or spirit lamp is a piece of laboratory equipment used to produce an open flame. It can be made from brass, glass, stainless steel or aluminium, alcohol burners are preferred for some uses over Bunsen burners for safety purposes, as their flame is limited to approximately two inches in height, with a comparatively lower temperature. Typical fuel is denatured alcohol, methanol, or isopropanol, a cap is used as a snuffer for extinguishing the flame. Bunsen burner Heating mantle Beverage-can stove Portable stove
16.
Bunsen burner
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A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The gas can be gas or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, butane. In 1852 the University of Heidelberg hired Bunsen and promised him a new laboratory building, the city of Heidelberg had begun to install coal-gas street lighting, and so the university laid gas lines to the new laboratory. The designers of the building intended to use the gas not just for illumination, for any burner lamp, it was desirable to maximize the temperature and minimize luminosity. However, existing laboratory burner lamps left much to be desired not just in terms of the heat of the flame, but also regarding economy and simplicity. While the building was still under construction in late 1854 Bunsen suggested certain design principles to the mechanic, Peter Desaga. The Bunsen/Desaga design succeeded in generating a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion, Desaga created adjustable slits for air at the bottom of the cylindrical burner, with the flame igniting at the top. By the time the building opened early in 1855 Desaga had made fifty of the burners for Bunsens students, two years later Bunsen published a description, and many of his colleagues soon adopted the design. Bunsen burners are now used in all around the world. The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a gas such as natural gas or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane. The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen. The gas then flows up through the base through a hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the bottom to admit air into the stream via the venturi effect. The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter, the amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the combustion reaction. Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in an amount and thus a complete. The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the openings at the base of the barrel. If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result
17.
Desiccator
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Desiccators are sealable enclosures containing desiccants used for preserving moisture-sensitive items such as cobalt chloride paper for another use. A common use for desiccators is to protect chemicals which are hygroscopic or which react with water from humidity, the contents of desiccators are exposed to atmospheric moisture whenever the desiccators are opened. It also requires time to achieve a low humidity. Desiccators are sometimes used to remove traces of water from an almost-dry sample, where a desiccator alone is unsatisfactory, the sample may be dried at elevated temperature using Abderhaldens drying pistol. In order to weigh a substance, watch glass or weighing bottles or crucibles are used, but to be accurate, the weighed object must be of the same temperature of the analytical balance. If a hotter object is placed on a balance pan this has the effect of lengthening the corresponding arm of the resulting in incorrect reading. Moreover, a hot object warms the air in contact with it, the moving air pushes the corresponding balance pan upwards and therefore the error is increased further. Conversely, if an object is weighed, a current of air flows downwards. Thus, the object must be allowed to room temperature prior to measuring on a balance. To prevent adsorption of moisture from the air, glassware is cooled in a desiccator. The lower compartment of the desiccator contains lumps of silica gel, freshly calcined quicklime, the substance needing desiccation is put in the upper compartment, usually on a glazed, perforated ceramic plate. In laboratory use, the most common desiccators are circular and made of heavy glass, there is usually a removable platform on which the items to be stored are placed. The desiccant, usually a solid such as silica gel. Colour changing silica may be used to indicate when it should be refreshed, indication gels typically change from blue to pink as they absorb moisture but other colours may be used. A stopcock may be included to permit the desiccator to be evacuated, such models are usually known as vacuum desiccators. When a vacuum is to be applied, it is a practice to criss-cross the vacuum desiccator with tape. To maintain a seal, vacuum grease is usually applied to the flanges
18.
Heating mantle
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A heating mantle or isomantle is a piece of laboratory equipment used to apply heat to containers, as an alternative to other forms of heated bath. Heating mantles may have various forms, in a common arrangement, electric wires are embedded within a strip of fabric that can be wrapped around a flask. The current supplied to the device, and hence the temperature achieved, is regulated by a rheostat, another variety of heating mantle may resemble a paint can, and is constructed as a basket within a cylindrical canister. The rigid metal exterior supports a basket made of fabric, to heat an object, it is placed within the basket of the heating mantle. In further contrast to methods of applying heat to a flask, such as an oil bath or water bath. Also, heating mantles generally distribute heat evenly over the surface of the flask, heating element Laboratory equipment Wire gauze Double boiler
19.
Hot plate
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A hot plate is a portable self-contained tabletop small appliance that features one, two or more electric heating elements or gas burners. A hot plate can be used as an appliance, but is often used as a substitute for one of the burners from an oven range or a kitchen stove. Hot plates are used for food preparation, generally in locations where a full kitchen stove would not be convenient or practical. A hot plate can have a surface, or round surface. Hot plates can be used for traveling or in areas without electricity, in laboratory settings, hot plates are generally used to heat glassware or its contents. Some hot plates also contain a magnetic stirrer, allowing the liquid to be stirred automatically. Two alternative methods for heating glassware using a hotplate are available, one method is to suspend glassware slightly above the surface of the plate with no direct contact. This not only reduces the temperature of the glass, but it slows down the rate of heat exchange and this works well for low boiling point operations or when a heat sources minimum temperature is high. Another method, called a teepee setup because it looks a little like a tipi, is to suspend glassware above a plate and surround the flask by a skirt of tinfoil. The skirt should start at the neck of the flask and drape down to the surface of the plate, not touching the sides of the flask, but covering the majority of the plates surface. Both these methods are useful in a student laboratory as they are cheaper, effective, safe, hot plates are widely used for many industrial applications. These hot plates vary in size from 2 to over 300 square cm, typical operating temperatures vary from 100 to 750 °C and power requirements are usually in the 120 V to 480 V range. Most industrial hot plates will withstand more than 150 lbs Industrial hot plates which incorporate a porous heated plate are referred to as heated chucks. These plates are used to thin films evenly by drawing the film firmly on the plate with a vacuum. These plates are used in the process of manufacturing semiconductors. Hot plates using special material and protective coatings are used in mining, such hot plates are usually referred to as corrosion-resistant hot plates. Hot plates are used in the electronics industry as a method of soldering and desoldering components onto circuit boards. Hot plates with two heating surfaces are used to fuse plastic pipes, many of these pipes are over 90 cm diameter
20.
Kiln
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A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles, various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/, which was adapted from the Latin culīna kitchen, cooking-stove, burning-place. During the Middle English Period, the n was not pronounced, as evidenced by kiln having frequently been spelled without the n, Another word, miln, a place where wheat is ground, also had a silent n. Whereas the spelling of miln was changed to mill to match its pronunciation, kiln maintained its spelling, which most likely led to a common mispronunciation, however, there are small bastions where the original pronunciation has endured. Kiln, Mississippi, a town known for its wood drying kilns that once served the timber industry, is still referred to as the Kill by locals. Unwittingly adding the n sound at the end of kiln is due to people being introduced to the word through the language before ever hearing the actual pronunciation. Phonetically, the ln in kiln is categorized as a digraph, from English Words as Spoken and Written for Upper Grades by James A. Bowen 1900, The digraph ln, n silent, occurs in kiln. A fall down the kiln can kill you, Bowen was pointing out the humorous fact that kill and kiln are homophones. A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, the earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq. Neolithic kilns were able to produce greater than 900 °C. Ceramics require heat at high temperatures so chemical and physical reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body, in the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, after a first firing glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration, modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical control systems to firing regime, although pyrometric devices are often also used. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a clay body. Part of the process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores, through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly
21.
Teclu burner
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The Teclu burner is a laboratory gas burner, a variant of the Bunsen burner, named after the Romanian chemist Nicolae Teclu. It can produce a hotter flame than a Bunsen burner, the lower part of its tube is conical, with a round screw nut below its base. The gap, set by the distance between the nut and the end of the tube, regulates the influx of the air in a way similar to the slots of the Bunsen burner. The Teclu burner provides better mixing of air and fuel which is what allows it to achieve higher flame temperatures than the Bunsen burner
22.
Laboratory water bath
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A water bath is laboratory equipment made from a container filled with heated water. It is used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature over a period of time. All water baths have a digital or an interface to allow users to set a desired temperature. Utilisations include warming of reagents, melting of substrates or incubation of cell cultures and it is also used to enable certain chemical reactions to occur at high temperature. Water bath is a heat source for heating flammable chemicals instead of an open flame to prevent ignition. Different types of baths are used depending on application. For all water baths, it can be used up to 99.9 °C, when temperature is above 100 °C, alternative methods such as oil bath, silicone bath or sand bath may be used. It is not recommended to use water bath with moisture sensitive or pyrophoric reactions, do not heat a bath fluid above its flash point. Water level should be monitored, and filled with distilled water only. This is required to prevent salts from depositing on the heater, disinfectants can be added to prevent growth of organisms. Raise the temperature to 90 °C or higher to once a week for half an hour for the purpose of decontamination, markers tend to come off easily in water baths. If application involves liquids that give off fumes, it is recommended to operate water bath in fume hood or in a ventilated area. The cover is closed to prevent evaporation and to help reaching high temperatures, set up on a steady surface away from flammable materials. Circulating water baths are ideal for applications when temperature uniformity and consistency are critical, water is thoroughly circulated throughout the bath resulting in a more uniform temperature. This type of water bath relies primarily on convection instead of water being uniformly heated, therefore, it is less accurate in terms of temperature control. In addition, there are add-ons that provide stirring to non-circulating water baths to create more heat transfer. This type of water bath has extra control for shaking, which moves liquids around and this shaking feature can be turned on or off. In microbiological practices, constant shaking allows liquid-grown cell cultures grown to constantly mix with the air, heated bath Hot plate Sand bath Oil bath
23.
Chemostat
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By changing the rate with which medium is added to the bioreactor the specific growth rate of the microorganism can be easily controlled within limits. One of the most important features of chemostats is that microorganisms can be grown in a steady state under constant environmental conditions. In this steady state, growth occurs at a constant specific growth rate, in addition, environmental conditions can be controlled by the experimenter. The limiting nutrient is a nutrient essential for growth, present in the medium at a limiting concentration, however, the higher the number of cells becomes, the more nutrient is consumed, lowering the concentration of the limiting nutrient. In turn, this will reduce the growth rate of the cells which will lead to a decline in the number of cells as they keep being removed from the system with the outflow. This results in a steady state, due to the self-regulation, the steady state is stable. This enables the experimenter to control the growth rate of the microorganisms by changing the speed of the pump feeding fresh medium into the vessel. Therefore, competition and other interactions in the chemostat are global, the rate of nutrient exchange is expressed as the dilution rate. At steady state, the specific growth rate of the micro-organism is equal to the dilution rate. Chemostats in research are used for investigations in cell biology, as a source for large volumes of cells or protein. The chemostat is often used to steady state data about an organism in order to generate a mathematical model relating to its metabolic processes. Chemostats are also used as microcosms in ecology and evolutionary biology, in the one case, mutation/selection is a nuisance, in the other case, it is the desired process under study. Chemostats can also be used to enrich for specific types of bacterial mutants in culture such as auxotrophs or those that are resistant to antibiotics or bacteriophages for further scientific study, chemostats are frequently used in the industrial manufacturing of ethanol. In this case, several chemostats are used in series, each maintained at decreasing sugar concentrations, foaming results in overflow with the volume of liquid not exactly constant. Some very fragile cells are ruptured during agitation and aeration, cells may grow on the walls or adhere to other surfaces, which may be overcome by treating the glass walls of the vessel with a silane to render them hydrophobic. However, cells will be selected for attachment to the walls since those that do not be removed from the system. Those bacteria that stick firmly to the forming a biofilm are difficult to study under chemostat conditions. Mixing may not truly be uniform, upsetting the static property of the chemostat, dripping the media into the chamber actually results in small pulses of nutrients and thus oscillations in concentrations, again upsetting the static property of the chemostat. They will reach the reservoir of sterile medium quickly unless the path is interrupted by an air break in which the medium falls in drops through air
24.
Magnetic stirrer
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A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created either by a magnet or a set of stationary electromagnets. Magnetic stirrers are often used in chemistry and biology, where they can be used inside hermetically closed vessels or systems and they are preferred over gear-driven motorized stirrers because they are quieter, more efficient, and have no moving external parts to break or wear out. Magnetic stir bars work well in glass vessels used for chemical reactions. The limited size of the bar means that magnetic stirrers can only be used for small experiments. Stir bars also have difficulty in dealing with viscous liquids or thick suspensions, for larger volumes or more viscous liquids, some sort of mechanical stirring is typically needed. Because of its size, a stirring bar is more easily cleaned and sterilized than other stirring devices. They do not require lubricants which could contaminate the reaction vessel, Magnetic stirrers may also include a hot plate or some other means for heating the liquid. Arthur Rosinger of Newark, New Jersey, U. S. A. obtained US Patent 2,350,534, titled Magnetic Stirrer on 6 June 1944, having filed an application therefore on 5 October 1942. Mr. Rosingers patent includes a description of a bar magnet placed in a vessel. Mr. Rosinger also explains in his patent that coating the magnet in plastic or covering it with glass or porcelain makes it chemically inert. An even earlier patent for a magnetic mixer is US1,242,493, issued 9 October 1917 to Richard H. Stringham of Bountiful, Utah, U. S. A. Mr. Stringhams mixer used stationary electromagnets in the base, rather than a permanent magnet. The first multi-point magnetic stirrer was developed and patented by Salvador Bonet of SBS Company in 1977 and he also introduced the practice of noting the denomination of stirring power in liters of water, which is a market standard today. A heating element, whose power may range from a few hundred to a few thousand watts, the maximum reachable fluid temperature depends on the size of the flask, the quantity of solution to be heated, and the power of the heating element. A stir bar is the magnetic bar placed within the liquid which provides the stirring action, the stir bars motion is driven by another rotating magnet or assembly of electromagnets in the stirrer device, beneath the vessel containing the liquid. Stir bars are coated in teflon, or less often in glass. Glass coatings are used for liquid alkali metals and alkali metal solutions in ammonia, both coatings are chemically inert and do not contaminate or react with the reaction mixture they are in
25.
Mortar and pestle
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A pestle and mortar is a kitchen device used since ancient times to prepare ingredients or substances by crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder. The mortar is a bowl, typically made of hard wood, the pestle is a heavy and blunt club-shaped object, the end of which is used for crushing and grinding. The substance to be ground is placed in the mortar and ground, mortars and pestles have been used in cooking up to the present day, they are frequently also associated with the profession of pharmacy due to their historical use in preparing medicines. They can also be used in masonry and in types of construction. Scientists have found ancient mortars and pestles that date back to approximately 35,000 B. C, the English word mortar derives from classical Latin mortarium, meaning, among several other usages, receptacle for pounding and product of grinding or pounding. The classical Latin pistillum, meaning pounder, led to English pestle, the Roman poet Juvenal applied both mortarium and pistillum to articles used in the preparation of drugs, reflecting the early use of the mortar and pestle as a symbol of a pharmacist or apothecary. The antiquity of these tools is well documented in writing, such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus of ~1550 BCE. Mortars and pestles were used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients prior to preparing an extemporaneous prescription. The mortar and pestle, with the Rod of Asclepius, the Orange Cross, for pharmaceutical use, the mortar and the head of the pestle are usually made of porcelain, while the handle of the pestle is made of wood. This is known as a Wedgwood mortar and pestle and originated in 1759, today the act of mixing ingredients or reducing the particle size is known as trituration. Mortars and pestles are used as drug paraphernalia to grind up pills to speed up absorption when they are ingested. Mortars are also used in cooking to prepare ingredients such as guacamole, gazpacho and pesto, the molcajete, a version used by pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican cultures including the Aztec and Maya, stretching back several thousand years, is made of basalt and is used widely in Mexican cooking. Other Native American nations use mortars carved into the bedrock to grind acorns, many such depressions can be found in their territories. In Japan, very large mortars are used with wooden mallets to prepare mochi, a regular sized Japanese mortar and pestle are called a suribachi and surikogi, respectively. Granite mortars and pestles are used in Southeast Asia, as well as Pakistan, in India, it is used extensively to make spice mixtures for various delicacies as well as day to day dishes. With the advent of motorized grinders, use of the mortar and it is traditional in various Hindu ceremonies to crush turmeric in these mortars. In Malay, it is known as batu lesung, large stone mortars, with long wood pestles were used in West Asia to grind meat for a type of meatloaf, or kibbeh, as well as the hummus variety known as masabcha. In Indonesia and the Netherlands mortar is known as Cobek or Tjobek and it is often used to make fresh sambal, a spicy chili condiment, hence the sambal ulek/oelek denote its process using pestle
26.
Shaker (laboratory)
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A shaker is a piece of laboratory equipment used to mix, blend, or to agitate substances in tube or flask by shaking them, which is mainly used in the fields of chemistry and biology. A shaker contains a board which is used to place the flasks, beakers, test tubes. Kraft in 1962, a Vortex Shaker is usually a small device used to shake and its most standout characteristic is that it works by the user putting a vial on the shaking platform and turn it on, thus the vial is shaken along with the platform. Vortex Shaker is vary variable in term of speed adjustment, one can change the shaking speed while shaking by turning the switch. A kind of shaker that has a board that oscillates horizontally. The liquids to be stirred are held in beakers, jars, or erlenmeyer flasks that are placed over the table, or, sometimes, orbital Shaker has a circular shaking motion with a slow speed. It is suitable for culturing microbes, washing blots, and general mixing, some of its characteristics are that they do not create vibrations, and they produce low heat compared to other kinds of shakers, which make it ideal for culturing microbes. Moreover, it can be modified by placing it in an incubator to create an incubator shaker due to its low temperature, incubator Shaker can be considered a mix of an incubator and a shaker. It has an ability to shake, while maintain optimal conditions for incubating microbes or DNA replications. This equipment is useful since in order for a cell to grow, it needs Oxygen, and nutrients. Magnetic stirrer Vortex mixer Stirring rod Static mixer
27.
Sonication
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Sonication is the act of applying sound energy to agitate particles in a sample, for various purposes. Ultrasonic frequencies are used, leading to the process also being known as ultrasonication or ultra-sonication. In the laboratory, it is applied using an ultrasonic bath or an ultrasonic probe. In a paper machine, an ultrasonic foil can distribute cellulose fibres more uniformly, sonication has numerous effects, both chemical and physical. The chemical effects of ultrasound are concerned with understanding the effect of waves on chemical systems. The chemical effects of ultrasound do not come from an interaction with molecular species. Studies have shown that no direct coupling of the field with chemical species on a molecular level can account for sonochemistry or sonoluminescence. Instead, sonochemistry arises from acoustic cavitation, the formation, growth and it is applied in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, water, food, ink, paint, coating, wood treatment, metalworking, nanocomposite, pesticide, fuel, wood product and many other industries. Sonication can be used to speed dissolution, by breaking intermolecular interactions and it is especially useful when it is not possible to stir the sample, as with NMR tubes. It may also be used to provide the energy for chemical reactions to proceed. Sonication can be used to remove dissolved gases from liquids by sonicating the liquid while it is under a vacuum and this is an alternative to the freeze-pump-thaw and sparging methods. In biological applications, sonication may be sufficient to disrupt or deactivate a biological material, for example, sonication is often used to disrupt cell membranes and release cellular contents. Sonication is also used to fragment molecules of DNA, in which the DNA subjected to periods of sonication is sheared into smaller fragments. Sonication is commonly used in nanotechnology for evenly dispersing nanoparticles in liquids, sonication can also be used to initiate crystallisation processes and even control polymorphic crystallisations. It is used to intervene in anti-solvent precipitations to aid mixing, sonication is the mechanism used in ultrasonic cleaning—loosening particles adhering to surfaces. In addition to laboratory science applications, sonicating baths have applications including cleaning objects such as spectacles, sonication is used in food industry as well. Main applications are for dispersion to save expensive emulgators or to speed up filtration processes, experiments with sonification for artificial ageing of liquers and other alcoholic beverages were conducted. Sonication is also used to extract microfossils from rock, sonication can also refer to buzz pollination – the process that bees use to shake pollen from flowers by vibrating their wing muscles
28.
Static mixer
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A static mixer is a precision engineered device for the continuous mixing of fluid materials. Normally the fluids to be mixed are liquid, but static mixers can also be used to mix gas streams, the energy needed for mixing comes from a loss in pressure as fluids flow through the static mixer. One design of static mixer is the mixer and another common device type consists of mixer elements contained in a cylindrical or squared housing. Mixer size can vary from about 6 mm to 6 meters diameter, typical construction materials for static mixer components included stainless steel, polypropylene, Teflon, PVDF, PVC, CPVC and polyacetal. In the plate type design mixing is accomplished through intense turbulence in the flow, in the housed-elements design the static mixer elements consist of a series of baffles made of metal or a variety of plastics. Similarly, the housing can be made of metal or plastic. The housed-elements design incorporates a method for delivering two streams of fluids into the static mixer, as the streams move through the mixer, the non-moving elements continuously blend the materials. Complete mixing depends on variables including the fluids properties, tube inner diameter, number of elements. At each succeeding element, the two channels are divided, resulting in an exponential increase in stratification. The number of striations produced is 2n where n is the number of elements in the mixer, processed material is intermixed to reduce or eliminate radial gradients in temperature, velocity and material composition. Today, static mixers are used for a range of different applications in many different market segments. A common application is mixing two-component adhesives and sealants, other applications include wastewater treatment and chemical processing. Static mixers can be used in the refinery and oil and gas markets as well, in polymer production, static mixers can be used to facilitate polymerization reactions or for the admixing of liquid additives. The static mixer traces its origins to an invention for a mixing device filed on Nov.29,1965 by the Arthur D. Little Company and this device was the housed-elements type and was licensed to the Kenics Corporation and marketed as the Kenics Motionless Mixer. Today, the Kenics brand is owned by National Oilwell Varco, the plate type static mixer patent was issued on November 24,1998 to Robert W. and MVV srl
29.
Glass rod
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A glass rod, stirring rod or stir rod is a piece of laboratory equipment used to mix chemicals and liquids for laboratory purposes. They are usually made of glass, about the thickness and slightly longer than a drinking straw. Stir rods are made of borosilicate or polypropylene. They are usually between 10 and 40 centimeters in length, about half a centimeter thick, and have rounded ends and they are created from a single length of thin glass that is then cut into smaller segments. These small segments are then polished, which produces the characteristic round ends. While remarkably sturdy due to their construction, they can break, a stirring rod is used for mixing liquid. Chemical reactions often require agitation to proceed, and the rod serves as a way for a scientist to provide controlled agitation without interacting with the chemicals directly. Using a stir rod also grants control over the rate of flow. This process is used to pour a large-mouthed flask or beaker into a test tube. Glass rods can also be used to induce crystallization in a recrystallization procedure and they can also break up an emulsion during an extraction. It is recommended that the rod be cleaned after use to avoid contamination. Glass rods can normally be cleaned simply by placing them in a beaker of clean water and these are two classic experiments performed using glass rods. This experiment introduces students to the concept of an index of refraction in a liquid, glass rods are placed in beakers of liquid, in this case oil and water. In water, the rods are visible because the refractive index of water is different for water. In the oil, however, the glass rods seem to disappear because they have an index very similar to that of glass. Glass rods can also be used to demonstrate electrification by friction and this occurs when there are two surfaces rubbing together. In this instance, rubbing a glass rod with silk transfers negative charge from it and this effect is known as the triboelectric effect and can be performed with a variety of materials. Because glass rods and silk are relatively common, they are chosen to demonstrate this effect
30.
Vortex mixer
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A vortex mixer, or vortexer, is a simple device used commonly in laboratories to mix small vials of liquid. It consists of a motor with the drive shaft oriented vertically. As the motor runs the rubber piece oscillates rapidly in a circular motion, when a test tube or other appropriate container is pressed into the rubber cup the motion is transmitted to the liquid inside and a vortex is created. Vortex mixers are quite commonplace in bioscience laboratories, in cell culture and microbiology laboratories they may be used to suspend cells. In a biochemical or analytical laboratory they may be used to mix the reagents of an assay or to mix an experimental sample, the vortex mixer was invented by the Kraft brothers while working for Scientific Industries. A patent was filed by the Kraft brothers on April 6,1959, Scientific Industries still makes a version of this original vortex mixer. An alternative to the electric vortex mixer is the finger vortex technique in which a vortex is created manually by striking a test tube in a forward and downward motion with ones finger or thumb. The technique is suited to accelerate the mixture of solutions which do not require the kinetic energy input needed to create suspensions. Magnetic stirrer and stir bar Shaker Stirring rod Static mixer References
31.
Wash bottle
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A wash bottle is a squeeze bottle with a nozzle, used to rinse various pieces of laboratory glassware, such as test tubes and round bottom flasks. Wash bottles are sealed with a screw-top lid, when hand pressure is applied to the bottle, the liquid inside becomes pressurized and is forced out of the nozzle into a narrow stream of liquid. Most wash bottles are made up of polyethylene, which is a flexible solvent-resistant petroleum-based plastic, most bottles contain an internal dip tube allowing upright use. Wash bottles may be filled with a range of common solvents and reagents. These include, deionized water, detergent solutions and rinse solvents such as acetone, in biological labs it is common to keep sodium hypochlorite solution in a wash bottle to conveniently disinfect unneeded cultures. To help researchers and users recognize types of substances used in laboratory especially harmful chemicals, there are a consistent set of colour codes, red color indicates that the substance in the wash bottle is acetone. White color indicates that there is ethyl alcohol or sodium hypochlorite. The yellow color indicates isopropanol and blue indicates that there is distilled water, to be safe, put chemicals substances into wash bottles with appropriate sign of warning, therefore, the lables on wash bottles are necessary. Furthermore, do not put harmful chemicals into wash bottles for distilled water or deionized water, in addition, the holes in wash bottles lids are used for acetone and methanol. Hazardous substances are classified into six categories including toxic, oxidizer, corrosive, flammable, explosive. The sign for toxic substances is a skull and cross-bones, the picture of a flame with a circle in the middle of the flame indicates that the chemical substances are oxidizers. Therefore, organic materials can be burned, for the chemicals which are corrosive, the picture of an object which is corroded is the sign for this kind of substances. The picture of a flame without any circle in the middle helps recognize flammable substances, in addition, the sign for irritant substances is the picture of the exclamation mark. For the diamond labeling warning the danger of chemicals, red, yellow, and blue diamonds on wash bottles are scaled from 4 to 0. The number 4,3,2,1,0 on the top diamond representing are flammable below 21 c, below 38 c, below 93, above 93 c, and not flammable, respectively. The blue diamond on the side is also scaled from 4 to 0 which represents deadly, extremely hazardous, hazardous, slightly hazardous. In addition, the diamond on the right represents the reactivity which also range from 4 to 0. The white diamond on the bottom indicate whether substances in wash bottles are air reactive, water reactive, carcinogen, there are several benefits of using wash bottles. Firstly, the use of wash bottles helps researchers control and measure the amount of liquid used from wash bottles precisely, another advantage of using wash bottles is that unwanted substances or particles cannot pass through wash bottles
32.
Clamp (tool)
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A clamp is a fastening device used to hold or secure objects tightly together to prevent movement or separation through the application of inward pressure. There are many types of available for many different purposes. Some are temporary, as used to position components while fixing them together, in the field of animal husbandry, using a clamp to attach an animal to a stationary object is known as rounded clamping. A physical clamp of this type is used to refer to an obscure investment banking term. Anything that performs the action of clamping may be called a clamp and these clamps are used to position components temporarily for various tasks, Band clamp or web clamp Bar clamp, F-clamp or sliding clamp Bench clamp The bench forms the fixed jaw. Forked clamp stainless steel for ST ground glass joints with/without setscrew, sizes for, ST14,19,24,29 änd 45. Gluing and Clamping, A Woodworker’s Handbook
33.
Iron ring (laboratory)
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A Ring clamp is an item of laboratory equipment which comprises a conjoined metal ring and radially-extending rod. In some cases, the rod terminates in a clamp for attachment to a retort stand or other support, in others. Iron rings are used in chemistry laboratories for supporting apparatus above the work surface, for example. A clay triangle, which supports an item such as a crucible. A wire gauze, which supports a flat-bottomed beaker or conical flask. A large, and therefore heavy, round-bottom flask, in some cases, a slot is cut in the side of the ring opposite the rod. This is to allow a funnel to be placed upon and removed from the ring from the rather than from above
34.
Wire gauze
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A Wire gauze is a sheet of thin metal that has net-like crosses or a wire mesh. Moreover, the glassware has to be flat-bottomed to stay on the wire gauze, the wire gauze is made of a material called nichrome wire which is AWG No.24 galvanized iron wire. This type of material provides long life expectancy and can be used over and over again without a risk of it being torn, the corners of the wire gauze are turned inward to help prevent fraying. There are two types of wire gauze, woven wire gauze and a wire gauze with a ceramic center. These two types of wire gauze that are made of metal have a ability to transmit the heat efficiently. The ceramic at the center of the gauze is enmeshed at high pressure to prevent it from peeling. There are three size of the Wire Gauze with ceramic center which is 4 inches,5 inches, there are different sizes of wire gauze with ceramic center to match with different sizes of glassware
35.
Agar plate
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An agar plate is a Petri dish that contains a growth medium used to culture microorganisms or small plants like the moss Physcomitrella patens. Selective growth compounds may also be added to the media, such as antibiotics, individual microorganisms placed on the plate will grow into individual colonies, each a clone genetically identical to the individual ancestor organism. Some commonly used agar plate types are, Blood agar plates contain mammalian blood, bAPs are enriched, differential media used to isolate fastidious organisms and detect hemolytic activity. β-Hemolytic activity will show lysis and complete digestion of red blood cell contents surrounding a colony, α-Hemolysis will only cause partial lysis of the red blood cells and will appear green or brown, due to the conversion of hemoglobin to methemoglobin. An example of this would be Streptococcus viridans, γ-Hemolysis is the term referring to a lack of hemolytic activity. BAPs also contain meat extract, tryptone, sodium chloride, chocolate agar is a type of blood agar plate in which the blood cells have been lysed by heating the cells to 56 °C. It is used for growing fastidious respiratory bacteria, such as Haemophilus influenzae, no chocolate is actually contained in the plate, it is named for the coloration only. Horse blood agar is a type of blood-enriched microbiological culture media, as it is enriched, it allows the growth of certain fastidious bacteria, and allows indication of haemolytic activity in these bacterial cultures. Thayer-Martin agar is a chocolate agar designed to isolate Neisseria gonorrhoeae, thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose agar enhances growth of Vibrio spp. including Vibrio cholerae. Granada medium is used to isolate and differentiate group B Streptococcus, Streptococcus agalactiae from clinical samples and it grows in Granada medium as red colonies and most of accompanying bacteria are inhibited. Hektoen enteric agar is designed to isolate and recover fecal bacteria belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family and it is particularly useful in isolating Salmonella and Shigella. Lysogeny broth MacConkey agar is a selective and differential medium used to differentiate between Gram-negative bacteria while inhibiting the growth of Gram-positive bacteria, the addition of bile salts and crystal violet to the agar inhibits the growth of most Gram-positive bacteria, making MacConkey agar selective. Lactose and neutral red are added to differentiate the lactose fermenters, an alternative medium, eosin methylene blue serves a similar purpose. Mannitol salt agar is also a selective and differential medium, the mannitol indicates organisms that ferment mannitol, mannitol fermentation produces lactic acid, lowering the pH and turning the plate yellow. The salt is to select for halophiles, organisms that cannot withstand a high salt content are unable to grow well, mueller-Hinton agar contains beef infusion, peptone, and starch, and is used primarily for antibiotic susceptibility testing. It can be in a form of blood agar, nutrient agar is usually used for growth of nonfastidious organisms and observation of pigment production. It is safe to use in science laboratories because it does not selectively grow pathogenic bacteria. Önöz agar allows more rapid bacteriological diagnosis, as Salmonella and Shigella colonies can be clearly and reliably differentiated from other Enterobacteriaceae, the yields of Salmonella from stool samples obtained, when using this medium, are higher than those obtained with LEIFSON agar or Salmonella–Shigella agar
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Cryogenic storage dewar
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A cryogenic storage dewar is a specialised type of vacuum flask used for storing cryogens, whose boiling points are much lower than room temperature. Cryogenic storage dewars may take different forms including open buckets, flasks with loose-fitting stoppers. All dewars have walls constructed from two or more layers, with a high vacuum maintained between the layers and this provides very good thermal insulation between the interior and exterior of the dewar, which reduces the rate at which the contents boil away. Precautions are taken in the design of dewars to safely manage the gas which is released as the liquid slowly boils, the simplest dewars allow the gas to escape either through an open top or past a loose-fitting stopper to prevent the risk of explosion. More sophisticated dewars trap the gas above the liquid, and hold it at high pressure and this increases the boiling point of the liquid, allowing it to be stored for extended periods. Excessive vapour pressure is released automatically through safety valves, the method of decanting liquid from a dewar depends upon its design. Simple dewars may be tilted, to pour liquid from the neck, self-pressurising designs use the gas pressure in the top of the dewar to force the liquid upward through a pipe leading to the neck. Cryogens present several safety hazards and storage vessels are designed to reduce the associated risk, firstly, no dewar can provide perfect thermal insulation and the cryogenic liquid slowly boils away, which yields an enormous quantity of gas. In dewars with a top, the gas simply escapes into the surrounding area. However, very high pressures can build up inside sealed dewars, one or more pressure-relief valves allow gas to vent away from the dewar whenever the pressure becomes excessive. In an incident in 2006 at Texas A&M University, the devices of a tank of liquid nitrogen were sealed with brass plugs. As a result, the tank failed catastrophically and exploded, ice can form on the inside of the dewar if it is left open to the air for extended periods. This can be dangerous as the openings of the dewar can become blocked, leading to a pressure build-up. The gas escaping from a dewar can gradually displace the oxygen from the air in the surrounding area, which presents an asphyxiation hazard
