1.
Phonograph
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The phonograph is a device invented in 1877 for the mechanical recording and reproduction of sound. In its later forms it is called a gramophone. To recreate the sound, the surface is rotated while a playback stylus traces the groove and is therefore vibrated by it. In later electric phonographs, the motions of the stylus are converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. The phonograph was invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, while other inventors had produced devices that could record sounds, Edisons phonograph was the first to be able to reproduce the recorded sound. His phonograph originally recorded sound onto a sheet wrapped around a rotating cylinder. A stylus responding to sound vibrations produced an up and down or hill-and-dale groove in the foil, in the 1890s, Emile Berliner initiated the transition from phonograph cylinders to flat discs with a spiral groove running from the periphery to near the center. Later improvements through the years included modifications to the turntable and its system, the stylus or needle. The disc phonograph record was the dominant audio recording format throughout most of the 20th century, from the mid-1980s on, phonograph use on a standard record player declined sharply because of the rise of the cassette tape, compact disc and other digital recording formats. Records are still a favorite format for some audiophiles and DJs, vinyl records are still used by some DJs and musicians in their concert performances. Musicians continue to release their recordings on vinyl records, the original recordings of musicians are sometimes re-issued on vinyl. Usage of terminology is not uniform across the English-speaking world, in more modern usage, the playback device is often called a turntable, record player, or record changer. When used in conjunction with a mixer as part of a DJ setup, the term phonograph was derived from the Greek words φωνή and γραφή. The similar related terms gramophone and graphophone have similar root meanings, the roots were already familiar from existing 19th-century words such as photograph, telegraph, and telephone. In British English, gramophone may refer to any sound-reproducing machine using disc records, the term phonograph was usually restricted to machines that used cylinder records. Gramophone generally referred to a wind-up machine, after the introduction of the softer vinyl records, 33 1⁄3-rpm LPs and 45-rpm single or two-song records, and EPs, the common name became record player or turntable. Often the home record player was part of a system that included a radio and, later, from about 1960, such a system began to be described as a hi-fi or a stereo. In American English, phonograph, properly specific to machines made by Edison, was used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s to include cylinder-playing machines made by others
2.
Volta Laboratory and Bureau
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The Volta Laboratory and the Volta Bureau were created in Georgetown, Washington, D. C. by Alexander Graham Bell. The Volta Laboratory was founded in 1880–1881 with Charles Sumner Tainter and Bells cousin, Chichester Bell, for the research and development of telecommunication, phonograph and other technologies. It was renamed as the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf in 1956 and then the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing in 1999. The current building, a U. S. National Historic Landmark, was constructed in 1893 under the direction of Alexander Graham Bell to serve as a center of information for deaf and hard of hearing persons. Bell, best known for receiving the first telephone patent in 1876, was also a prominent figure of his generation in the education of the deaf and his grandfather, father and elder brother were teachers of speech and the younger Bell worked with them. Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, Bell moved to Canada with his family in 1870 following the deaths of his brothers, both Bells mother and wife were deaf, profoundly influencing his lifes work. He became an educator by opening a private normal class to train teachers of speech to the deaf and as a professor of vocal physiology. During this time he invented an improved phonautograph, the multiple telegraph, the speaking telegraph, or telephone. In 1879, Bell and his wife Mabel Hubbard, who had been deaf from early childhood, moved to Washington, the following year, the French government awarded Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the money to establish a trust fund, the Volta Fund, the laboratory focused on research for the analysis, recording and transmission of sound. In 1887, the Volta Laboratory Association transferred the sound recording, the Volta Bureau worked in close cooperation with the American Association for the Promotion of the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf which was organized in 1890, electing Bell as President. Informally it is called the AG Bell. From about 1879 Bells earliest physics research in Washington, D. C. was conducted at his first laboratory, a rented house, at 1325 L Street NW, and then from the autumn of 1880 at 1221 Connecticut Avenue NW. The laboratory was relocated to 2020 F Street NW sometime after January 1886. In 1889, Bell and his family moved from their Brodhead-Bell mansion to a new home close to his father, Alexander Melville Bell. Between 1889 and 1893, the Volta Bureau was located in the house to the rear of the home of Bells father, at 1527 35th Street NW in Washington. The new bureau building was constructed across the street from his fathers home, on May 8,1893, Bell’s 13-year-old prodigy, Helen Keller, performed the sod-breaking ceremony for the construction of the new Volta Bureau building. The Volta Bureau was so named in 1887 at the suggestion of John Hitz, its first superintendent, Hitz remained its first superintendent until his death in 1908
3.
Alexander Graham Bell
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Alexander Graham Bell was a Scottish-born scientist, inventor, engineer, and innovator who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone. Bells father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech and his research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U. S. patent for the telephone in 1876. Bell considered his most famous invention an intrusion on his work as a scientist. Many other inventions marked Bells later life, including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Although Bell was not one of the 33 founders of the National Geographic Society, he had a influence on the magazine while serving as the second president from January 7,1898. Alexander Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3,1847, the family home was at 16 South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Alexander Graham Bells birthplace. He had two brothers, Melville James Bell and Edward Charles Bell, both of whom would die of tuberculosis and his father was Professor Alexander Melville Bell, a phonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace. Born as just Alexander Bell, at age 10, he made a plea to his father to have a name like his two brothers. To close relatives and friends he remained Aleck, as a child, young Bell displayed a natural curiosity about his world, resulting in gathering botanical specimens as well as experimenting even at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill, young Bell asked what needed to be done at the mill. In return, Bens father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a workshop in which to invent. From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, with no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the familys pianist. Despite being normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and he also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mothers forehead wherein she would hear him with reasonable clarity. Bells preoccupation with his mothers deafness led him to study acoustics and his family was long associated with the teaching of elocution, his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are well known, especially his The Standard Elocutionist. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the United States alone, in this treatise, his father explains his methods of how to instruct deaf-mutes to articulate words and read other peoples lip movements to decipher meaning. Bells father taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to any symbol. Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his fathers public demonstrations, as a young child, Bell, like his brothers, received his early schooling at home from his father
4.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Columbia Records
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Columbia Records is an American record label owned by Sony Music Entertainment, a subsidiary of Sony Corporation of America, Inc. the United States division of Sony Corporation. It was founded in 1887, evolving from an enterprise named the American Graphophone Company. Columbia is the oldest surviving brand name in the sound business. Columbia Records went on to release records by an array of singers, instrumentalists. It is one of Sony Musics three flagship record labels alongside RCA Records and Epic Records, rather, as above, it was connected to CBS, a broadcasting media company which had purchased the company in 1938, and had been co-founded in 1927 by Columbia Records itself. Though Arista Records was sold to Bertelsmann Music Group, it would become a sister label of Columbia Records through its mutual connection to Sony Music. The Columbia Phonograph Company was founded in 1887 by stenographer, lawyer and New Jersey native Edward Easton and it derived its name from the District of Columbia, where it was headquartered. At first it had a monopoly on sales and service of Edison phonographs and phonograph cylinders in Washington. As was the custom of some of the regional companies, Columbia produced many commercial cylinder recordings of its own. Columbias ties to Edison and the North American Phonograph Company were severed in 1894 with the North American Phonograph Companys breakup, thereafter it sold only records and phonographs of its own manufacture. In 1902, Columbia introduced the XP record, a brown wax record. According to Gracyk, the molded brown waxes may have sold to Sears for distribution. Columbia began selling records and phonographs in addition to the cylinder system in 1901, preceded only by their Toy Graphophone of 1899. For a decade, Columbia competed with both the Edison Phonograph Company cylinders and the Victor Talking Machine Company disc records as one of the top three names in American recorded sound. In order to add prestige to its catalog of artists. The firm also introduced the internal-horn Grafonola to compete with the extremely popular Victrola sold by the rival Victor Talking Machine Company, during this era, Columbia used the famous Magic Notes logo—a pair of sixteenth notes in a circle—both in the United States and overseas. Columbia was split into two companies, one to make records and one to make players, Columbia Phonograph was moved to Connecticut, and Ed Easton went with it. Eventually it was renamed the Dictaphone Corporation, in late 1923, Columbia went into receivership
7.
Charles Sumner Tainter
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Tainter was born in Watertown, Massachusetts, where he attended public school. His education was modest, acquiring his knowledge mostly through self-education, in 1878 he opened his own shop for the production of scientific instruments in Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, where he made the acquaintance of Alexander Graham Bell. A year later Bell called Tainter to what would become his Volta Laboratory in Washington, Edison subsequently sued the Volta Graphophone Company for patent infringement, but the case was settled by a compromise between the two. In 1887 Tainter invented the helically wound paper tube as an improved graphophone cylinder and this design was light and strong, and came to be widely used in applications far removed from its original intent, such as mailing tubes and product containers. In 1888 he was stricken with pneumonia, which would incapacitate him intermittently for the rest of his life, leading him and his wife to move to San Diego. After the death of his first wife in 1924, he married Laura F. Onderdonk in 1928, Tainter received several distinguished awards for his graphophone. The daily agenda books described in detail the project work Tainter conducted at the Volta Laboratory during the 1880s, patent images viewable in TIFF format U. S. Patent 235,496 Photophone Transmitter, filed September 1880, issued December 1880 U. S, patent 235,497 Selenium Cell, filed September 1880, issued December 1880 U. S. Patent 235,616 Process Of Treating Selenium To Increase Its Electric Conductivity, filed August 1880, patent 241,909 Photophonic Receiver, filed March 1881, issued May 1881 U. S. Patent 336,173 Telephone Transmitter, filed April 1885, issued February 1886 U. S, patent 341,212 Reproducing Sounds from Phonograph Records, filed November 1885, issued May 1886 U. S. Patent 341,213 Transmitting And Recording Sounds By Radiant Energy, filed November 1885, patent 341,214 Recording and Reproducing Speech and Other Sounds, filed June 1885, issued May 1886 U. S. Patent 341,288 Apparatus for Recording and Reproducing Sounds, filed December 1885, patent 374,133 Paper Cylinder for Graphophonic Records, filed April 1887, issued November 1887 U. S. Patent 375,579 Apparatus for Recording and Reproducing Speech and Other Sounds, filed July 1887, patent 380,535 Graphophone, filed December 1887, issued April 1888 U. S. Patent 421,450 Graphophone Tablet, filed November 1887, issued February 1890 U. S. C, frow, George L. & Sefl, Albert F. The Edison Cylinder Phonographs 1877 -1929, Kent, Great Britain, phonographen und Grammaphone, Braunschweig, Germany, Klinkhardt and Biermann,1979. The Illustrated History of Phonographs, translation by Douglas Tubbs, VILO Inc, collecting Phonographs and Gramaphones, Christies International Collectors Series, Mayflower Books, New York,1980. The Phonograph and How to Use It, Allen Koenigsberg, New York,1971, charles Tainter and the Graphophone Plaque in Washington D. C. marking the successful Bell/Tainter photophone experiment
8.
Thomas Edison
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Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as Americas greatest inventor. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison was an inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France. Edisons inventions contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications and these included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his career as a telegraph operator. Edison developed a system of generation and distribution to homes, businesses. His first power station was on Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott. His father, the son of a Loyalist refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in southwestern Ontario, in a known as Shewsbury, later Vienna. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837 and his father, Samuel Sr. had earlier fought in the War of 1812 as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr. s struggle found him on the losing side, once across the border, he found his way to Milan, Ohio. His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey and his mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R. G, parkers School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age, the cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, Edisons family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined. Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit and he briefly worked as a telegraph operator in 1863 for the Grand Trunk Railway at Stratford, Ontario railway at age 16. He was held responsible for a near collision and he also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job. Edison obtained the right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald
9.
Phonograph record
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The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. The phonograph disc record was the medium used for music reproduction until late in the 20th century. It had co-existed with the cylinder from the late 1880s. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as compact cassette were mass-marketed, by the late 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the vinyl record left the mainstream in 1991. The phonograph record has made a resurgence in the early 21st century –9.2 million records were sold in the U. S. in 2014. Likewise, in the UK sales have increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014, as of 2017,48 record pressing facilities remain worldwide,18 in the United States and 30 in other countries. The increased popularity of vinyl has led to the investment in new, only two producers of lacquers remains, Apollo Masters in California, USA, and MDC in Japan. Vinyl records may be scratched or warped if stored incorrectly but if they are not exposed to heat or broken. The large cover are valued by collectors and artists for the space given for visual expression, in the 2000s, these tracings were first scanned by audio engineers and digitally converted into audible sound. Phonautograms of singing and speech made by Scott in 1860 were played back as sound for the first time in 2008, along with a tuning fork tone and unintelligible snippets recorded as early as 1857, these are the earliest known recordings of sound. In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, unlike the phonautograph, it was capable of both recording and reproducing sound. Despite the similarity of name, there is no evidence that Edisons phonograph was based on Scotts phonautograph. Edison first tried recording sound on a paper tape, with the idea of creating a telephone repeater analogous to the telegraph repeater he had been working on. The tinfoil was wrapped around a metal cylinder and a sound-vibrated stylus indented the tinfoil while the cylinder was rotated. The recording could be played back immediately, Edison also invented variations of the phonograph that used tape and disc formats. A decade later, Edison developed a greatly improved phonograph that used a wax cylinder instead of a foil sheet. This proved to be both a better-sounding and far more useful and durable device, the wax phonograph cylinder created the recorded sound market at the end of the 1880s and dominated it through the early years of the 20th century. Berliners earliest discs, first marketed in 1889, but only in Europe, were 12.5 cm in diameter, both the records and the machine were adequate only for use as a toy or curiosity, due to the limited sound quality
10.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
11.
Dictaphone
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Dictaphone was an American company founded by Alexander Graham Bell that produced dictation machines. It is now a division of Nuance Communications based in Burlington, although the name Dictaphone is a trademark, it has become genericized as a means to refer to any dictation machine. The Volta Laboratory was established by Alexander Graham Bell in Washington, the name Dictaphone was trademarked by the Columbia Graphophone Company in 1907, which soon became the leading manufacturer of such devices. This perpetuated the use of wax cylinders for voice recording, which had otherwise been eclipsed by disc-based technology, Dictaphone was spun off into a separate company in 1923 under the leadership of C. King Woodbridge. In 1947, having relied on wax-cylinder recording to the end of World War II and this cut a mechanical groove into a Lexan plastic belt instead of a wax cylinder. The advantage of the Lexan belt was that recordings were permanent, eventually IBM introduced a dictating machine using an erasable belt made of magnetic tape which enabled the user to correct dictation errors rather than marking errors on a paper tab. Dictaphone in turn added magnetic recording models while still selling the models recording on the Lexan belts, the size of the cassette was important as it enabled the manufacturer to reduce the size of portable recorders. In 1952 Walter D. Fuller became the director of the company, in 1969 he was appointed as chairman. In Japan, JVC was licensed to produce machines designed and developed by Dictaphone, Dictaphone and JVC later developed the picocassette, released in 1985, which was even smaller than a microcassette but retained a good recording quality and duration. Dictaphone also developed endless loop recording using magnetic tape, introduced in the mid-seventies as the Thought Tank, the recording medium did not need to be moved from where the dictation took place to the location such as a typing pool where the typists were located. This was normally operated via a dedicated in house telephone system enabling dictation to be made from a variety of locations within the hospital or other organizations with typing pools, one version calculated each typists turnaround time and allocated the next piece of dictation accordingly. Dictaphone was prominent in the provision of multi-channel recorders, used extensively in the services to record emergency telephone calls. In the 1980s, these recorders also started to be used in the industry to record conversations in dealing rooms. The recordings were made on reel-to-reel tape and could be located and replayed by date, by the late 1980s, digital recording began to be offered as an alternative and soon became the medium of choice. Additionally, Dictaphone at one point expanded their line to market a line of electronic calculators. In 1979, Dictaphone was purchased by Pitney Bowes and kept as a wholly owned, Dictaphone bought Dual Display Word Processor, a competitor to Wang Laboratories, the industry leader. In 1982 they marketed a word processor from Symantec, the hardware sold for $5,950 in 1982. The software was an additional $600, the advent of the personal computer, MS-DOS, and general-purpose word-processing software saw the demise of the dedicated word-processor, and the division was closed
12.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
13.
Elias Howe
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Elias Howe, Jr. was an American inventor and sewing machine pioneer. Elias Howe, Jr. was born on July 9,1819, to Dr. Elias Howe, Sr. and Polly Howe in Spencer, Howe spent his childhood and early adult years in Massachusetts where he apprenticed in a textile factory in Lowell beginning in 1835. After mill closings due to the Panic of 1837, he moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, to work as a mechanic with carding machinery, apprenticing along with his cousin Nathaniel P. Banks. Beginning in 1838, he apprenticed in the shop of Ari Davis and it was in the employ of Davis that Howe seized upon the idea of the sewing machine. He married Elizabeth Jennings Ames, daughter of Simon Ames and Jane B, Ames on 3 Mar 1841 in Cambridge. They had three children, Jane Robinson Howe, Simon Ames Howe, and Julia Maria Howe, contrary to popular belief, Howe was not the first to conceive of the idea of a sewing machine. Many other people had formulated the idea of such a machine before him, one as early as 1790 and it is probable that there are very few people who know how it came about. His original idea was to follow the model of the ordinary needle, and have the eye at the heel. It never occurred to him that it should be placed near the point, just as in his actual working experience, he was perplexed about the needles eye. He thought the king gave him twenty-four hours in which to complete the machine, if not finished in that time death was to be the punishment. Howe worked and worked, and puzzled, and finally gave it up, then he thought he was taken out to be executed. He noticed that the warriors carried spears that were pierced near the head, instantly came the solution of the difficulty, and while the inventor was begging for time, he awoke. It was 4 oclock in the morning and he jumped out of bed, ran to his workshop, and by 9, a needle with an eye at the point had been rudely modeled. That is the story of an important incident in the invention of the sewing machine. Amasa was able to sell his first machine for £250 to William Thomas of Cheapside, London, Elias and his family joined Amasa in London in 1848, but after business disputes with Thomas and failing health of his wife, Howe returned nearly penniless to the United States. His wife Elizabeth, who preceded Elias back to the United States, died in Cambridge, despite his efforts to sell his machine, other entrepreneurs began manufacturing sewing machines. He won the dispute and earned royalties from Singer and others for sales of his invention. Howe received a patent in 1851 for an Automatic, Continuous Clothing Closure, perhaps because of the success of his sewing machine, he did not try to seriously market it, missing recognition he might otherwise have received
14.
Bridgeport, Connecticut
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Bridgeport is a seaport city in the U. S. state of Connecticut. It is the largest city in the state and is located in Fairfield County at the mouth of the Pequonnock River on Long Island Sound, Bridgeport had a population of 144,229 during the 2010 Census, making it also the 5th-most populous in New England. It is bordered by the towns of Trumbull to the north, Fairfield to the west, the Greater Bridgeport area is the 48th-largest urban area in the United States and forms part of the Greater New York City Area. Bridgeport was inhabited by the Paugussett Indian tribe at the time of its English colonization, the English farming community became a center of trade, shipbuilding, and whaling. The town incorporated itself to subsidize the Housatonic Railroad and rapidly industrialized following its connection to the New York, manufacturing was the mainstay of the local economy until the 1970s. Industrial restructuring and suburbanization caused the loss of jobs and affluent residents, leaving Bridgeport struggling with problems of poverty. In the 21st century, conversion of office and factory buildings to residential use, the showman P. T. Barnum was a resident of the city and served as the towns mayor in the late 19th century. Barnum built four houses in Bridgeport, and housed his circus in town during winter, the first Subway restaurant opened in the North End section of the city in 1965. The Frisbie Pie Company was located here, and Bridgeport is credited as the birthplace of the Frisbee, the first documented English settlement within the present city limits of Bridgeport took place in 1644, centered at Black Rock Harbor along North Avenue and between Park and Briarwood Avenues. The place was called Pequonnock, after a band of the Paugussett, one of their sacred sites was Golden Hill, which overlooked the harbor and was the location of natural springs and their planting fields. The Golden Hill Indians were granted a reservation here by the Colony of Connecticut in 1639 that survived until 1802, a village called Newfield began to coalesce around the corner of State and Water Streets in the 1760s. The area officially known as Stratfield in 1695 or 1701 due to its location between the already existing towns of Stratford and Fairfield. During the American Revolution, Newfield Harbor was a center of privateering, Newfield initially expanded around the coasting trade with Boston, New York, and Baltimore and the international trade with the West Indies. The commercial activity of the village was clustered around the wharves on the west bank of the Pequonnock, in 1800, the village became the Borough of Bridgeport, the first so incorporated in the state. It was named for the Newfield or Lottery Bridge across the Pequonnock, Bridgeport Bank was established in 1806. In 1821, the township of Bridgeport became independent of Stratford, the West India trade died down around 1840, but by that time the Bridgeport Steamship Company and Bridgeport Whaling Company had been incorporated and the Housatonic Railroad chartered. The HRRC ran upstate along the Housatonic Valley, connecting with Massachusettss Berkshire Railroad at the state line, Bridgeport was chartered as Connecticuts fifth city in 1836 in order to enable the town council to secure funding to provide to the HRRC and ensure that it would terminate in Bridgeport. The Naugatuck Railroad—connecting Bridgeport to Waterbury and Winsted along the Naugatuck—was chartered in 1845, the same year, the New York and New Haven Railroad began operation, connecting Bridgeport to New York and the other towns along the north shore of the Long Island Sound
15.
Shorthand
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Shorthand is an abbreviated symbolic writing method that increases speed and brevity of writing as compared to longhand, a more common method of writing a language. The process of writing in shorthand is called stenography, from the Greek stenos and it has also been called brachygraphy, from Greek brachys and tachygraphy, from Greek tachys, depending on whether compression or speed of writing is the goal. A typical shorthand system provides symbols or abbreviations for words and common phrases, abbreviation methods are alphabet-based and use different abbreviating approaches. Several autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, many journalists use shorthand writing to quickly take notes at press conferences or other similar scenarios. Shorthand was used widely in the past, before the invention of recording. Shorthand was considered a part of secretarial training and police work. Although the primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation or discourse, for example, healthcare professionals may use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence. The earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the Parthenon in Ancient Greece and this shows a writing system primarily based on vowels, using certain modifications to indicate consonants. Hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century BC onwards, though there are indications that it might be older, the oldest datable reference is a contract from Middle Egypt, stating that Oxyrhynchos gives the semeiographer Apollonios for two years to be taught shorthand writing. Hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs, over time, many syllabic signs were developed. In Ancient Rome, Marcus Tullius Tiro, a slave and later a freedman of Cicero, the Tironian notes consisted of Latin word stem abbreviations and of word ending abbreviations. The original Tironian notes consisted of about 4000 signs, but new signs were introduced, in order to have a less complex writing system, a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used. After the decline of the Roman Empire, the Tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches, though they were known and taught. After the 11th century, however, they were mostly forgotten, when many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, long-forgotten manuscripts of Tironian notes were rediscovered. In imperial China, clerks used an abbreviated, highly cursive form of Chinese characters to record court proceedings and these records were used to create more formal transcripts. One cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by the signature, personal seal, or thumbprint. Versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day, an interest in shorthand or short-writing developed towards the end of the 16th century in England. In 1588 Timothy Bright published his Characterie, An Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character which introduced a system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word
16.
Columbia Graphophone Company
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The Columbia Graphophone Company was one of the earliest gramophone companies in the United Kingdom. As Columbia Records, it became a label in the 1950s and 1960s. This in turn was absorbed by the Parlophone Records unit of Warner Music Group, in 1922, Columbia Phonograph, as the American Columbia Records was then known, sold its UK subsidiary Columbia Graphophone. However, in 1925 Columbia Graphophone bought its former parent for $2.5 million, in 1926 Odeon Records and Parlophone Records were acquired. On 21 April 1931, the Gramophone Company and the Columbia Graphophone Company merged and formed a new company, Electric, American anti-trust laws forced EMI to sell its American Columbia operations. Under EMI, English Columbias output was mainly licenced recordings from American Columbia until 1951 when American Columbia switched British distribution to Philips Records, led by avuncular A&R man Norrie Paramor, the label was arguably the most successful in Britain in the rock era prior to the beat boom. In the mid 1960s, English Columbia added an audiophile imprint called Studio 2 Stereo, during that time, the Columbia Graphophone Company was absorbed into the Gramophone Company with the label maintaining its identity. EMI has engaged in litigation with CBS regarding the importing of American records bearing the Columbia imprint into areas where EMI owned the Columbia name, EMI decided to reserve the HMV label for classical repertoire and had transferred HMVs remaining pop acts to Columbia and Parlophone by 1967. EMI began to replace the Columbia label with the eponymous EMI Records in January 1973, the last Columbia single was issued in 1989. EMI sold its remaining interest in the Columbia name in 1990 to Sony Music Entertainment, the formal reassignment of British registered trade marks, including the magic notes logo, from EMI took place in 1993. Today, Sony Music prefers using the eye logo for the Columbia Records trade mark in the UK. However, the magic notes logo is used, usually to give a retro feel. The Columbia name was still on some EMI releases between 1973 and 1990, but it had ceased acting as a fully functioning label. In Australia and Germany, EMI continued using the Columbia label throughout the 1970s and to at least 1980, through its ownership of the former Columbia/EMI catalogue, Parlophone Records new owner Warner Music Group assumed Columbias artist roster and catalogue. New reissues bear the Parlophone imprint
17.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
18.
National Museum of American History
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Among the items on display is the original Star-Spangled Banner. The museum is part of the Smithsonian Institution and located on the National Mall at 14th Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Washington, the museum opened in 1964 as the Museum of History and Technology. It was one of the last structures designed by the architectural firm McKim Mead & White. In May 2012, John Gray was announced as the new director, the museum underwent an $85 million renovation from September 5,2006 to November 21,2008, during which time it was closed. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill provided the architecture and interior design services for the renovation, major changes made during the renovation include, A new, five-story sky-lit atrium, which is surrounded by displays of artifacts that showcase the breadth of the museums collection. A new, grand staircase that links the museums first and second floors, a new welcome center, and the addition of six landmark objects to orient visitors. New galleries, such as the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Hall of Invention, an environmentally controlled chamber to protect the original Star-Spangled Banner. In 2012, the museum began a $37 million renovation of the west wing to add new spaces, public plazas. The renovation will also include panoramic windows overlooking the National Mall on all three floors and new features to the exhibits. The first floor of the west wing reopened on July 1,2015 with the second and third floors of the west wing reopening in 2016 and 2017, each wing of the museums three exhibition floors is anchored by a landmark object to highlight the theme of that wing. These include the John Bull locomotive, the Greensboro, North Carolina lunch counter, landmarks from pre-existing exhibits include the 1865 Vassar Telescope, a George Washington Statue, a Red Cross ambulance, and a car from Disneylands Dumbo Flying Elephant ride. Artifact walls,275 feet of glass-fronted cases, line the first, the lower level of the museum displays Taking America to Lunch, which celebrates the history of American lunch boxes. The museums food court, the Stars and Stripes Café, the first floors East Wing has exhibits that feature transportation and technology, they include America on the Move and Lighting a Revolution. The John Bull locomotive is the signature artifact, the exhibits in the West Wing address science and innovation. They include Science in American Life featuring Robots on the Road, spark. Lab is a hands-on exhibit of the Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. The Vassar Telescope is the signature artifact, a café and the main museum store are also located on the first floor. The first floor contains the Constitution Avenue lobby, as well as a space for a temporary exhibit. The exhibitions in 2 East, the east wing of the floor, consider American ideals
19.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
20.
University of San Diego
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The University of San Diego is a private Roman Catholic university in San Diego, California, United States. The university offers 42 baccalaureate degrees, and several degrees in law, nursing, the university comprises seven different academic colleges. Chartered in 1949, the university opened its doors to its first class of students in 1952 as the San Diego College for Women, in September 1954, the San Diego College for Men and the School of Law opened. These two schools originally occupied Bogue Hall on the site of University High School, which would later become the home of the University of San Diego High School. In 1957, Immaculate Heart Major Seminary and St. Francis Minor Seminary were moved into their newly completed facility, the Immaculata Chapel, now no longer affiliated with USD, also opened that year as part of the seminary facilities. For nearly two decades, these schools co-existed on Alcalá Park, since then, the university has grown quickly and has been able to increase its assets and academic programs. The student body, the community, patrons, alumni. Significant periods of expansion of the university, since the 1972 merger, occurred in the mid-1980s, as well as in 1998, when Joan B. Kroc, philanthropist and wife of McDonalds financier Ray Kroc, endowed USD with a gift of $25 million for the construction of the Institute for Peace & Justice, Kroc left the School of Peace Studies upon her death. These gifts helped make possible, respectively, the Jenny Craig Pavilion, the Donald P. Shiley Center for Science and Technology, Kroc School of Peace Studies, and the Degheri Alumni Center. As a result, USD has been able to host the West Coast Conference basketball tournament in 2002,2003 and 2008, Kroc Institute for Peace & Justice and at USDs Shiley Theatre. Shileys gift has provided the university with some additional, and more advanced, in 2005, the university expanded the Colachis Plaza from the Immaculata along Marian Way to the east end of Hall, which effectively closed the east end of the campus to vehicular traffic. That same year, the student body approved plans for a renovation and expansion of the Hahn University Center which began at the end of 2007, the new Student Life Pavilion opened in 2009 and hosts the universitys new student dining area, offices for student organizations and event spaces. The Hahn University Center is now home to offices, meeting and event spaces. As of the fall of 2012, USDs total enrollment was 8,105 undergraduate, graduate, the complaint was made by a female law student against two other male law students. The 29-year-old woman, whose name was not disclosed, said she was raped in a bathroom during a party in May 2013. The party was for students to celebrate the completion of their first year of law school, the woman also filed a civil suit against the alleged perpetrators and the school. In her suit, the student claims that University of San Diego officials also discouraged her from pursuing any action against her rapists and said if she did
21.
Library and Archives Canada
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Library and Archives Canada is a federal institution tasked with acquiring, preserving and making Canadas documentary heritage accessible. LAC reports to Parliament through Mélanie Joly, the Minister of Canadian Heritage since November 4,2015, the National Library of Canada was founded in 1953. Freda Farrell Waldon contributed to the writing of the brief which led to the founding of the National Library of Canada, in 2004, Library and Archives Canada combined the functions of the National Archives of Canada and the National Library of Canada. It was established by the Library and Archives of Canada Act, a subsequent Order in Council dated May 21,2004 united the collections, services and personnel of the National Archives of Canada and the National Library of Canada. Since inception LAC has reported to Parliament through the Minister of Canadian Heritage, LAC is expected to maintain effective recordkeeping practices that ensure transparency and accountability. Some of this content, primarily the collection, university theses. Many items have not been digitized and are available in physical form. As of May 2013 only about 1% of the collection had been digitized, representing about 25 million of the more popular, genealogists account for 70% of LACs clients. The building at 395 Wellington Street in downtown Ottawa is the physical location where the public may access the collection in person. The building was opened on June 20,1967. With the de-emphasis on physical visits, in-person services have been curtailed, for example since April 2012 reference services are by appointment only, there are also administrative offices in Gatineau and preservation and storage facilities throughout Canada for federal government records. It was built at a cost of CDN$107 million, and the opening took place on June 4,1997. It is a building containing 48 climate-controlled preservation vaults and state-of-the-art preservation laboratories. In 2000, the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada named it one of the top 500 buildings constructed in Canada during the last millennium. A Nitrate Film Preservation Facility on the Communications Research Centre campus in Shirleys Bay, on the outskirts of Ottawa, the collection contains 5,575 film reels dating back to 1912, including some of the first Canadian motion pictures and photographic negatives. The film material is sensitive and requires precise temperatures for its preservation. The facility will feature a high bay metal shelving system with an environment to better protect Canadas published heritage. RSS feeds provide links to new content on the LAC website, a new modernized website is being developed and is scheduled for completion in 2013, with both new and old websites accessible during the transition period. e
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
University of Sheffield
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The University of Sheffield is a public research university in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England. Sheffield is a multi-campus university predominantly over two areas, the Western Bank and the St Georges. The university is organised into five academic faculties composed of multiple departments, Sheffield was placed 84th worldwide by The QS World University Rankings 2016. In 2011, Sheffield was named University of the Year in the Times Higher Education awards, the Times Higher Education Student Experience Survey 2014 ranked the University of Sheffield 1st for student experience, social life, university facilities and accommodation, among other categories. There are seven Nobel Prize laureates amongst Sheffield academics, six of which are its alumni or former staff, the University of Sheffield was originally formed by the merger of three colleges. Firth College then helped to fund the opening of the Sheffield Technical School in 1884 to teach applied science, the only major faculty the existing colleges did not cover. The Sheffield Technical School was founded because of concern about the need for technical training, particularly steelmaking in Sheffield. The three institutions merged in 1897 to form the University College of Sheffield by Royal Charter, Sheffield was the only large city in England without a University. Steelworkers, coal miners, factory workers and the people of Sheffield donated over £50,000 in 1904 to help found the University of Sheffield and it was originally envisaged that the University College would join Manchester, Liverpool and Leeds as the fourth member of the federal Victoria University. In July 1905, Firth Court on Western Bank was opened by King Edward VII, St Georges Square remained the centre of departments of Applied Science, and the departments of Arts, Medicine and Science moved to Western Bank. Sheffield is one of the six red brick universities, the universities founded in the major industrial cities of England. In 1905, there were 114 full-time students, and the first Hall of Residence, the number of students increased to a short-lived peak of 1,000 in 1919. During the First World War, some of the subjects and courses were replaced by teaching of munitions making. Rather than from a centre, the university has expanded since the 1920s from two ends, the Firth Court on Western Bank and the Sir Frederick Mappin Building on the St Georges site. In 1943, the University Grants Committee announced that universities in the UK should look forward to expansion in the years after the Second World War, Sheffield predicted a 50% increase in student population but the university was unprepared for such growth. There was pressure on the university to expand since the student numbers had increased from around 1,000 to 3,000 by 1946, the university then grew slowly until the 1950s and 1960s when it began to expand rapidly. Many new buildings were built and older houses were brought into academic use, Student numbers increased to their present levels of just under 26,000. At the same time in the 1950s, the university was expanding at other sites, from the 1960s, many more buildings have been constructed or extended, including the Union of Students and St Georges Library
24.
Association for Recorded Sound Collections
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The Association for Recorded Sound Collections is a nonprofit organization dedicated to the preservation and study of sound recordings. Established in 1966, members include record collectors, discographers, and audio engineers, together with librarians, curators, archivists, and researchers. Furthermore, ARSC was intended to bring together collectors from all genres, classical, jazz, popular and its first publication was the Preliminary Directory of Sound Recording Collections in the United States and Canada, listing 1,500 public and private collections. This was followed by the launch of the ARSC Journal, the ARSC Newsletter, other important projects have included The Rigler-Deutsch Index, a union catalog of the 615,00078 rpm holdings of five major public archives. Data from this project is now part of the WorldCat online library catalog. ARSC is governed by a board of directors, seven of whom are elected biennially by the membership. The eighth, the director, is appointed by the president with the approval of the board, is non-voting. A historical listing of officers and committee chairs can be found on the associations website, although ARSC is based in the U. S. about ten percent of its membership is located in other countries. ARSC has held a conference each year since 1967. It generally takes place three days between April and June in a city in the United States, though two conferences have taken place in Canada and one in London. Several conferences have been held jointly with the International Association of Sound, cumulatively, approximately 1,200 papers and panels have been presented through 2015, and nearly all have been professionally audio recorded and made available to members. A project is underway to digitize and post them online. In addition, since 2012 workshops conducted in conjunction with the conference have been streamed live, the ARSC Journal is a peer-reviewed journal that has been in existence since 1968. It also includes reviews of books and sound recordings, as well as a bibliography of articles of interest that have appeared in other journals. In all, more than 2,200 articles and reviews have been published through 2015, the ARSC Newsletter, containing association news, is published three times a year, and a Membership Directory is published electronically each year. Other publications include the ARSC Guide to Audio Preservation, a guide for smaller public, the Research Grants Program supports the research involving audio preservation and sound recordings, including discographies and historical studies of the sound recording industry. The Preservation of Classical Music Historical Recordings Grants Program supports “the preservation of historically significant sound recordings of Western Art Music. ”ARSC also provides a modest number of Travel Grants for first-time attendees at the annual conference, aRSClist is an unmoderated email discussion list sponsored by ARSC. Subscription is open to members and to the community at large
25.
Alexander Melville Bell
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Alexander Melville Bell was a teacher and researcher of physiological phonetics and was the author of numerous works on orthoepy and elocution. Additionally he was also the creator of Visible Speech which was used to help the deaf learn to talk, and was the father of Alexander Graham Bell. Alexander Melville Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and studied under and became the assistant of his father, Alexander Bell. From 1843 to 1865 he lectured on speech elocution at the University of Edinburgh, Melville married Eliza Grace Symonds, the only daughter of a British naval surgeon. In 1868, and again in 1870 and 1871, Melville lectured at the Lowell Institute in Boston, Massachusetts after having moved to Canada. In 1870 he became a lecturer on philology at Queens College, Kingston, Ontario, prior to departing Scotland for Canada Melville Bell had published at least 17 works on proper speech, vocal physiology, stenography and other works. Besides instructing at Queens College he also lectured in Boston, Montreal, Toronto, London, when the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall called on Brantford for a visit, Melville was asked to greet the dignitaries at the public event. Alexander Melville Bell was married twice, first to Eliza Grace Symonds in 1844 with whom he had three children, and then to Harriet G. Shibley. In 1864 Melville published his first works on Visible Speech, in order to help the deaf both learn and improve upon their aural speech. Melvilles works on Visible Speech became highly notable, and were described by Édouard Séguin as being. a greater invention than the telephone of his son, Melville saw numerous applications for his invention, including its worldwide use as a universal language. In 1887, his son, Alexander Graham Bell, sold off the assets owned by the Volta Laboratory Association. Graham used the profits from the sale of his shares to found the Volta Bureau as an instrument for the increase. Due to the space available at the carriage house, and with the assistance of Melville who contributed US$15,000. The Bell House at Colonial Beach, Virginia was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1987, the voice of Bell, citing a sentence from Hamlet, can be heard at the Smithsonian Institution, as extracted from an 1881 graphophone recording. Bells Standard Elocutionist, Principles And Exercises, W. Mullan, Bell, Alexander Bell and the Conquest of Solitude. Ithaca, New York, Cornell University Press,1990, Alexander Graham Bell, Encyclopædia Britannica,2010. The History Of Special Education, From Isolation To Integration, Gallaudet University Press,1993, ISBN 1-56368-018-1, Alexander Melville Bell, Some Memories, With Fragments From A Pupils Note-Book, School of Expression,1906. Pioneering the Telephone in Canada, Montreal, William Patten,1926
26.
Beinn Bhreagh
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Beinn Bhreagh is the name of the former estate of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, in Victoria County, Nova Scotia, Canada. It refers to a peninsula jutting into Cape Breton Islands scenic Bras dOr Lake approximately 3 km southeast of the village of Baddeck, the peninsula was known to the Mikmaq as Megwatpatek, roughly translated to Red Head due to the reddish sandstone rocks at the tip of the peninsula. In July 2005, the Nova Scotia Civic Address Project review changed the status of Beinn Bhreagh from a locality to a community. Along the way, due to the grounding of their passenger boat. Its landscape, climate, and Scottish traditions and culture were reminiscent of his birthplace in Edinburgh, the Bells lived increasingly on Beinn Bhreagh from about 1888 until Dr. Bells death in 1922, initially only in the summer and then later often year-round. Bell constructed a laboratory and boatyard on this property, conducting experiments in powered flight and hydrofoil technology, Bell, and built at Beinn Bhreagh. Designed as a chaser and powered by aircraft engines, their vessel set a world watercraft speed record of 71 miles per hour in 1919. Dr. Bell and his wife Mabel were both buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on the estate, overlooking Bras dOr Lake, the 242. 8-hectare estate owned by the Bells is on the peninsula at the end of Beinn Bhreagh Road. It is now owned by their descendants and not open to the public. Dr. and Mrs. Bells first residence on Beinn Bhreagh, the second and larger home, Beinn Bhreagh Hall was built in 1893. Both are visible from Baddeck, across Baddeck Bay, the Museum was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1952. Alexander Graham Bells father-in-law, Gardiner Greene Hubbard was the first president of the National Geographic Society, perhaps as a result, both Beinn Bhreagh or Baddeck, the nearest town, are prominently displayed in National Geographic maps of the area, despite their relatively small size
27.
Bell House (Colonial Beach, Virginia)
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Bell House, also known as the summer home of Alexander Graham Bell, is a historic home located at Colonial Beach, Westmoreland County, Virginia. It was built between 1883 and 1885, and is a 2 1⁄2-story, five-bay Stick Style frame dwelling and it features a wraparound porch with turned posts and sawn brackets and a central projecting tower with a pyramidal roof and balcony overhang. Also on the property are a privy and garage. Alexander Graham Bell inherited the property in 1907 from his father Alexander Melville Bell, who acquired it in 1886 and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1987
28.
Bras d'Or Lake
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Bras dOr Lake /brəˈdɔːr/ is an inland sea, or large body of partially fresh/salt water in the centre of Cape Breton Island in the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. Bras dOr Lake is sometimes referred to as the Bras dOr Lakes or the Bras dOr Lakes system, however, Canadian author and yachtsman Silver Donald Cameron describes Bras dOr Lake as A basin ringed by indigo hills laced with marble. Islands within a sea inside an island, the Bras dOr is also connected to Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Canso by means of a lock canal completed in 1869—the St. Peters Canal, at the southern tip of the lake. There are several competing explanations of the origin of the name Bras dOr, however, on the maps of 1872 and earlier, the lake is named Le Lac de Labrador, and this is more likely the true derivation of the present name. The literal meaning of Labrador is Laborer, in a paper prepared by the late Dr. Patterson for the Nova Scotia Historical Society he says he believed the name Bras dOr came from the Breton form of Bras deau arm of water or of the sea. The Mikmaq Nation named it Pitupok, roughly translated as salt water. With an area of approximately 1,099 square kilometres, the extents of Bras dOr Lake measures roughly 100 km in length and 50 km in width. The Washabuck Peninsula and Boisdale Hills divide the lake into northern and southern basins, the maximum depth of Bras dOr Lake of 287 metres is found in the St. Andrews Channel. This area was designated the Bras dOr Lake Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 2011, the Barra Strait is crossed by highway and railway bridges running between the Washabuck Peninsula and the Boisdale Hills. Although salinity varies throughout the system, it approximates a one third fresh, two-thirds sea water mixture. Partly for this reason, the lakes were designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, Bras dOr Lake is home to an array of wildlife with successful lobster and oyster fisheries, as well as the pursuit of other marine species. The lakes largely undeveloped shorelines have resulted in significant concentrations of bald eagle populations, a renowned summer vacation destination, the area around the Bras dOr Lake has become popular with recreational boaters. St. Peters Marina is one of the largest marinas in the Bras dOr and has full boating services, Baddeck is home to two marinas, two full service boatyards and the Bras dOr Yacht Club. Ben Eoin, in the East Bay, has a 75-slip marina with full services which opened in May 2013, the community operated Barra Strait Marina in Grand Narrows reopened in 2012. Sailing Yacht Racing is a long traditions in the Bras dOr, with the yacht clubs around lake hosting annual Regattas. Regatta Week hosted by the Bras dOr Yacht Club has been a tradition for over 100 years. Race the Cape is an International Sailing Federation – Off Shore Special Regulations Category 4 Race, there are both Spinnaker and Non-Spinnaker Divisions. While there are more than 20 launch ramps for trailered boats spread throughout the lake, ocean-going ships presently enter the lake at the Great Bras dOr and via the St. Patricks Channel to a gypsum quarry at Little Narrows
29.
David Fairchild
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David Grandison Fairchild was an American botanist and plant explorer. Certain varieties of wheat, cotton, and rice became especially economically important, Fairchild was born in Lansing, Michigan, and was raised in Manhattan, Kansas. He was a member of the Fairchild family, descendants of Thomas Fairchild of Stratford and he graduated from Kansas State College of Agriculture where his father, George Fairchild, was president. He continued his studies at Iowa State and at Rutgers with his uncle, Byron Halsted and he received an honorary D. Sc. degree from Oberlin College in 1915. Barbour Lathrop, a world traveler, persuaded Fairchild to become a plant explorer for the US Department of Agriculture. Lathrop and another patron, Allison Armour, financed some of Fairchilds many explorations for new plants to be introduced into the U. S. Fairchild was the author of a number of books on his plant collecting expeditions. Of those early travels, Fairchild wrote, I am glad that I saw a few of the places of the world before the coming of automobiles. For many years Fairchild managed the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Washington, one accomplishment was to help introduce the cherry trees from Japan to Washington. In 1898 he established the garden for tropical plants in Miami. In 1905 he married Marian, younger daughter of Alexander Graham Bell, Fairchild was a member of the board of trustees of the National Geographic Society, and an officer in what is now called the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing. In 1926, the Fairchilds built a home on an 8-acre parcel on Biscayne Bay in Coconut Grove and they named it The Kampong, after similar family compounds in Java, Indonesia, where Fairchild had spent so many happy days collecting plants. He covered this property with a collection of rare tropical trees and plants and eventually wrote a book about the place. In 1984, The Kampong became part of the National Tropical Botanical Garden, in 1938, he was honored by having the Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Coral Gables named after him. Fairchild was a member of the board of regents of the University of Miami from 1929 to 1933, for three of those years he was chairman of the board. In 1933 he was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences and his son, Alexander Graham Bell Fairchild lived and worked as a research entomologist for 33 years at the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory in the Republic of Panama. A daughter, Nancy Bell, married another entomologist, Marston Bates and she herself wrote a book about living in rural Colombia during the 1940s, East of the Andes and West of Nowhere. Fairchild wrote four books describe his extensive world travels and his work introducing new plant species to the United States
30.
Gardiner Greene Hubbard
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Gardiner Greene Hubbard was an American lawyer, financier, and philanthropist. One of his daughters, Mabel Gardiner Hubbard, also became the wife of Alexander Graham Bell, Hubbard was born in Boston, Massachusetts to Samuel Hubbard, a Massachusetts Supreme Court justice, and Mary Greene. Hubbard was a grandson of Boston merchant Gardiner Greene, Gardiner Hubbard attended Phillips Academy, Andover and later graduated from Dartmouth in 1841. He then studied law at Harvard, and was admitted to the bar in 1843, Hubbard married Gertrude Mercer McCurdy and had six children, Robert Hubbard, Gertrude Hubbard, Mabel Gardiner Hubbard, Roberta Hubbard, Grace Hubbard, and Marian Hubbard. Gardiner Hubbards daughter Mabel became deaf at the age of five from scarlet fever and she later became a student of Alexander Graham Bell, who taught deaf children, and they eventually married. Hubbard also played a role in the founding of Clarke School for the Deaf. Hubbard argued for the nationalization of the system under the U. S. During the late 1860s, Gardiner Hubbard had lobbied Congress to pass the U. S. Postal Telegraph Bill that was known as the Hubbard Bill, the bill would have chartered the U. S. Postal Telegraph Company that would be connected to the U. S. The Hubbard bill did not pass, to benefit from the Hubbard Bill, Hubbard needed patents which dominated essential aspects of telegraph technology such as sending multiple messages simultaneously on a single telegraph wire. This was called the telegraph or acoustic telegraphy. Hubbard organized the Bell Telephone Company on July 9,1877, with himself as president, Thomas Sanders as treasurer, Hubbard also became the father-in-law of Bell when his daughter Mabel Hubbard married Bell on July 11,1877. The American Bell Telephone Company would, at the end of 1899, evolve into AT&T. Hubbard also became an investor in the Edison Speaking Phonograph Company. C. Hubbard devoted considerable donations and attention to the advancement of education and was president of Clarke School for the Deaf for ten years. He died on December 11,1897, Gardiner Hubbards life is detailed in the book One Thousand Years of Hubbard History, by Edward Warren Day. In 1890, Mount Hubbard on the Alaska-Yukon border was named in his honour by an expedition co-sponsored by the National Geographic Society while he was president, the main school building at the Clarke School for the Deaf, Hubbard Hall, is named after him in his honor. Hubbards house on Brattle Street in Cambridge no longer stands, but a large beech tree from its garden still remains. After he moved to Washington, D. C. from Cambridge in 1873, on Hubbard Park Road and Mercer Circle he built large houses designed for Harvard faculty
31.
Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor
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Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor, father of photojournalism, was the first full-time editor of National Geographic. Grosvenor is credited with having built the magazine into the publication that it is today. Grosvenor was born in 1875 to Lilian Waters and Edwin A. Grosvenor in Constantinople, Ottoman Empire and he attended Amherst College and graduated with the A. B. degree magna cum laude in 1897. While at Amherst, Grosvenor and his twin brother Edwin were one of the best tennis doubles teams, Grosvenor became the President of the National Geographic Society. Grosvenor married Elsie May Bell, the daughter of Alexander Graham Bell, Grosvenors health deteriorated following the death of his wife and he died peacefully in his sleep at the age of 90 on February 4,1966. Grosvenor was hired in 1899 as the first full-time employee of the National Geographic Society by Alexander Graham Bell and he eventually was named Director, and later President of the Society, and remained Editor of the magazine until 1954. Grosvenor advocated policies of neutrality and positive, upbeat journalism through two wars, the Great Depression, and the beginning of the Cold War. This style was seen as innovative in the years of the 20th century. However, by the 1950s, Grosvenors style was criticized as being ossified and dated and he and his staff were criticized as being conservative, complacent, and unwilling to modernize, and the National Geographics subscription base fell as a consequence. After 50 years at the helm, he stepped down in 1954 at the age of 78, Grosvenor first traveled to the western United States in 1915 to hike with Stephen Mather in the Sierra Mountains and what is now Sequoia National Park. Following his return, Grosvenor provided funding to buy Giant Forest, for years, opposition in Congress had prevented creation of a national system of parks. In late 1915 and 1916, Grosvenor met with Stephen Mather, Horace Albright, and others to draft the Organic Act, which would create a National Park Service. He then created an issue of National Geographic entitled The Land of the Best to promote the importance of parks. He and Albright made sure that every member of Congress had a copy of the issue and their efforts worked, and that year legislation finally passed that would establish the National Park Service. Grosvenor continued involvement with the National Parks over the years and he became very involved in protecting the Katmai volcanic crater and Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes from mining exploitation, and helped to establish Katmai National Monument in 1918. Grosvenor is buried in Rock Creek Cemetery alongside his wife and members of the Bell family, Grosvenor Arch, a sandstone double arch located in southern Utah, is named after Gilbert Grosvenor. In 1931 Grosvenor bought a property in Coconut Grove, Florida next door to his brother-in-law and he called this estate Hissar after the small town in Turkey where he was born. After Fairchilds estate, The Kampong, was acquired by the National Tropical Botanical Garden they bought Hissar also, Grosvenor served on the Board of Trustees of the University of Miami from 1944 to 1960
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Mabel Gardiner Hubbard
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Mabel Gardiner Hubbard, was the daughter of Boston lawyer Gardiner Greene Hubbard, who was the first president of the Bell Telephone Company. As the wife of Alexander Graham Bell, an eminent scientist, from the time of Mabels courtship with Graham Bell in 1873, until his death in 1922, Mabel became and remained the most significant influence in his life. Mabel Gardiner Hubbard was born on November 25,1857 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, to Gardiner Greene Hubbard and Gertrude Mercer McCurdy. She suffered a bout of scarlet fever close to her fifth birthday in 1862 while visiting her maternal grandparents in New York City. Mabel was the inspiration for her fathers involvement in the founding of the first oral school for the deaf in the United States, having been educated in both the United States and in Europe, she learned to both talk and lip-read with great skill in multiple languages. In support of her parents efforts to increase funding for deaf education, described as strong and self-assured, she became one of Graham Bells pupils at his new school for the deaf, and later evolved into his confidant. They married on July 11,1877 in the Cambridge home of her parents, Mabel also bore two sons, Edward and Robert, both of whom died shortly after birth leaving their parents bereft. After Alecs death in 1922, Mabel slowly lost her sight and grew increasingly consigned to the care of her daughters and her ashes were interred with Alexanders grave exactly one year, to the hour, after his burial. Today, they rest together near the top of their beautiful mountain of their estate overlooking Bras dOr Lake, Mabel was the indirect source of her husbands early commercial success after his creation of the telephone. Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 made Bells newly invented telephone a featured headline worldwide, Bell also won a second Gold Medal for Visible Speech, for his additional display at the exposition, helping to propel him to international fame. Ironically, Bell, who was then a teacher, hadnt even planned on exhibiting at the fair due to his heavy teaching schedule. He went there only at the insistence of Mabel, his then-fiancée. Mabel had understood Bells reluctance to go to the exhibition and display his works and she secretly bought his train ticket to Philadelphia, packed his bag, and then took the unknowing Bell to Bostons train station where she told her shocked fiancé that he was going on a trip. When Bell started to argue, Mabel turned her away from him. The Bell Telephone Company was organized on July 9,1877 by Mabels father Gardiner Greene Hubbard who owned 1,387 of the 5,000 issued shares and had the title of trustee, Mabels husband Alexander Bell owned 1,497 shares. But Bell immediately transferred all but 10 of his shares as a gift to his new bride Mabel. A short time later, just prior to leaving for a honeymoon of Europe. This made Gardiner Hubbard the de facto president and chairman of the Bell Telephone Company, however Mabel strongly believed that a heavier-than-air vehicle could be designed to fly, and she provided the inspiration and financing of about $20, 000CAD to that end, a significant amount in 1907
33.
Mabel H. Grosvenor
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Dr. Mabel Harlakenden Grosvenor was a Canadian-born American pediatrician, and a granddaughter and secretary to the scientist and telephone inventor Alexander Graham Bell. She lived in both Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia and Washington, D. C, the club grew out of a social organization started at Beinn Bhreagh, by Mabel Bell, Alexanders wife. When Grosvenor died in 2006 at age 101, she was the last surviving individual to have personally known and worked with Alexander Graham Bell. Grosvenor was named after her grandmother, Mabel, who was struck with deafness at age five and became, apocryphally. She lived and grew up in both the Beinn Bhreagh estate where she was born, as well as her parents home near Dupont Circle in Washington, in 1912 her parents moved to a large farm in North Bethesda, Maryland, at what later became the Grosvenor Metro station. Grosvenor was described as intelligent, modest and optimistic, and became one of the first female graduates of the Johns Hopkins University medical program in Baltimore, Maryland. She had earlier studied at Mount Holyoke College in Massachusetts, an arts college for women. She graduated from Mount Holyoke Phi Beta Kappa in 1927 and completed her degree in 1931. She then became a pediatrician and worked with disadvantaged children in Washington, D. C. s Childrens Hospital, retiring after 35 years of service. Grosvenor never married, had no children, but became the matriarch to about 60 nieces and nephews of several generations of Bell descendants at Beinn Bhreagh, Baddeck. Aunty Mabel, as she was known to her extended kin at the estate, was seen as an important part of the leadership in the family at both the Canadian estate and in the U. S. capitol. To the Baddeck community, she was simply as Dr. Mabel. In her later years she suffered from heart failure but decided to stay on at the Bell estate due to her close relationship with the people of the community. She died, aged 101, of failure on October 30,2006 at the Bell estate near Baddeck. A funeral service was held for her on November 4,2006 at Greenwood United Church in Baddeck, Grosvenor was closely connected to her grandfather by kinship, and professionally as his secretary. Among her early memories of her grandfather were the occasions when the Bells doted on their 10 grandchildren. Pulitzer Prize winner and biographer Robert V. Bruce, author of the most authoritative work on Bell, described him as having the majesty of Moses and the benevolence of Santa Claus. Dr. Bell later wrote, I almost forgot to mention the witness who will live the longest after this event — my little granddaughter Miss Mabel Grosvenor —2 years of age
34.
Melville Bell Grosvenor
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Melville Bell Grosvenor was the president of the National Geographic Society and editor of The National Geographic Magazine from 1957 to 1967. He was the son of the magazines first editor Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor, a photography enthusiast, he increased the size of printed photographs in the magazine, and initiated the practice, that continues to this day, of opening articles with a two-page photo feature. He reduced the name of the publication from The National Geographic Magazine to National Geographic, under Grosvenors tenure, National Geographic also began to branch out from land expeditions to cover investigations into space and the deep sea. Grosvenor expanded the scope of the operations, branching into the production of documentaries bearing the National Geographic name. Four of these were produced per year, among the features produced during Grosvenors presidency were documentaries covering the first American expedition to Mount Everest and Jacques Cousteaus underwater exploits. His son Gilbert Melville Grosvenor was editor of National Geographic from 1970 to 1980 before becoming president of the National Geographic Society and his two other sons were Capt. Alexander G. B. Grosvenor, an officer, and Edwin S. Grosvenor. Grosvenor was born in Washington, D. C. on November 26,1901, the following year, in his grandfathers arms, he helped to lay the cornerstone of the National Geographic Societys first building, Hubbard Hall. His mother, the former Elsie May Bell, was the daughter of Alexander Graham Bell, Grosvenor enrolled in the U. S. Naval Academy in 1919. On June 8,1923, he graduated from the Academy with the Class of 1923, Grosvenor was commissioned an ensign in the United States Navy and shortly after married Helen Rowland of Washington, D. C. In 1924, Grosvenor resigned from the Navy and joined the staff of the National Geographic Society as a picture editor. Grosvenor is credited with taking the first color aerial photograph when he took a shot of the Statue of Liberty by circling the monument in a Navy Airship ZM C2. The photograph was published in the September 1930 issue, leading the Society to adopt the Finlay process and he also took early aerial color photographs of Washington, D. C. which appeared in the magazine. Grosvenors second wife, Anne Revis, whom he married in 1950, was a photographer for National Geographic.1 million to 5.5 million. He added or promoted new editorial staff including Wilbur Garrett and Joseph Judge, dr. Grosvenor did not dramatically modify the magazines traditional tone of gentlemanly detachment from the ugliness, misery and strife in the world. He also commissioned articles on space, polar and undersea research, Grosvenor sharply increased grants for research and exploration. The Society gave one of the first grants to oceanographer Jacques-Yves Cousteau, and supported anthropologists Louis S. B. and Mary Leakey, primatologist Jane Goodall, Grosvenor also campaigned to save the California redwoods before conservation became a popular cause. Grosvenor oversaw construction of the Societys new headquarters in Washington in 1963, mcDowell, Bart, Melville Bell Grosvenor, a Decade of Innovation, a Lifetime of Service
35.
The Telephone Cases
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The Telephone Cases were a series of U. S. Those telephone patents were relied on by the American Bell Telephone Company, the objector in the notable Supreme Court case was initially the Western Union telegraph company, which was at the time a far larger and better financed competitor than American Bell Telephone. Had Western Union succeeded it would have destroyed the Bell Telephone Company. The U. S. Supreme Court came within one vote of overturning the Bell patent, I had been experimenting in that direction. I don’t remember of getting at it by accident either, I don’t remember of anyone talking to me of it. In this case the court affirmed several other court cases. V American Bell Tel. Co.15 Fed, Rep.604, Molecular Te. Co. et al. V American Bell Tel. Co.32 Fed, Rep 214, Peoples Tel. Co. et al. V American Bell Tel. Co.22 Fed, well reversing American Bell Tel Co. et al. Co et al.32 Fed Rep.214, bell’s second fundamental patent expired on January 30,1894, at which time the gates were then opened to independent telephone companies to compete with the Bell System. The Courts decision in the Telephone Cases is notable for the size of the opinions delivered, together, lawyers, Patents, and the Judgments of History, Technology and Culture, Vol.51, No. 4, October 2010, pp. 854–878, DOI,10. 1353/tech.2010.0038. Volume 126, Supreme Court Judgment 126 U. S.1 Dolbear v. American Bell etc at Open Jurist Volume 126, Supreme Court Judgment 126 U. S.1 Dolbear v. American Bell etc at Justia Legat, reproducing sounds on extra galvanic way. Quote, The Edison National Historical Park archives has seven bound volumes, four of these volumes contain the record of a group of interferences entitled Cases A through L and Case No.1. The disputant parties were Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Elisha Gray, A. E. Dolbear, J. W. McDonough, richmond, William L. Voelker, J. H. Irwin, and Francis Blake, Jr. Although Edisons preliminary statements were filed in September 1878, testimony was not taken until 1880 and this record was printed in 1881. The second volume contains Edisons exhibits, including photo-lithographs of laboratory drawings, patents and patent applications, many of the documents in this numbered series were not selected as exhibits, they remain in the archives at the Edison National Historical Park
36.
Glenn Curtiss
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Glenn Hammond Curtiss was an American aviation pioneer and a founder of the U. S. aircraft industry. He began his career as a racer and builder before moving on to motorcycles. As early as 1904, he began to manufacture engines for airships, in 1908 Curtiss joined the Aerial Experiment Association, a pioneering research group, founded by Alexander Graham Bell at Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia to build flying machines. Curtiss made the first officially witnessed flight in North America, won a race at the worlds first international air meet in France and his contributions in designing and building aircraft led to the formation of the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company, now part of Curtiss-Wright Corporation. His company built aircraft for the U. S. Army and Navy, Curtiss civil and military aircraft were predominant in the inter-war and World War II eras. Curtiss was born in 1878 in Hammondsport, New York to Frank Richmond Curtiss, although his formal education extended only to Grade 8, his early interest in mechanics and inventions was evident at his first job at the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company in Rochester, New York. He invented a stencil machine adopted at the plant and later built a camera to study photography. On March 7,1898, Curtiss married Lena Pearl Neff, daughter of Guy L. Neff and Jenny M. Potter, in Hammondsport, New York. They had two children, Carlton N. Curtiss Glenn Hammond Curtiss Curtiss began his career as a Western Union bicycle messenger, a bicycle racer, in 1901, he developed an interest in motorcycles when internal combustion engines became more available. In 1902, Curtiss began manufacturing motorcycles with his own single-cylinder engines and his first motorcycles carburetor was adapted from a tomato soup can containing a gauze screen to pull the gasoline up via capillary action. In 1903, he set a land speed record at 64 miles per hour for one mile. Corson of the Hendee Mfg Co visited Hammondsport in July 1904, corsons motorcycles had just been trounced the week before by Hell Rider Curtiss in an endurance race from New York to Cambridge, Maryland. In 1907, Curtiss set an world record of 136.36 miles per hour, on a 40 horsepower 269 cu in V8-powered motorcycle of his own design and construction in Ormond Beach. The air-cooled F-head engine was intended for use in aircraft and he would remain the fastest man in the world, the title the newspapers gave him, until 1911, and his motorcycle record was not broken until 1930. This motorcycle is now in the Smithsonian Institution, Curtisss success at racing strengthened his reputation as a leading maker of high-performance motorcycles and engines. In 1904, Curtiss became a supplier of engines for the California aeronaut Tom Baldwin, in that same year, Baldwins California Arrow, powered by a Curtiss 9 HP V-twin motorcycle engine, became the first successful dirigible in America. In 1907, Alexander Graham Bell invited Curtiss to develop an engine for heavier-than-air flight experimentation. Bell regarded Curtiss as the greatest motor expert in the country, between 1908 and 1910, the AEA produced four aircraft, each one an improvement over the last
