1.
Heidelberg University
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Heidelberg University is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is Germanys oldest university and it was the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire. Heidelberg has been an institution since 1899. The university consists of twelve faculties and offers programmes at undergraduate, graduate. The language of instruction is usually German, while a number of graduate degrees are offered in English. Associated with 31 Nobel Prize laureates, the university places an emphasis on research, modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology, psychiatric genetics, environmental physics, and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg faculty. Approximately 1,000 doctorates are completed every year, with more than one third of the students coming from abroad. International students from some 130 countries account for more than 20 percent of the student body. The universitys noted alumni include eleven domestic and foreign Heads of State or Heads of Government, the Great Schism of 1378 made it possible for Heidelberg, a relatively small city and capital of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to gain its own university. The Great Schism was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year, one successor resided in Avignon and the other in Rome. Rupert I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, as specified in the papal charter, the university was modelled after University of Paris and included four faculties, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine. On 18 October 1386 a special Pontifical High Mass in the Heiliggeistkirche was the ceremony that established the university, on 19 October 1386 the first lecture was held, making Heidelberg the oldest university in Germany. In November 1386, Marsilius of Inghen was elected first rector of the university, the rector seal motto was semper apertus—i. e. The book of learning is always open, the university grew quickly and in March 1390,185 students were enrolled at the university. This resulted in establishing a reputation for the university and its professors. Due to the influence of Marsilius, the university initially taught the nominalism or via moderna, the transition from scholastic to humanistic culture was effected by the chancellor and bishop Johann von Dalberg in the late 15th century. Humanism was represented at Heidelberg University particularly by the founder of the older German Humanistic School Rudolph Agricola, Conrad Celtes, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Johann Reuchlin. Æneas Silvius Piccolomini was chancellor of the university in his capacity of provost of Worms, in 1482, Pope Sixtus IV permitted laymen and married men to be appointed professors in the ordinary of medicine through a papal dispensation
2.
Poetry
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Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
3.
Epigram
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An epigram is a brief, interesting, memorable, and sometimes surprising or satirical statement. Derived from the Greek, ἐπίγραμμα epigramma inscription from ἐπιγράφειν epigraphein to write on, to inscribe, the presence of wit or sarcasm tends to distinguish non-poetic epigrams from aphorisms and adages, which may lack them. These original epigrams did the job as a short prose text might have done. Epigram became a genre in the Hellenistic period, probably developing out of scholarly collections of inscriptional epigrams. Many of the types of literary epigram look back to inscriptional contexts, particularly funerary epigram. Many sympotic epigrams combine sympotic and funerary elements – they tell their readers to drink, epigrams are also thought of as having a point – that is, the poem ends in a punchline or satirical twist. By no means do all Greek epigrams behave this way, many are simply descriptive, Greek epigram was actually much more diverse, as the Milan Papyrus now indicates. A major source for Greek literary epigram is the Greek Anthology, the Anthology includes one book of Christian epigrams as well as one book of erotic and amorous epigrams called the Μουσα Παιδικη. Roman epigrams owe much to their Greek predecessors and contemporaries, Roman epigrams, however, were often more satirical than Greek ones, and at times used obscene language for effect. Its content, of course, makes it clear how popular such poems were, Admiror, O paries, Im astonished, wall, that you havent collapsed into ruins, since youre holding up the weary verse of so many poets. However, in the world, epigrams were most often gifts to patrons or entertaining verse to be published. Authors whose epigrams survive include Catullus, who wrote both invectives and love epigrams – his poem 85 is one of the latter, nescio, sed fieri sentio, et excrucior. Maybe youd like to know why I do, I dont know, but I feel it happening, and Im crucified. Martial, however, is considered to be the master of the Latin epigram and his technique relies heavily on the satirical poem with a joke in the last line, thus drawing him closer to the modern idea of epigram as a genre. Here he defines his genre against a critic, Disce quod ignoras, non sunt longa quibus nihil est quod demere possis, sed tu, Cosconi, disticha longa facis. Learn what you dont know, one work of Marsus or learned Pedo often stretches out over a doublesided page, a work isnt long if you cant take anything out of it, but you, Cosconius, write even a couplet too long. Poets known for their epigrams whose work has been lost include Cornificia, in early English literature the short couplet poem was dominated by the poetic epigram and proverb, especially in the translations of the Bible and the Greek and Roman poets. Since 1600, two lines of verse that rhyme with each other, known as a couplet featured as a part of the longer sonnet form
4.
Byzantine Empire
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It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
5.
Greek literature
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Greek literature refers to writings composed in areas of Greek influence throughout the period in which the Greek-speaking people have existed. Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in an Ancient Greek dialect and this literature ranges from the oldest surviving written works until works from approximately the fifth century CE. This time period is divided into the Preclassical, Classical, Hellenistic, Preclassical Greek literature primarily revolved around myths and include the works of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Classical period saw the dawn of drama and history. Three philosophers are especially notable, Socrates, Plato, during the Roman era, significant contributions were made in a variety of subjects, including history, philosophy, and the sciences. Byzantine literature refers to literature of the Byzantine Empire written in Atticizing, Medieval, chronicles, distinct from historics, arose in this period. Encyclopedias also flourished in this period, Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in common Modern Greek. The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is one of the most significant works from time period. Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two of the most notable figures, Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in Ancient Greek dialects. These works range from the oldest surviving works in the Greek language until works from the fifth century CE. The Greek language arose from the language, roughly two-thirds of its words can be derived from various reconstructions of the tongue. The Greeks created poetry before making use of writing for literary purposes, poems created in the Preclassical period were meant to be sung or recited. Most poems focused on myths, legends that were part folktale, tragedies and comedies emerged around 600 BCE. At the beginning of Greek literature stand the works of Homer, the Iliad, though dates of composition vary, these works were fixed around 800 BCE or after. Another significant figure was the poet Hesiod and his two surviving works are Works and Days and Theogony. During the classical period, many of the genres of western literature became more prominent, the two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. Of the hundreds of written and performed during this time period. These plays are authored by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the comedy arose from a ritual in honor of Dionysus. These plays were full of obscenity, abuse, and insult, the surviving plays by Aristophanes are a treasure trove of comic presentation
6.
Palatine Anthology
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The Palatine Anthology, sometimes abbreviated AP, is the collection of Greek poems and epigrams discovered in 1606 in the Palatine Library in Heidelberg. It is based on the lost collection of Constantine Cephalas of the 10th century and it contains material from the 7th century BC until 600 AD and later on was the main part of the Greek Anthology which also included the Anthology of Planudes and more material. The manuscript of the Palatine Anthology was discovered by Saumaise in 1606 in the Palatine library at Heidelberg. In 1623, after the Thirty Years War, it was sent with the rest of the Palatine Library to Rome as a present from Maximilian I of Bavaria to Pope Gregory XV and it was kept in the Vatican Library. In 1797 it was taken to Paris by order of the French Directory and in 1816 it was returned to Heidelberg when the war ended, the manuscript of the Palatine Anthology consists of 709 pages. It was written by four scribes around 980, one of the scribes made comments and additions and part of the manuscript was corrected by a Corrector. Epigrammatum anthologia palatina cum planudeis et appendice nova, Johann Friedrich Dübner-Cougny,3 voll, parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin-Didot, Instituti francici typographo, 1881-90, vol. Greek text at Perseus Digital Library of the Tufts University, in five volumes, volume 1, volume 2, volume 3, volume 4, bilingual edition at the Internet Archive, originals with English translation,1,2,3,4,5
7.
Anthology of Planudes
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The Anthology of Planudes, is an anthology of Greek epigrams and poems compiled by Maximus Planudes, a Byzantine grammarian and theologian, based on the Anthology of Cephalas. The Anthology of Planudes starts with the text, «Ανθολογία διαφόρων επιγραμμάτων, συντεθειμένων σοφοίς, επί διαφόροις υποθέσεσιν. » and consists of seven books. Several printed copies of the Planudean Anthology were made, as it was the only anthology of Greek epigrams and poems until 1606. The anthology is today part of the corpus of texts known today as the Greek Anthology, the 397 epigrams not found in the Palatine Anthology are usually included in the Greek Anthology as the Appendix Planudea. In the beginning the transcription was done accurately, however, after a certain point omissions become more and more as if the author lost his interest or was pressed to finalize the books. As a result, when the more accurate Palatine Anthology was discovered. The first printed edition of the Anthology of Planudes was printed by Janus Lascaris in 1494 in Florence under the title «Anthologia Graeca» and it was also printed later on by Aldus Manutius, Badius Ascensius, P. and J. -M. The edition of Bosch was printed between 1795 and 1822 in Utrecht in five volumes with Latin translation by Hugo Grotius entitled «Anthologia Graeca cum versione Latina Hugonis Grotii». Apart from the text of the Planudean Anthology, this also had other texts included after the first half of the third book. Anthologia Graeca cum versione Latina Hugonis Grotii, Volume 1, Claude Saumaise, Wild & J. Wild & J. Observationes et notae in Anthologiam Graecam quibus accetum Cl. Salmasii, Notae ineditae, Volume 4, Hieronymi de Bosch, David Jacob van Lennep, Claude Saumaise, Ultrajecti e typographia B. Wild & J. Altheer,1822, Volume 5 List of anthologies of Greek epigrams Anthologiae planudeae - Appendix Barberino-Vaticana, Leo Sternbach, Lipsiae, media related to Anthologia Planudea at Wikimedia Commons Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article, Ἀνθολογία διαφόρων ἐπιγραμμάτων
8.
Papyrus
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The word papyrus /pəˈpaɪrəs/ refers to a thick precursor to modern paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus. Papyrus can also refer to a document written on sheets of papyrus joined together side by side and rolled up into a scroll, the plural for such documents is papyri. Papyrus is first known to have used in ancient Egypt. It was also used throughout the Mediterranean region and in Kingdom of Kush, the Ancient Egyptians used papyrus as a writing material, as well as employing it commonly in the construction of other artifacts such as reed boats, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets. Papyrus was first manufactured in Egypt as far back as the fourth millennium BCE, the earliest archaeological evidence of papyrus was excavated in 2012 and 2013 at Wadi al-Jarf, an ancient Egyptian harbor located on the Red Sea coast. The papyrus rolls describe the last years of building the Great Pyramid of Giza, in the first centuries BCE and CE, papyrus scrolls gained a rival as a writing surface in the form of parchment, which was prepared from animal skins. Sheets of parchment were folded to form quires from which book-form codices were fashioned, early Christian writers soon adopted the codex form, and in the Græco-Roman world, it became common to cut sheets from papyrus rolls to form codices. Codices were an improvement on the scroll, as the papyrus was not pliable enough to fold without cracking. Papyrus had the advantage of being cheap and easy to produce. Unless the papyrus was of quality, the writing surface was irregular. Its last appearance in the Merovingian chancery is with a document of 692, the latest certain dates for the use of papyrus are 1057 for a papal decree, under Pope Victor II, and 1087 for an Arabic document. Its use in Egypt continued until it was replaced by more inexpensive paper introduced by Arabs who originally learned of it from the Chinese, by the 12th century, parchment and paper were in use in the Byzantine Empire, but papyrus was still an option. Papyrus was made in several qualities and prices, pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville described six variations of papyrus which were sold in the Roman market of the day. These were graded by quality based on how fine, firm, white, grades ranged from the superfine Augustan, which was produced in sheets of 13 digits wide, to the least expensive and most coarse, measuring six digits wide. Materials deemed unusable for writing or less than six digits were considered commercial quality and were pasted edge to edge to be used only for wrapping, until the middle of the 19th century, only some isolated documents written on papyrus were known. They did not contain literary works, the first modern discovery of papyri rolls was made at Herculaneum in 1752. Until then, the papyri known had been a few surviving from medieval times. The English word papyrus derives, via Latin, from Greek πάπυρος, Greek has a second word for it, βύβλος
9.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
10.
Archilochus
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For the hummingbird genus, see Archilochus. Archilochus was a Greek lyric poet from the island of Paros in the Archaic period and he is celebrated for his versatile and innovative use of poetic meters, and is the earliest known Greek author to compose almost entirely on the theme of his own emotions and experiences. Modern critics often characterize him simply as a lyric poet, the vivid language and intimate details of the poems often look autobiographical yet it is known, on the authority of Aristotle, that Archilochus sometimes role-played. There is nothing in two fragments to suggest that Archilochus is speaking in those roles and possibly many of his other verses involved role-playing too. The two poems quoted by Aristotle help to date the poets life, gyges reigned 687–652 BC and the date of the eclipse must have been either 6 April 648 BC or 27 June 660 BC. The chronology for Archilochus is complex but modern scholars generally settle for c. 680–c.640 BC, whether or not their lives had been virtuous, authors of genius were revered by their fellow Greeks. Inscriptions found on orthostats from the sanctuary include quoted verses and historical records, according to the same inscription, the omen was later confirmed by the oracle at Delphi. Not all the inscriptions are as fanciful as that, some are records by a local historian of the time, set out in chronological order according to custom, under the names of archons. See and other poets below for the testimony of some famous poets, according to tradition, Archilochus was born to a notable family on Paros. His grandfather, Tellis, helped establish the cult of Demeter on Thasos near the end of the eighth century, the painting, later described by Pausanias, showed Tellis in Hades, sharing Charons boat with the priestess of Demeter. The poets father, Telesicles, also distinguished himself in the history of Thasos, the names Tellis and Telesicles can have religious connotations and some modern scholars infer that the poet was born into a priestly family devoted to Demeter. The life of Archilochus was marked by conflicts, the ancient tradition identified a Parian, Lycambes, and his daughters as the main target of his anger. The story later became a theme for Alexandrian versifiers, who played upon its poignancy at the expense of Archilochus. Some modern scholars believe that Lycambes and his daughters were not actually the poets contemporaries, the inscriptions in the Archilocheion imply that the poet had a controversial role in the introduction of the cult of Dionysus to Paros. It records that his songs were condemned by the Parians as too iambic but they were the ones who ended up being punished by the gods for impiety, possibly with impotence. The oracle of Apollo then instructed them to atone for their error and rid themselves of their suffering by honouring the poet and his hero cult lasted on Paros over 800 years. His combative spirit also expressed itself in warfare, later he returned to Paros and joined the fight against the neighbouring island of Naxos. A Naxian warrior named Calondas won notoriety as the man that killed him and this couplet testifies to a social revolution, Homers poetry was a powerful influence on later poets and yet in Homers day it had been unthinkable for a poet to be a warrior
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Alcaeus of Mytilene
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Alcaeus of Mytilene was a lyric poet from the Greek island of Lesbos who is credited with inventing the Alcaic stanza. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria and he was an older contemporary and an alleged lover of Sappho, with whom he may have exchanged poems. He was born into the governing class of Mytilene, the main city of Lesbos. The broad outlines of the life are well known. Alcaeus and his brothers were passionately involved in the struggle. Sometime before 600 BC, Mytilene fought Athens for control of Sigeion and it is thought that Alcaeus travelled widely during his years in exile, including at least one visit to Egypt. His older brother, Antimenidas, appears to have served as a mercenary in the army of Nebuchadnezzar II, Alcaeus reference to Sappho in terms more typical of a divinity, as holy/pure, honey-smiling Sappho, may owe its inspiration to her performances at the festival. Alexandrian scholars numbered him in their canonic nine, among these, Pindar was held by many ancient critics to be pre-eminent, but some gave precedence to Alcaeus instead. Even the private reflections of Alcaeus, ostensibly sung at dinner parties, critics often seek to understand Alcaeus in comparison with Sappho, The Roman poet, Horace, also compared the two, describing Alcaeus as more full-throatedly singing — see Horaces tribute below. The works of Alcaeus are conventionally grouped according to five genres, commenting on Alcaeus as a political poet, the scholar Dionysius of Halicarnassus once observed that. if you removed the meter you would find political rhetoric. Drinking songs, According to the grammarian Athenaeus, Alcaeus made every occasion an excuse for drinking, the latter poem in fact paraphrases verses from Hesiod, re-casting them in Asclepiad meter and Aeolian dialect. Hymns, Alcaeus sang about the gods in the spirit of the Homeric hymns, to entertain his companions rather than to glorify the gods, there are for example fragments in Sapphic meter praising the Dioscuri, Hermes and the river Hebrus. According to Porphyrion, the hymn to Hermes was imitated by Horace in one of his own sapphic odes, love songs, Almost all Alcaeus amorous verses, mentioned with disapproval by Quintilian above, have vanished without trace. There is a reference to his love poetry in a passage by Cicero. Horace, who wrote in imitation of Alcaeus, sketches in verse one of the Lesbian poets favourite subjects — Lycus of the black hair. It is possible that Alcaeus wrote amorously about Sappho, as indicated in an earlier quote, miscellaneous, Alcaeus wrote on such a wide variety of subjects and themes that contradictions in his character emerge. — possibly imitated by Horace in an ode in the same meter and he also wrote Sapphic stanzas on Homeric themes but in unHomeric style, comparing Helen of Troy unfavourably with Thetis, the mother of Akhilles. Like many of his poems, it begins with a verb, Alcaeus rarely used metaphor or simile and yet he had a fondness for the allegory of the storm-tossed ship of state
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Anacreon
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Anacreon was a Greek lyric poet, notable for his drinking songs and hymns. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets, Anacreon wrote all of his poetry in the ancient Ionic dialect. Like all early lyric poetry, it was composed to be sung or recited to the accompaniment of music, Anacreons poetry touched on universal themes of love, infatuation, disappointment, revelry, parties, festivals and the observations of everyday people and life. Anacreon was born at Teos, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia Minor, the name and identity of his father is a matter of dispute, with different authorities naming four possibilities, Scythianus, Eumelus, Parthenius, or Aristocritus. It is likely that Anacreon fled into exile with most of his fellow-townsmen who sailed to Thrace when their homeland was attacked by the Persians, there they founded a colony at Abdera, rather than remaining behind to surrender their city to Harpagus, one of Cyrus the Greats generals. Cyrus was, at the time, besieging the Greek cities of Asia Minor, Anacreon seems to have taken part in the fighting, in which, by his own admission, he did not distinguish himself. From Thrace he travelled to the court of Polycrates of Samos, in return for his favour and protection, Anacreon wrote many complimentary odes about his patron. Like his fellow-lyric poet, Horace, who was one of his great admirers, John Addison, writing in 1735, relates a story told by Stobaeus about Anacreon. Having received a treasure of five gold talents from Polycrates, Anacreon couldnt sleep for two nights in a row and he then returned it to his patron, saying, However considerable the sum might be, its not an equal price for the trouble of keeping it. In Athens he became acquainted with the poet Simonides, and other members of the brilliant circle which had gathered around Hipparchus, according to others, before returning to Teos, he accompanied Simonides to the court of Echecrates, a Thessalian dynast of the house of the Aleuadae. Lucian mentions Anacreon amongst his instances of the longevity of eminent men, for a long time, Anacreon was popular in Athens, where his statue was to be seen on the Acropolis, together with that of his friend Xanthippus, the father of Pericles. On several coins from Teos he is represented holding a lyre in his hand, sometimes sitting, a marble statue found in 1835 in the Sabine district, and now in the Galleria Borghese, is said to represent Anacreon. Anacreon wrote all of his poetry in the ancient Ionic dialect, like all early lyric poetry, it was composed to be sung or recited to the accompaniment of music, usually the lyre. Anacreons verses were primarily in the form of monody rather than for a chorus, in keeping with Greek poetic tradition, his poetry relied on meter for its construction. Metrical poetry is a rhythmic form, deriving its structure from patterns of phonetic features within. The phonetic patterning in Anacreons poetry, like all the Greek poetry of the day, is found in the alternation of long. The Ionic dialect also had an aspect to it that lends a natural melodic quality to the recitation. The Greek language is well suited to this metrical style of poetry
13.
Simonides of Ceos
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Simonides of Ceos was a Greek lyric poet, born at Ioulis on Ceos. The scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets, along with Bacchylides, both Bacchylides and Pindar benefited from his innovative approach to lyric poetry and he was more involved than either of them in the major events and personalities of their times. Such accounts include fanciful elements yet he had a influence on the sophistic enlightenment of the classical era. His fame as a poet rests largely on his ability to present basic human situations with affecting simplicity, few clear facts about Simonides life have come down to modern times in spite of his fame and influence. Ancient sources are uncertain even about the date of his birth, according to the Byzantine encyclopaedia, Suda, He was born in the 56th Olympiad or according to some writers in the 62nd and he survived until the 78th, having lived eighty-nine years. Other ancient sources also have awkward consequences, however, the Parian Marble is known to be unreliable and possibly it was not even the grandfather but a grandson that won the aforementioned victory in Athens. According to the Suda, this grandson was yet another Simonides, Simonides is identified in the Suda as the son of a Leoprepes. He was born in Ioulis on Ceos, the outermost island of the Cyclades, the innermost island, Delos, was the reputed birthplace of Apollo, where the people of Ceos regularly sent choirs to perform hymns in the gods honour. Carthaea, another Cean town, included a choregeion or school where choirs were trained, indeed, the grandfather of Simonides nephew, Bacchylides, was one of the islands notable athletes. These were two of the most powerful families in the Thessalian feudal aristocracy yet they seemed notable to later Greeks such as Theocritus only for their association with Simonides, thessaly at that time was a cultural backwater, remaining in the Dark Ages until the close of the 5th century. According to an account by Plutarch, the Ionian poet once dismissed the Thessalians as too ignorant to be beguiled by poetry, among the most colourful of his ignorant patrons was the head of the Scopadae clan, named Scopas. Simonides embellished his ode with so many references to the twins Castor, Simonides however ended up getting much more from the mythical twins than just a fee, he owed them his very life. According to this story he was called out of the feast hall to see two visitors who had arrived and were asking for him – presumably Castor and Pollux, as soon as he left the hall, it collapsed, killing everyone within. These events were said to have inspired him to develop a system of mnemonics based on images and places called the method of loci, the method of loci is one component of the Art of memory. According to Plutarch, the Cean had a statue of himself made about this time, the last years of the poets life were spent in Sicily where he became a friend and confidant of Hieron of Syracuse. According to a scholiast on Pindar, he acted as peace-maker between Hieron and another Sicilian tyrant, Theron of Acragas, thus ending a war between them. Scholiasts are the authority for stories about rivalry between Simonides and Pindar at the court of Hieron, traditionally used to explain some of the meanings in Pindars victory odes. However, Pindar scholiasts are generally considered unreliable and there is no reason to accept their account, the Hellenistic poet Callimachus revealed in one of his poems that Simonides was buried outside Acragas and that his tombstone was later mis-used in the construction of a tower
14.
Agathias
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Agathias was a native of Myrina. A brother of Agathias is mentioned in sources, but his name has not survived. Their probable sister Eugenia is known by name, the Suda clarifies that Agathias was active in the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian I, mentioning him as a contemporary of Paul the Silentiary, Macedonius of Thessalonica and Tribonian. Agathias mentions being present in Alexandria as a law student at the time when an earthquake destroyed Berytus, the law school of Berytus had been recognized as one of the three official law schools of the empire. Within a few years, as the result of the earthquake of 551. The dating of the event to 551, as a law student, Agathias could be in his early twenties and he mentions leaving Alexandria for Constantinople shortly following the earthquake. Agathias visited the island of Kos, where he witnessed the devastation caused by the earthquake and he returned to Constantinople in 554 to finish his training, and practised as an advocatus in the courts. John of Epiphania reports that Agathias practiced his profession in the capital, evagrius Scholasticus and Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos describe Agathias as a rhetor. The Suda and a passage of John of Nikiû call him Agathias the scholastic and he is known to have served as pater civitatis of Smyrna. He is credited with constructing public latrines for the city, while Agathias mentions these buildings, he fails to mention his own role in constructing them. Myrina is known to have erected statues to honor Agathias, his father Memnonius and he seems to have been known to his contemporaries more as an advocatus and a poet. There are few mentions of Agathias as a historian, few details survive of his personal life – mainly in his extant poems. One of them tells the story of his pet cat eating his partridge, another responds to his seeing the tomb of the courtesan Lais of Corinth, implying a visit to that city, which he refers to using the poetic name Ephyra. No full account of his life survives, literature, however, was Agathias favorite pursuit, and he remains best known as a poet. Of his Daphniaca, a collection of poems in hexameter on love and romance in nine books. This work largely survives in the Greek Anthology—the edition by Maximus Planudes preserves examples not found elsewhere, Agathiass poems exhibit considerable taste and elegance. He also wrote notes on the Description of Greece of Pausanias. Almost equally valued are Agathiass Histories, which he started in the reign of Justin II and he explains his own motivation in writing it, as simply being unwilling to let the momentous events of his own times go unrecorded
15.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
16.
Gymnasium (ancient Greece)
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The gymnasium in Ancient Greece functioned as a training facility for competitors in public games. It was also a place for socializing and engaging in intellectual pursuits, the name comes from the Ancient Greek term gymnós meaning naked. Athletes competed nude, a practice which was said to encourage appreciation of the male body. Gymnasia and palestrae were under the protection and patronage of Heracles, Hermes and, in Athens, the word gymnasium is the latinisation of the Greek noun γυμνάσιον, gymnastic school, in pl. The verb had this meaning because one undressed for exercise, historically, the gymnasium was used for exercise, communal bathing, and scholarly and philosophical pursuits. The English noun gymnast, first recorded in 1594, is formed from the Greek γυμναστής, the palaistra was the part of the gymnasium devoted to wrestling, boxing and ball games. The gymnasium was formed as an institution where young men over 18 received training in physical exercises. The gymnastai were the teachers, coaches, and trainers of the athletes, the Greek gymnasiums also held lectures and discussions on philosophy, literature, and music, and public libraries were nearby. The athletic contests for which the gymnasium supplied the means of training, the contests took place in honour of heroes and gods, sometimes forming part of a periodic festival or the funeral rites of a deceased chief. The free and active Greek lifestyle reinforced the attachment to such sports, the victor in religious athletic contests, though he gained no material prize other than a wreath, was rewarded with the honour and respect of his fellow citizens. Training of competitors for the contests was a huge matter of public concern and special buildings were provided by the state for such use. A victory in the religious festivals was counted an honour for the whole state. The regulation of the Athenian gymnasium is attributed by Pausanias to Theseus, solon made several laws on the subject, according to Galen these were reduced to a workable system of management in the time of Cleisthenes. While the origins of physical exercise regimes cannot be pinpointed, the practice of exercising in the nude had its beginnings in the 7th century BC. The same purpose is frequently attributed to the tradition of oiling the body, the ancient Greek gymnasium soon became a place for more than exercise. This development arose through recognition by the Greeks of the relation between athletics, education and health. Accordingly, the gymnasium became connected with education on the one hand, physical training and maintenance of health and strength were the chief parts of childrens earlier education. As pupils grew older, informal conversation and other forms of activity took the place of institutional
17.
Baths of Zeuxippus
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The Baths of Zeuxippus were popular public baths in the city of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. They were built between 100 to 200, destroyed by the Nika revolt of 532 and then several years later. They were so called because they were built upon the site where a Temple of Jupiter had formerly existed and they were built around 500 yards south of the much older baths of Achilles of the earlier Greek Acropolis in Byzantion. The baths were famed primarily for the statues that were built within. However, they were used for military purposes, during the seventh century. Excavations of the site and the Baths were made in 1928 and these statues were taken from various places worldwide, including regions such as Asia and the surrounding areas, Rome, Greece and Asia Minor. For a relatively small fee, entrance could be gained by any member of the public to the Bath complex. While the area was primarily used for public bathing, one could exercise. Attendants were paid to oversee these activities, and the happenings of the complex, enforcing opening and closing times, men and women were not allowed to bathe together, they would either be in separate baths, or bathe at different times of the day. Even the likes of clergy and monks were there, despite the insistence by their superiors that the baths were places of impious behaviour. The 12th century scholar Zonaras tells of how Severus connected the baths to the Hippodrome and, in doing so, built it on the site of the Temple of Jupiter. Let the spectator, where he bathes himself Or sees the struggling steed panting for breath Pay a kind visit, to enhance his pleasures, or if more manly sports his mind affects, Practice the rough diversions of the stadia. In addition to this, the Baths of Zeuxippus were also close to the Great Palace grounds and this evidences their popularity, as such a location would have attracted many people, being in such great proximity to such significant places. The square of the Augustaeum and the basilica of Hagia Sophia were also close to the Baths, the map to the right shows the Baths approximate location within Constantinople, as determined by excavations made there. As can be seen, the Baths were roughly quadrangular in shape, while Justinian took action to rebuild the Baths, he could not recreate or restore the statues or the antiquities that were lost in 532. Almost 1,000 years later, in 1556, the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan built the Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı on the same grounds. Christodorus of Coptus, an Egyptian poet and writer wrote a lengthy piece of poetry inspired by the glory of the statues housed within the halls of the Baths of Zeuxippus. This poem actually consisted of a number of epigrams, each focusing on one or a small group of statues within the Baths
18.
Cyzicus
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Cyzicus was an ancient town of Mysia in Anatolia in the current Balıkesir Province of Turkey. The site of Cyzicus, located on the Erdek and Bandırma roads, is protected by Turkeys Ministry of Culture. Eudoxus of Cnidus had a school at Cyzicus and went with his pupils to Athens, visiting Plato, and then returned to Cyzicus, the era of Olympiads in Cyzicus was reckoned from 135 or 139. Its unique and characteristic coin, the cyzicenus, was worth 28 drachmae, during the Peloponnesian War Cyzicus was subject to the Athenians and Lacedaemonians alternately. In the naval Battle of Cyzicus in 410 during the Peloponnesian War, at the peace of Antalcidas, like the other Greek cities in Asia, it was made over to Persia. Alexander the Great later captured it from the Persians in 334 BC and was claimed to be responsible for the land bridge connecting the island to the mainland. The history of the town in Hellenistic times is closely connected with that of the Attalids of Pergamon, the Romans favored it and recognized its municipal independence. Cyzicus was the city of Northern Mysia as far as Troas. Under Tiberius, it was incorporated into the Roman Empire but remained the capital of Mysia, Cyzicus was captured temporarily by the Arabs led by Muawiyah I in AD675. It appears to have been ruined by a series of earthquakes beginning in 443, following its conquest by the Ottomans it underwent hard times. From a point between 1370 and 1372 until 1387, the metropolitan was empty, Speros Vryonis speculates this was due to financial difficulties, later in the 14th century, the sees of Chalcedon and certain patriarchal possessions in Bithynia and Hellespont were bestowed on the metropolitan of Cyzicus. In the Ottoman era, it was part of the kaza of Erdek in the province of Brusa, Cyzicus, as capital of the Roman province of Hellespontus, was its ecclesiastical metropolitan see. The province also included two autocephalous archiepiscopal sees, Parium and Proconnesus, Cyzicus had a catalogue of bishops beginning with the 1st century, Michel Le Quien mentions fifty-nine. A more complete list is found in Nicodemos, in the Greek Office of St. Emilian, 34-36, another saint who came from Cyzicus, Saint Tryphaena of Cyzicus, is the patron saint of the city. Gelasius, a historian of Arianism, who wrote about 475, was born at Cyzicus, george Kleidas, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in ca. 1253–61 Theodore Skoutariotes, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in ca, the last bishop of the see died in 1932. Today it is a metropolis of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Since 1885, the Catholic Church lists Cyzicus as a titular see. of the highest rank, titular metropolitans were, John Baptist Lamy William Benedict Scarisbrick, O. S. B
19.
Maximus Planudes
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Maximus Planudes was a Byzantine Greek monk, scholar, anthologist, translator, grammarian and theologian at Constantinople. Through his translations from Latin into Greek and from Greek into Latin he brought the Greek East and he is now best known as a compiler of the Greek Anthology. Maximus Planudes lived during the reigns of the Byzantine emperors Michael VIII and he was born at Nicomedia in Bithynia in 1260, but the greater part of his life was spent in Constantinople, where as a monk he devoted himself to study and teaching. On entering the monastery he changed his original name Manuel to Maximus, Planudes possessed a knowledge of Latin remarkable at a time when Rome and Italy were regarded with some hostility by the Greeks of the Byzantine Empire. A more important result was that Planudes, especially by his translations, paved the way for the revival of the study of Greek language, traditionally, a translation of Julius Caesars De Bello Gallico has been attributed to Planudes, but this is much repeated mistake. These translations were not only useful to Greek speakers but were widely used in western Europe as textbooks for the study of Greek. It is, however, for his edition of the Greek Anthology that he is best known. J. W. Mackail in his book Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology, has this to add of him, Among his works were translations into Greek of Augustines City of God, the restored Greek Empire of the Palaeologi was then fast dropping to pieces. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Planudes. Editions include, Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, ed. Harles,682, theological writings in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxlvii, correspondence, ed. M Treu, with a valuable commentary K. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, vol
20.
Thomas Bowdler
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The eponymous verb bowdlerise has associated his name with the censorship not only of literature but also of motion pictures and television programmes. Bowdler studied medicine at the universities of St. Andrews and Edinburgh and he spent the next four years in travelling in continental Europe, visiting Germany, Hungary, Italy, Sicily and Portugal. In 1781 he caught a fever in Lisbon from a friend whom he was attending through a fatal illness. He returned to England in broken health, and with an aversion to his profession. In 1781 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians and he devoted himself instead to the cause of prison reform. Bowdler won twice, lost three times, and drew three times, Bowdlers first published work was Letters Written in Holland in the Months of September and October,1787, which gave his eye-witness account of the Patriots uprising. In 1800 Bowdler took a lease on an estate at St Boniface, on the Isle of Wight. In September 1806, when he was 52, he married Elizabeth Frevenen or Trevennen, the marriage was unhappy, and after a few years Bowdler and his wife lived apart. After the separation, the marriage was never referred to by the Bowdler family, in 1807 the first edition of the Bowdlers The Family Shakspeare was published, in four small volumes. From 1811 until his death in 1825, Bowdler lived at Rhyddings House, overlooking Swansea Bay, from where he travelled extensively in Britain, in 1818 Bowdler published an enlarged edition of The Family Shakspeare, which had considerable success. By 1827 the work had gone into its fifth edition, in his last years, Bowdler prepared an expurgated version of the works of the historian Edward Gibbon, which was published posthumously in 1826. His sister Jane Bowdler was a poet and essayist, and another sister Henrietta Maria Bowdler collaborated with Bowdler on his expurgated Shakespeare, Bowdler died in Swansea at the age of 70 and was buried there, at Oystermouth. He bequeathed donations to the poor of Swansea and Box and his large library, consisting of unexpurgated volumes collected by his ancestors Thomas Bowdler and Thomas Bowdler, was donated to the University of Wales, Lampeter. In 1825 Bowdlers nephew, also called Thomas Bowdler, published his Memoir of the Late John Bowdler, Esq. to Which Is Added, Some Account of the Late Thomas Bowdler, in Bowdlers childhood, his father had entertained his family with readings from Shakespeare. Later, Bowdler realised that his father had been omitting or altering passages he felt unsuitable for the ears of his wife and children. Bowdler felt it would be worthwhile to publish an edition which might be used in a family whose father was not a sufficiently circumspect, in 1807 the first edition of the Bowdlers The Family Shakspeare was published, in four duodecimo volumes, containing 24 of the plays. In 1818 the second edition was published, each play is preceded by an introduction where Bowdler summarises and justifies his changes to the text. By 1850 eleven editions had been printed, the spelling Shakspeare, used by Bowdler, and also by his nephew Thomas in his memoir of the older man, was changed in later editions in the mid-19th century to Shakespeare
21.
Claudius Salmasius
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Claudius Salmasius is the Latin name of Claude Saumaise, a French classical scholar. Salmasius was born at Semur-en-Auxois in Burgundy and his father, a counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, sent him, at the age of sixteen, to Paris, where he became intimate with Isaac Casaubon. In 1606 he went to the University of Heidelberg, where he studied under the jurist Denis Godefroy, here he embraced Protestantism, the religion of his mother. Returning to Burgundy, Salmasius qualified for the succession to his fathers post, in 1623 he married Anne Mercier, a Protestant lady of a distinguished family. After declining overtures from Oxford, Padua and Bologna, in 1631 he accepted the professorship formerly held by Joseph Scaliger at Leiden, although the appointment in many ways suited him, he found the climate trying. He became involved in a controversy, over the Greek of the New Testament. The quarrel became both highly personal and widely known, and Heinsius as university librarian refused him access to the books he wished to consult, Salmasius had an ally in Gerardus Vossius, on religious grounds. A flattering invitation from Queen Christina induced him to visit Sweden in 1650, Christina loaded him with gifts and distinctions. This followed his polemical Defensio Regis of 1649, Salmasius had enemies there, Nikolaes Heinsius, son of his foe Daniel, but also Isaac Vossius with whom he had fallen out. Salmasius withdrew from Sweden in 1651, Christina sent warm letters, Salmasius died on 3 September 1653, at Spa. He was an author and textual critic. He first published an edition of a work by Nilus Cabasilas, against the primacy of the pope, in 1609 he brought out an edition of Florus, a later edition included also the editio princeps of the Liber Memorialis of Lucius Ampelius. Salmasius made copies of the newly discovered poems in the Palatine version, the remains of Stratons anthology became Book 12 in Jacobs standard critical Anthologia Graeca edition. Only in 2001 did a full Greek-to-English translation of Book 12 appear, in 1620 Salmasius published Casaubons notes on the Augustan History, with copious additions of his own. In 1629 he produced his magnum opus as a critic, his commentary on Gaius Julius Solinuss Polyhistor, or rather on Pliny the Elder, greatly as his contemporaries may have overrated this commentary, it stands as a monument of learning and industry. Salmasius learned Arabic to qualify himself for the part of his task. Shortly after his removal to the Netherlands, Salmasius composed his treatise on the system of the Romans. Other works followed, mostly philological, but including a denunciation of wigs, the De usuris liber and subsequent writing was a vindication of moderate and lawful interest for money
22.
Heidelberg
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Heidelberg is a college town situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. At the 2015 census, its population was 156,257, located about 78 km south of Frankfurt, Heidelberg is the fifth-largest city in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. Heidelberg is part of the densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, founded in 1386, Heidelberg University is Germanys oldest and one of Europes most reputable universities. A scientific hub in Germany, the city of Heidelberg is home to internationally renowned research facilities adjacent to its university. Heidelberg is in the Rhine Rift Valley, on the bank of the lower part of the Neckar in a steep valley in the Odenwald. It is bordered by the Königsstuhl and the Gaisberg mountains, the Neckar here flows in an east-west direction. On the right bank of the river, the Heiligenberg mountain rises to a height of 445 meters, the Neckar flows into the Rhine approximately 22 kilometres north-west in Mannheim. Villages incorporated during the 20th century stretch from the Neckar Valley along the Bergstraße, Heidelberg is on European walking route E1. Alongside the Philosophenweg on the side of the Old Town. There is a population of African rose-ringed parakeets, and a wild population of Siberian swan geese. Heidelberg is an authority within the Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe. The Rhein-Neckar-Kreis rural district surrounds it and has its seat in the town, Heidelberg is a part of the Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, often referred to as the Rhein-Neckar Triangle. The Rhein-Neckar Triangle became a European metropolitan area in 2005, Heidelberg consists of 15 districts distributed in six sectors of the town. The new district will have approximately 5, 000–6,000 residents, Heidelberg has an oceanic climate, defined by the protected valley between the Pfälzerwald and the Odenwald. Year-round, the temperatures are determined by maritime air masses coming from the west. In contrast to the nearby Upper Rhine Plain, Heidelbergs position in the leads to more frequent easterly winds than average. The hillsides of the Odenwald favour clouding and precipitation, the warmest month is July, the coldest is January. Temperatures often rise beyond 30 °C in midsummer, according to the German Meteorological Service, Heidelberg was the warmest place in Germany in 2009
23.
Propertius
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Sextus Propertius was a Latin elegiac poet of the Augustan age. He was born around 50–45 BC in Assisium and died shortly after 15 BC, Propertius surviving work comprises four books of Elegies. He was a friend of the poets Gallus and Virgil and, with them, had as his patron Maecenas and, through Maecenas, although Propertius was not as renowned in his own time as other Latin elegists, he is today regarded by scholars as a major poet. Very little information is known about Propertius outside of his own writing and his praenomen Sextus is mentioned by Aelius Donatus, a few manuscripts list him as Sextus Propertius, but the rest of his name is unknown. From numerous references in his poetry it is clear he was born and raised in Umbria, modern Assisi claims for itself the honor of his birthplace. As a boy his father died and the family lost land as part of a confiscation, combining this with cryptic references in Ovid implying he was younger than his contemporary Tibullus, a birthdate after 55 BC seems appropriate. It was during this time that he met Cynthia, the woman who would inspire him to express his poetic genius. Propertius published a first book of elegies in 25 BC, with Cynthia herself as the main theme. The Monobiblos must have attracted the attention of Maecenas, a patron of the arts who took Propertius into his circle of court poets. A second, larger book of elegies was published perhaps a later, one that includes poems addressed directly to his patron. Propertius most recent and best editor, Paul Fedeli, accepts this hypothesis, gould, editor of the Loeb edition. The publication of a book came sometime after 23 BC. Its content shows the beginning to move beyond simple love themes. The book also shows the poet growing tired of the demanding yet fickle Cynthia, Book IV, published sometime after 16 BC, displays more of the poets ambitious agenda, and includes several aetiological poems explaining the origin of various Roman rites and landmarks. Book IV, the last Propertius wrote, has half the number of poems as Book I. It is also possible that Propertius had children, either with Cynthia or a later liaison, an elegy of Ovid dated to 2 BC makes it clear that Propertius was dead by this time. Propertius fame rests on his four books of elegies, totaling around 92 poems, all his poems are written using the elegiac couplet, a form in vogue among the Roman social set during the late 1st century BC. Like nearly all the elegists, Propertius work is dominated by the figure of a single woman, scholars guess that she was probably a courtesan
24.
Ezra Pound
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Ezra Weston Loomis Pound was an expatriate American poet and critic, and a major figure in the early modernist movement. His contribution to poetry began with his development of Imagism, a movement derived from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry, stressing clarity, precision and his best-known works include Ripostes, Hugh Selwyn Mauberley and the unfinished 120-section epic, The Cantos. This included arranging for the publication in 1915 of Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, angered by the carnage of World War I, Pound lost faith in England and blamed the war on usury and international capitalism. Deemed unfit to stand trial, he was incarcerated in St. Elizabeths psychiatric hospital in Washington, while in custody in Italy, Pound had begun work on sections of The Cantos. These were published as The Pisan Cantos, for which he was awarded the Bollingen Prize in 1949 by the Library of Congress, triggering enormous controversy. Largely due to a campaign by his writers, he was released from St. Elizabeths in 1958. Hemingway wrote, The best of Pounds writing—and it is in the Cantos—will last as long as there is any literature, Pound was born in a small, two-story house in Hailey, Idaho Territory, the only child of Homer Loomis Pound and Isabel Weston. His father had worked in Hailey since 1883 as registrar of the General Land Office, both parents ancestors had emigrated from England in the 17th century. On his mothers side, Pound was descended from William Wadsworth, the Wadsworths married into the Westons of New York. Harding Weston and Mary Parker were the parents of Isabel Weston, harding apparently spent most of his life without work, with his brother, Ezra Weston, and his brothers wife, Frances, looking after Mary and Isabels needs. On his fathers side, the immigrant ancestor was John Pound, a Quaker, Ezras grandfather, Thaddeus Coleman Pound, was a Republican Congressman from northwest Wisconsin who had made and lost a fortune in the lumber business. Thaddeuss son Homer, Pounds father, worked for Thaddeus in the lumber business, Homer and Isabel married the following year, and Homer built a home in Hailey. Isabel was unhappy in Hailey and took Ezra with her to New York in 1887, Homer followed them, and in 1889 he found a job as an assayer at the Philadelphia Mint. The family moved to Jenkintown, Pennsylvania, and in 1893 bought a house in Wyncote. Between 1897 and 1900 Pound attended Cheltenham Military Academy, sometimes as a boarder, the boys wore Civil War-style uniforms and besides Latin were taught English, history, arithmetic, marksmanship, military drilling and the importance of submitting to authority. After the academy he may have attended Cheltenham Township High School for one year and it was at Pennsylvania in 1901 that Pound met Hilda Doolittle, his first serious romance, according to Pound scholar Ira Nadel. In 1911 she followed Pound to London and became involved in developing the Imagism movement, Pound was seeing two other women at the same time—Viola Baxter and Mary Moore—later dedicating a book of poetry, Personae, to the latter. He asked Moore to marry him too, but she turned him down and his parents and Frances Weston took Pound on another three-month European tour in 1902, after which he transferred, in 1903, to Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, possibly because of poor grades
25.
Edgar Lee Masters
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Edgar Lee Masters was an American attorney, poet, biographer, and dramatist. In all, Masters published twelve plays, twenty-one books of poetry, six novels and six biographies, including those of Abraham Lincoln, Mark Twain, Vachel Lindsay, and Walt Whitman. In 1880 they moved to Lewistown, Illinois, where he attended school and had his first publication in the Chicago Daily News. He attended Knox Academy in 1889–90, a now defunct preparatory program run by Knox College, but was forced to leave due to his familys inability to finance his education. After working in his fathers law office, he was admitted to the Illinois bar and moved to Chicago, in 1898 he married Helen M. Jenkins, the daughter of Robert Edwin Jenkins, a lawyer in Chicago, and had three children. During his law partnership with Clarence Darrow from 1903 to 1908, in 1911 he started his own law firm, despite three years of unrest caused by extramarital affairs and an argument with Darrow. Two of his children followed him with literary careers and his daughter Marcia pursued poetry, while his son Hilary Masters became a novelist. Hilary and his half-brother Hardin wrote a memoir of their father, Masters died at a nursing home on March 5,1950, in Melrose Park, Pennsylvania, age 81. He is buried in Oakland cemetery in Petersburg, Illinois, I am a dream out of a blessed sleep-Let’s walk, and hear the lark. Edgars father was Hardin Wallace Masters, whose father was Squire Davis Masters, whose father was Thomas Masters, whose father was Hillery Masters, the son of Robert Masters. Masters first published his poems and essays under the pseudonym Dexter Wallace until the year 1903. In 1915 the series was bound into a volume and re-titled Spoon River Anthology and he claimed the Whig Party led by Lincolns mentor Henry Clay had no platform to announce because its principles were plunder and nothing else. Quotations from the book, The political history of America has been written for the most part by those who were unfriendly to the theory of a confederated republic, or who did not understand it. It has been written by devotees of the principle, by centralists. For in six weeks he was to inaugurate a war without the American people having anything to say about it. Did he mean that he would bow to the American people when the law was laid down by their courts, through which alone the law be interpreted as the Constitutional voice of the people. No, he did not mean that, because when Taney decided that Lincoln had no power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, the War between the States demonstrated that salvation is not of the Jews, but of the Greeks. The World War added to this proof, for Wilson did many things that Lincoln did, levy Mayer and the New Industrial Era
26.
Occasional poetry
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Occasional poetry is poetry composed for a particular occasion. In the history of literature, it is studied in connection with orality, performance. As a term of literary criticism, occasional poetry describes the works purpose and it is not a genre, but several genres originate as occasional poetry, including epithalamia, dirges or funerary poems, paeans, and victory odes. Occasional poems may also be composed exclusive of or within any set of genre conventions to commemorate single events or anniversaries, such as birthdays, foundings. Poets whose body of work features occasional poetry that stands among their highest literary achievements include Pindar, Horace, Ronsard, Jonson, Dryden, Milton, Goethe, Yeats, and Mallarmé. In the 18th century, particularly in Germany, occasional poems were written by women. The Poetics of the Occasion, Mallarmé and the Poetry of Circumstance
27.
Tiberius
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Tiberius was a Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Born Tiberius Claudius Nero, a Claudian, Tiberius was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and his mother divorced Nero and married Octavian, later known as Augustus, in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian. Tiberius would later marry Augustus daughter, Julia the Elder, and even later be adopted by Augustus, by which act he officially became a Julian, bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar. The subsequent emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both families for the thirty years, historians have named it the Julio-Claudian dynasty. In relations to the emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius. Tiberius was one of Romes greatest generals, his conquest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily, parts of Germania, laid the foundations for the northern frontier. But he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor, Pliny the Elder called him tristissimus hominum, after the death of Tiberius’ son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD, he became more reclusive and aloof. In 26 AD Tiberius removed himself from Rome and left largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro. Caligula, Tiberius grand-nephew and adopted grandson, succeeded Tiberius upon his death, Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. In 39 BC his mother divorced his father and remarried Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus shortly thereafter. In 38 BC his brother, Nero Claudius Drusus, was born, little is recorded of Tiberiuss early life. In 32 BC Tiberius at the age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his father at the rostra. In 29 BC, both he rode in the chariot along with their adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony. In 23 BC Emperor Augustus became gravely ill and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into chaos again, in response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus. Similar provisions were made for Drusus, shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate, and it is presumably here that his interest in Greek rhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius was sent East under Marcus Agrippa, the Parthians had captured the standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus, Decidius Saxa, and Marc Antony. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, Tiberius married Vipsania Agrippina, the daughter of Augustus’s close friend and greatest general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. He was appointed to the position of praetor, and sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west
28.
Trajan
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Trajan was Roman emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born in the city of Italica in the province of Hispania Baetica, Trajans non-patrician family was of Italian, Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in 89 Trajan supported Domitian against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus, in September 96, Domitian was succeeded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, an old and childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, culminating in a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard, Nerva was compelled to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and he died on 27 January 98 and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident. Early in his reign, he annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea and his conquest of Dacia enriched the empire greatly, as the new province possessed many valuable gold mines. However, its position north of the Danube made it susceptible to attack on three sides, and it was later abandoned by Emperor Aurelian. Trajans war against the Parthian Empire ended with the sack of the capital Ctesiphon and his campaigns expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent. In late 117, while sailing back to Rome, Trajan fell ill and he was deified by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest under Trajans Column. He was succeeded by his adopted son Hadrian, as an emperor, Trajans reputation has endured – he is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived nineteen centuries. Every new emperor after him was honoured by the Senate with the wish felicior Augusto, among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan. As far as ancient literary sources are concerned, an extant continuous account of Trajans reign does not exist, only fragments remain of the Getiká, a book by Trajans personal physician Titos Statilios Kriton. The Parthiká, a 17-volume account of the Parthian Wars written by Arrian, has met a similar fate, book 68 in Cassius Dios Roman History, which survives mostly as Byzantine abridgments and epitomes, is the main source for the political history of Trajans rule. Besides this, Pliny the Youngers Panegyricus and Dio of Prusas orations are the best surviving contemporary sources and it is certain that much of text of the letters that appear in this collection over Trajans signature was written and/or edited by Trajans Imperial secretary, his ab epistulis. Therefore, discussion of Trajan and his rule in modern historiography cannot avoid speculation, as well as recourse to sources such as archaeology. Marcus Ulpius Traianus was born on 18 September 53 AD in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, Trajans birthplace of Italica was founded as a Roman military colony in 206 BC, though it is unknown when the Ulpii arrived there. Trajan was the son of Marcia, a Roman noblewoman and sister-in-law of the second Flavian Emperor Titus, and Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Marcus Ulpius Traianus the elder served Vespasian in the First Jewish-Roman War, commanding the Legio X Fretensis. Trajan himself was just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that continued long after his own death and his elder sister was Ulpia Marciana, and his niece was Salonina Matidia. The patria of the Ulpii was Italica, in Spanish Baetica, as a young man, he rose through the ranks of the Roman army, serving in some of the most contested parts of the Empires frontier
29.
Paul the Silentiary
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Paul the Silentiary, also known as Paulus Silentiarius, was a Greek poet. His contemporary, the historian and poet Agathias, describes him as a rich man, Paul is best known and most admired for his short poems in the classical tradition, about 80 of which have been preserved in the Greek Anthology. Forty of these are love poems, two are replies to poems by Agathias, in another Paul laments the death of Damocharis of Cos, Agathiass favorite pupil. These short poems also contain interesting social information and he also composed in verse an ecphrasis or evocative account of Justinians cathedral of the Holy Wisdom, describing its architecture and decoration after the reconstruction of the dome in 562. Paul sees the church as a meadow of many-coloured marbles, the poem was probably commissioned by Justinian himself, and Paul had to read verses to the emperor through the inauguration. It consists of 1029 verses in Greek, starting with 134 lines of iambic trimeter and he also wrote a poem about the hot springs at Pythia. Paul died some time between 575 and 580, bell Sex and the Civil Servant, Poems by Paul the Silentiary, tr. Graham John Wheeler J. Kostenec, K. Dark, Paul the Silentiarys description of Hagia Sophia in the light of new evidence, in Byzantinoslavica, LXIX3 supplementum. R. Macrides, P. Magdalino, The architecture of ecphrasis, construction and context of Paul the Silentiarys poem on Hagia Sophia, in Byzantine And Modern Greek Studies,12, the Occasion of Paul the Silentiarys Ekphrasis of S. Sophia. Paul the Silentiary, The Magnificence of Hagia Sophia at The Internet Medieval Sourcebook Extracts of his eulogy of the Hagia Sophia
30.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
31.
Constantine VII
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Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos or Porphyrogenitus, the Purple-born, was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 913 to 959. He was the son of the emperor Leo VI and his wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, and the nephew of his predecessor. Constantine VII is best known for his four books, De Administrando Imperio, De Ceremoniis, De Thematibus and his nickname alludes to the Purple Room of the imperial palace, decorated with porphyry, where legitimate children of reigning emperors were normally born. Constantine was also born in this room, although his mother Zoe had not been married to Leo at that time, nevertheless, the epithet allowed him to underline his position as the legitimized son, as opposed to all others who claimed the throne during his lifetime. Sons born to a reigning Emperor held precedence in the Eastern Roman line of succession over elder sons not born in the purple, Constantine was born at Constantinople, an illegitimate son born before an uncanonical fourth marriage. To help legitimize him, his mother gave birth to him in the Purple Room of the palace, hence his nickname Porphyrogennetos. He was symbolically elevated to the throne as a child by his father. In June 913, as his uncle Alexander lay dying, he appointed a regency council for Constantine. Following Alexanders death, the new and shaky regime survived the attempted usurpation of Constantine Doukas, Patriarch Nicholas was presently forced to make peace with Tsar Simeon of Bulgaria, whom he reluctantly recognized as Bulgarian emperor. Because of this concession, Patriarch Nicholas was driven out of the regency by Constantines mother Zoe. She was no more successful with the Bulgarians, who defeated her main supporter, in 919 she was replaced as regent by the admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who married his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine. Romanos used his position to advance to the ranks of basileopatōr in May 919, to kaisar in September 920, thus, just short of reaching nominal majority, Constantine was eclipsed by a senior emperor. Nevertheless, he was an intelligent young man with a large range of interests. Romanos kept and maintained power until 944, when he was deposed by his sons, Romanos spent the last years of his life in exile on the Island of Prote as a monk and died on June 15,948. With the help of his wife, Constantine VII succeeded in removing his brothers-in-law, several months later, Constantine VII crowned his own son Romanos II co-emperor. In 949 Constantine launched a new fleet of 100 ships against the Arab corsairs hiding in Crete, but like his fathers attempt to retake the island in 911, on the Eastern frontier things went better, even if with alternate success. In 949 the Byzantines conquered Germanicea, repeatedly defeated the enemy armies, but in 953 the Hamdanid amir Sayf al-Daula retook Germanicea and entered the imperial territory. An Arab fleet was destroyed by Greek fire in 957
32.
Janus Lascaris
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Janus Lascaris, also called John Rhyndacenus, was a noted Greek scholar in the Renaissance. After the Fall of Constantinople Lascaris was taken to the Peloponnese, when still quite young he came to Venice, where Bessarion became his patron, and sent him to learn Latin at the University of Padua. On the death of Bessarion, Lorenzo de Medici welcomed him to Florence, where Lascaris gave Greek lectures on Thucydides, Demosthenes, Sophocles, Lorenzo sent him twice to Greece in quest of manuscripts. When he returned the second time he brought back two hundred from Mount Athos. He resided at Rome under Leo X, the first pope of the Medici family, from 1513 to 1518, returned under Clement VII in 1523, and Paul III in 1534. In the meantime he had assisted Louis XII in forming the library of Blois, among his pupils were Marco Musuro, Germain de Brie and Dimitrije Ljubavić. He was buried in the church of Sant Agata dei Goti. On his memorial the following epigram is inscribed, composed by himself, ΛΑΣΚΑΡΙΣ ΑΛΛΟΔΑΠΗ ΓΑΙΗ ΕΝΙΚΑΤΘΕΤΟ ΓΑΙΗΝ, ΟΥΤΙ ΛΙΗΝ ΞΕΙΝΗΝ, Ω ΞΕΝΕ, ΟΥΔ ΕΤΙ ΧΟΥΝ ΧΕΥΕΙ ΠΑΤΡΙΣ ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΙΟΝ. I. e. Lascaris in foreign land deposided his earth, but he is worried about the Achaeans, because their country does not cover them with free soil. Laskaris Byzantine scholars in Renaissance This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Lejay. Jonathan Harris, Greek Émigrés in the West, 1400-1520, ISBN 1-871328-11-X Graham Speake, ‘Janus Lascaris’ visit to Mount Athos in 1491’, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 34, 325-30. Francis Walton, ‘Janus Laskaris’, The Griffon 10, 8-35 J. Whittaker, ‘Janus Laskaris at the court of Charles V’, Thesaurismata 14, Greek Studies in the Italian Renaissance. ISBN 0-7156-2418-0 Janus Lascaris at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
33.
Bibliotheca Palatina
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The Bibliotheca Palatina of Heidelberg was the most important library of the German Renaissance, numbering approximately 5,000 printed books and 3,524 manuscripts. In the 1430s, Elector Louis III founded the Stiftsbibliothek in the Heiliggeistkirche and this library formed the core of the Palatine Collection established by Elector Ottheinrich in the 1550s, together with the University Library Heidelberg. Joseph Scaliger considered this Fugger Library superior to that owned by the Pope, the manuscripts alone were valued at 80,000 crowns, a very considerable sum in the 16th century. The Palatinate suffered heavily in the Thirty Years War, and in 1622 Heidelberg was sacked by the Catholic League and it was a prominent prize captured during the Thirty Years War. The Catholic forces who occupied Heidelberg competed for ownership, but Pope Gregory XV succeeded in having the collection transported to Rome, the preparations to secure transport the collection to Rome were supervised by the Greek scholar Leo Allatius, sent to Heidelberg by the Vatican. Since 1623, the library has been incorporated into the Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, with each volume preserving, as a memorial. By the Treaty of Tolentino, the Pope ceded 37 manuscripts to the French Republic, in 1816, Prince Hardenberg and Ignaz Heinrich von Wessenberg persuaded Pope Pius VII to make a gift of 852 manuscripts to the University of Heidelberg. For the University Jubilee, some books were brought back from Vatican to be displayed at the Heiliggeistkirche
34.
Thirty Years' War
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The Thirty Years War was a series of wars in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as the deadliest European religious war, resulting in eight million casualties. Initially a war between various Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire, it developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers. These states employed relatively large mercenary armies, and the war became less about religion, in the 17th century, religious beliefs and practices were a much larger influence on an average European than they are today. The war began when the newly elected Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, tried to impose uniformity on his domains. The northern Protestant states, angered by the violation of their rights to choose that had granted in the Peace of Augsburg. Ferdinand II was a devout Roman Catholic and relatively intolerant when compared to his predecessor and his policies were considered strongly pro-Catholic. They ousted the Habsburgs and elected Frederick V, Elector of the Rhenish Palatinate as their monarch, Frederick took the offer without the support of the union. The southern states, mainly Roman Catholic, were angered by this, led by Bavaria, these states formed the Catholic League to expel Frederick in support of the Emperor. The Empire soon crushed this rebellion in the Battle of White Mountain. After the atrocities committed in Bohemia, Saxony finally gave its support to the union, Spain, wishing to finally crush the Dutch rebels in the Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, intervened under the pretext of helping its dynastic Habsburg ally, Austria. No longer able to tolerate the encirclement of two major Habsburg powers on its borders, Catholic France entered the coalition on the side of the Protestants in order to counter the Habsburgs. Both mercenaries and soldiers in fighting armies traditionally looted or extorted tribute to get operating funds, the war also bankrupted most of the combatant powers. The Thirty Years War ended with the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, the war altered the previous political order of European powers. Lutherans living in a prince-bishopric could continue to practice their faith, Lutherans could keep the territory they had taken from the Catholic Church since the Peace of Passau in 1552. Those prince-bishops who had converted to Lutheranism were required to give up their territories and this added a third major faith to the region, but its position was not recognized in any way by the Augsburg terms, to which only Catholicism and Lutheranism were parties. The Dutch revolted against Spanish domination during the 1560s, leading to a war of independence that led to a truce only in 1609. This dynastic concern overtook religious ones and led to Catholic Frances participation on the otherwise Protestant side of the war, Sweden and Denmark-Norway were interested in gaining control over northern German states bordering the Baltic Sea
35.
Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria
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Maximilian I, Duke/Elector of Bavaria, called the Great, was a Wittelsbach ruler of Bavaria and a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire. His reign was marked by the Thirty Years War, Maximilian I was born in Munich, the eldest son of William V, Duke of Bavaria and Renata of Lorraine to survive infancy. He was educated by the Jesuits, and upon his fathers abdication, in 1595 he married his cousin, Elisabeth Renata, daughter of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine, and became Duke of Bavaria upon his fathers abdication in 1597. His first marriage to Elisabeth Renata was childless, the main motivation for this swift remarriage was not so much political grounds as the hope of producing a prince to inherit. In contrast to the Electors first wife, Maria Anna was very interested in politics and she was not bound to the Habsburgs, but rather completely advocated the Bavarian standpoint. Additionally, she conducted lively exchanges of opinion with high officials of the Munich court, by her he left two sons, Ferdinand Maria, who succeeded him, and Maximilian Philip. As the ablest prince of his age he sought to prevent Germany from becoming the battleground of Europe, weak in health and feeble in frame, Maximilian had high ambitions both for himself and his duchy, and was tenacious and resourceful in prosecuting his designs. In December 1607 his troops occupied the city, and vigorous steps were taken to restore the supremacy of Catholicism. Under his leadership an army was set on foot, but his policy was strictly defensive, dissensions among his colleagues led the duke to resign his office in 1616, but the approach of trouble brought about his return to the League about two years later. Having refused to become a candidate for the throne in 1619. After some delay he made a treaty with Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor in October 1619, anxious to curtail the area of the struggle, he made a treaty of neutrality with the Protestant Union, and occupied Upper Austria as security for the expenses of the campaign. On 8 November 1620 his troops under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly defeated the forces of Frederick, King of Bohemia and Count Palatine of the Rhine, subsequently Ferdinand II released Upper Austria as a pawn for Maximilian until 1628. At the Diet of Regensburg Ferdinand was compelled to assent to this demand, attempting to remain neutral during the war, Maximilian signed the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau with the Kingdom of France, but this proved worthless. The ravages of the Swedes and their French allies induced the elector to enter negotiations for peace with King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. He also proposed to disarm the Protestants by modifying the Edict of Restitution of 1629, in September 1638 Baron Franz von Mercy was made master-general of ordnance in the army of Bavaria, then the second largest army in the Holy Roman Empire. Mercy and Johann von Werth as lieutenant field-marshal fought with varying success France, in March 1647 Maximilian concluded the Truce of Ulm with France and Sweden, but the entreaties of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor led him to disregard his undertaking. Bavaria was again ravaged, and the forces were defeated in May 1648 at the Battle of Zusmarshausen. The Peace of Westphalia soon put an end to the struggle, by this treaty it was agreed that Maximilian should retain the electoral dignity, which was made hereditary in his family, and the Upper Palatinate was incorporated with Bavaria
36.
Pope Gregory XV
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Pope Gregory XV, born Alessandro Ludovisi, was Pope from 9 February 1621 to his death in 1623. Alessandro Ludovisi was born in Bologna in 1554 to Pompeo Ludovisi and he was one of seven children and was born as the third child. He was educated at the Roman College run by the Society of Jesus in Rome and he went to the University of Bologna to get degrees in canon. His early career was as a papal jurist in Rome, and he returned to Rome in 1575 and he served as the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura from 1593 to 1596 and was appointed as the Vicegerent of Rome in 1597, a position he maintained until 1598. He also served as the Auditor of the Sacred Roman Rota from 1599 to 1612, on 19 September 1616, Pope Paul V elevated him to the rank of cardinal and appointed him as a Cardinal Priest with the titular church of Santa Maria in Traspontina. He was crowned on 14 February 1621 by the protodeacon, Cardinal Andrea Baroni Peretti Montalto, on the same day, his youngest brother Orazio was appointed Captain General of the Church at the head of the papal army. The future revealed that Gregory XV was not disappointed in his nephew, a second nephew, Niccolò, was made reigning Prince of Piombino and Lord of the Isola dElba in 1634, having married the heiress,30 March 1632. His Declaration against Magicians and Witches was the last papal ordinance against witchcraft, former punishments were lessened, and the death penalty was limited to those who were proved to have entered into a compact with the devil, and to have committed homicide with his assistance. He was a theologian and manifested a reforming spirit. On 6 January 1622, he established the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith and his pontificate was marked by the canonizations of Teresa of Avila, Francis Xavier, Ignatius Loyola, Philip Neri and Isidore the Farmer. He also beatified Peter of Alcantara and he was influential in bringing the Bolognese artist Guercino to Rome, a landmark in the development of the High Baroque style. He sat for his busts, one of which was by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and by Alessandro Algardi. On 12 March 1622, the pope canonized several saints, Francis Xavier, Ignatius of Loyola, Isidore the Laborer, Philip Neri and Teresa of Ávila. Gregory XV also beatified five individuals throughout his pontificate, Ambrose Sansedoni of Siena, Albert the Great, Aloysius Gonzaga, Francis Borgia, Gregory XV died in the Quirinal Palace on 8 July 1623 and was buried in the Church of SantIgnazio. He was succeeded by Pope Urban VIII, cardinals created by Gregory XV Ludovisi Alessandro Ludovisi. Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, attribution, This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Baynes, T. S. Smith, W. R. eds. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Ott. Päpstliches Zeremoniell in der Frühen Neuzeit – Das Diarium des Zeremonienmeisters Paolo Alaleone de Branca während des Pontifikats Gregors XV
37.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Garnett, Richard (1911). "Anthology". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–96.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
