1.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
2.
Los Feliz, Los Angeles
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Los Feliz is a hillside neighborhood in the central region of Los Angeles, California, abutting Hollywood and encompassing part of the Santa Monica Mountains. The neighborhood is named after its colonial Spanish-Mexican land grantee, José Vicente Feliz, according to the Mapping L. A. project of the Los Angeles Times, Los Feliz is part of Central Los Angeles. The 2000 U. S. census counted 35,238 residents in the 2. 61-square-mile neighborhood—an average of 13,512 people per square mile, in 2008 the city estimated that the population had increased to 36,933. The median age for residents was 36, older than in the city as a whole, the neighborhood was highly diverse ethnically. The breakdown was whites,57. 6%, Latinos,18. 7%, Asians,13. 5%, blacks,3. 7%, and others,6. 6%. Armenia and Mexico were the most common places of birth for the 44. 5% of the residents who were born abroad, a high ratio compared to the rest of Los Angeles. The median yearly income in 2008 dollars was $50,793, about the same as the rest of Los Angeles. The average household size of two people was low for the city of Los Angeles, renters occupied 75. 5% of the housing stock, and house or apartment owners the rest. The percentages of never-married men and never-married women were among the countys highest, the area north of Los Feliz Boulevard below Griffith Park is commonly referred to as the Los Feliz Hills. The Los Feliz Hills contain multimillion-dollar homes and have known for the large share of their inhabitants being involved in creative pursuits. With a mean income of $196,585, the hills are one of the wealthiest areas of Los Angeles. Long before the Spanish settlers arrived to settle near the banks of the Los Angeles River and it is estimated that the first Native Americans came to the area approximately 10,000 years ago. The Native Americans established villages, known as rancherias, throughout the countryside, one of these settlements was within the boundaries of what was to become Rancho Los Feliz. Archeological surveys have found evidence of a substantial rancheria that existed in the mouth of Fern Dell Canyon in Griffith Park, the traditional name of this village is not known, but the inhabitants were Gabrielinos. This name was given by the Spanish because of the Native Americans association with the San Gabriel Mission, when Gaspar de Portola traveled through the vicinity in 1769, his expedition encountered members of this village. The 6, 647-acre Rancho Los Feliz, one of the first land grants in California, was granted to Corporal José Vicente Feliz, an old adobe house built in the 1830s by his heirs still stands on Crystal Springs Drive in Griffith Park. Other sections of the rancho were developed and became the communities of Los Feliz, Rancho Los Feliz had a succession of owners after the Feliz family. One owner, Griffith J. Griffith, donated half of the ranch to the city of Los Angeles
3.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument
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The Historic-Cultural Monument process has its origin in the Historic Buildings Committee formed in 1958 by the Los Angeles chapter of the American Institute of Architects. On April 30,1962, a historic preservation ordinance proposed by the AIA committee was passed. The original Cultural Heritage Board was formed in the summer of 1962, consisting of William Woollett, FAIA, Bonnie H. Riedel, Carl S. Dentzel, Senaida Sullivan and Edith Gibbs Vaughan. The board met for the first time in August 1962, at a time when the owner of the historic Leonis Adobe was attempting to demolish the structure, in its first day of official business, the board designated the Leonis Adobe and four other sites as Historic-Cultural Monuments. The designation of a property as a Historic-Cultural Monument does not prevent demolition or alteration, however, the designation requires permits for demolition or substantial alteration to be presented to the commission. The commission has the power to delay the demolition of a property for up to one year. In the commissions first decade of operation, it designated 101 properties as Historic-Cultural Monuments, by March 2010, there were 979 designated properties. A. Historic-Cultural Monuments website — with ever-updated LAHCM List via PDF link, official Los Angeles Office of Historic Resources website — Homepage Los Angeles Cultural Heritage Commission website Designated LAHCM Landmarks by Neighborhood — L. A. Bariscale. Bariscales Flickr Photostream — Big Orange Flickr Gallery of L. A. H. C. Monuments
7.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
8.
Griffith Park
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Griffith Park is a large municipal park at the eastern end of the Santa Monica Mountains, in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. The park covers 4,310 acres of land, making it one of the largest urban parks in North America and it is the second-largest city park in California, after Mission Trails Preserve in San Diego, and the 11th largest municipally owned park in the United States. It has also referred to as the Central Park of Los Angeles but is much larger, more untamed. After successfully investing in mining, Griffith J. Griffith purchased Rancho Los Feliz in 1882, after the property rush peaked, Griffith donated 3,015 acres to the city of Los Angeles on December 16,1896. Griffith was tried and convicted for shooting and severely wounding his wife in a 1903 incident, when released from prison, he attempted to fund the construction of an amphitheater, observatory, planetarium, and a girls camp and boys camp in the park. His reputation in the city was tainted by his crime, however, in 1912, Griffith designated 100 acres of the park, at its northeast corner along the Los Angeles River, be used to do something to further aviation. The Griffith Park Aerodrome was the result, aviation pioneers such as Glenn L. Martin and Silas Christoffersen used it, and the aerodrome passed to the National Guard Air Service. The National Guard squadron moved to Van Nuys, and the Aerodrome was demolished, though the rotating beacon, from 1946 until the mid-1950s, Rodger Young Village occupied the area which had formerly been the Aerodrome. Today that site is occupied by the Los Angeles Zoo parking lot, the Gene Autry Western Heritage Museum, soccer fields, Griffith set up a trust fund for the improvements he envisioned, and after his death in 1919 the city began to build what Griffith had wanted. The amphitheater, called the Greek Theatre, was completed in 1930, subsequent to Griffiths original gift further donations of land, city purchases, and the reversion of land from private to public have expanded the Park to its present size. In December,1944 the Sherman Company gifted 444 acres of Hollywoodland open space to Griffith Park and this large, passive, eco-sensitive property borders the Lake Hollywood reservoir, the former Hollywoodland sign, and Bronson Canyon where it connects into the original Griffith donation. The Hollywoodland residential community is surrounded by this land, up to 550 Japanese Americans were confined in Griffith Park from 1941 to 1942, all subsequently transferred to Fort Lincoln, Fort Missoula and other DOJ camps. On July 14,1942, the camp became a POW Processing Center for German, Italian and Japanese prisoners of war, operating until August 3,1943. The camp was changed to the Army Western Corps Photographic Center, hired as part of a welfare project,3,780 men were in the park clearing brush on October 3,1933, when a fire broke out in the Mineral Wells area. Many of the workers volunteered or were ordered to fight the fire, in all,29 men were killed and 150 were injured. Professional firefighters arrived and limited the blaze to 47 acres, on May 12,1961 a wildfire on the south side of the park burned 814 acres. It also destroyed eight homes and damaged nine more, chiefly in the Beachwood Canyon area, there was another fire circa 1971 in the Toyon Canyon area. Seeing the devastated area and finding it ugly, Amir Dialameh took it himself to replant a portion of it himself by hand
9.
Los Angeles Basin
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The Los Angeles Basin is a sedimentary basin located in southern California, in a region known as the Peninsular Ranges. The basin is connected to an anomalous group of east-west trending chain of basin collectively known as the California Transverse Ranges. The present basin is a lowland area, whose floor is marked by elongate low ridges. Along with the Los Angeles Basin, the Santa Barbara Channel, the Ventura Basin, the San Fernando Valley, on the north, northeast, and east, the lowland basin is bound by the Santa Monica Mountains mountains and Puente, Elysian, Repetto hills. To the southeast, the basin is bordered by the Santa Ana mountains, the western boundary of the basin is marked by the Continental Borderland and is part of the onshore portion. The California borderland is characterized by north-west trending offshore ridges and basins, the Los Angeles Basin is notable for its great structural relief and complexity in relation to its geologic youth and small size for its prolific oil production. Yerkes et al. identify 5 major stages of the evolution that begins in the Upper Cretaceous. This basin can be classified as an irregular pull-apart basin accompanied by rotational tectonics during the post-early Miocene, before the formation of the basin, the area that encompasses the Los Angeles basin began above ground. A rapid transgression and regression of the moved the area to a shallow marine environment. Tectonic instability coupled with volcanic activity in rapidly subsiding areas during the Middle Miocene set the stage for the modern basin, the basin formed in a submarine environment and was later brought back above sea level when the rate of subsidence slowed. There is much discussion in the literature about the geologic time boundaries when each basin forming event took place, while exact ages may not be clear, Yerkes et al. Large-scale movement along the Newport–Inglewood zone juxtaposed the two bedrock units along the east and west margins, during this phase, the basin was above sea level. The hallmarks of this phase were successive shoreline transgression and regression cycles, Deposition of older marine and non-marine sediments began to fill the basin. Towards the end of phase, the shoreline began to retreat. After the deposition of the units, there was a large emergence. Emergence did not occur at the rate or in all sections of the basin. During this time, the basin was covered by a marine embayment, rivers sourced in the highlands brought large amounts of detritus to the northeastern edge of the basin. During this period, the Topanga formation was also being deposited, clastic sedimentary rocks from the highland areas moved down the submarine slopes and infilled the basin floor
10.
Downtown Los Angeles
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Downtown Los Angeles is the central business district of Los Angeles, California, as well as a diverse residential neighborhood of some 58,000 people. A2013 study found that the district is home to over 500,000 jobs, Downtown Los Angeles is known for its government buildings, parks, theaters and other public places. The earliest known settlements in the area of what is now Downtown Los Angeles was by the Tongva, on September 4,1781, the city was founded by a group of settlers who trekked north from present-day Mexico. Land speculation increased in the 1880s, which saw the population of the city explode from 11,000 in 1880 to nearly 100,000 by 1896. Infrastructure enhancements and the laying of a street grid eventually brought development south of the settlement into what is today the Civic Center. By 1920, the private and municipal rail lines were the most far-flung and most comprehensive in the world in mileage. By this time, an influx of residents and aggressive land developers had transformed the city into a large metropolitan area. Rail lines connected four counties with over 1,100 miles of track, during the early part of the 20th century, banking institutions clustered around South Spring Street, forming the Spring Street Financial District. The Los Angeles Stock Exchange was also located on the corridor from 1929 until 1986 before moving into a new building across the Harbor Freeway, Broadway became the nightlife, shopping and entertainment district of the city, with over a dozen theater and movie palaces built before 1932. Numerous specialty stores also flourished including those in the business which gave rise to the Downtown Jewelry District. Among these early jewelers included the Laykin Diamond Company and Harry Winston & Co. both of which found their beginnings in the Alexandria Hotel at 5th and Spring Streets. The Los Angeles Union Passenger Terminal opened in May,1939, unifying passenger service among local, regional. It was built on a scale and would be one of the last of the Great Railway Stations built in the United States. Following World War II, suburbanization, the development of the Los Angeles freeway network, many corporate headquarters slowly dispersed to new suburbs or fell to mergers and acquisitions. The once-wealthy Bunker Hill neighborhood became a haven for low-income renters, the drastic reduction in the number of residents in the area further reduced the viability of streetfront businesses that would be able to attract pedestrians. For most Angelenos, downtown became a destination as they would come into the area for a particular objective. This period saw the clearing and upzoning of the neighborhood as well as the shuttering of the Angels Flight funicular railway in 1969. Angels Flight resumed operation in 1996 for a period of five years, on March 15,2010, the railway once again opened for passenger service following extensive upgrades to brake and safety systems
11.
Hollywood
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Hollywood is an ethnically diverse, densely populated neighborhood in the central region of Los Angeles, California. It is notable as the home of the U. S. film industry, including several of its studios, and its name has come to be a shorthand reference for the industry. Hollywood was a community in 1870 and was incorporated as a municipality in 1903. It was consolidated with the city of Los Angeles in 1910, in 1853, one adobe hut stood in Nopalera, named for the Mexican Nopal cactus indigenous to the area. By 1870, an agricultural community flourished, the area was known as the Cahuenga Valley, after the pass in the Santa Monica Mountains immediately to the north. According to the diary of H. J. Whitley, known as the Father of Hollywood, along came a Chinese man in a wagon carrying wood. The man got out of the wagon and bowed, the Chinese man was asked what he was doing and replied, I holly-wood, meaning hauling wood. H. J. Whitley had an epiphany and decided to name his new town Hollywood, Holly would represent England and wood would represent his Scottish heritage. Whitley had already started over 100 towns across the western United States, Whitley arranged to buy the 500-acre E. C. Hurd ranch and disclosed to him his plans for the land. They agreed on a price and Hurd agreed to sell at a later date, before Whitley got off the ground with Hollywood, plans for the new town had spread to General Harrison Gray Otis, Hurds wife, eastern adjacent ranch co-owner Daeida Wilcox, and others. Daeida Wilcox may have learned of the name Hollywood from Ivar Weid, her neighbor in Holly Canyon and she recommended the same name to her husband, Harvey. In August 1887, Wilcox filed with the Los Angeles County Recorders office a deed and parcel map of property he had sold named Hollywood, Wilcox wanted to be the first to record it on a deed. The early real-estate boom busted that year, yet Hollywood began its slow growth. By 1900, the region had a post office, newspaper, hotel, Los Angeles, with a population of 102,479 lay 10 miles east through the vineyards, barley fields, and citrus groves. A single-track streetcar line ran down the middle of Prospect Avenue from it, but service was infrequent, the old citrus fruit-packing house was converted into a livery stable, improving transportation for the inhabitants of Hollywood. The Hollywood Hotel was opened in 1902 by H. J. Whitley who was a president of the Los Pacific Boulevard, having finally acquired the Hurd ranch and subdivided it, Whitley built the hotel to attract land buyers. Flanking the west side of Highland Avenue, the structure fronted on Prospect Avenue, the hotel was to become internationally known and was the center of the civic and social life and home of the stars for many years. Whitleys company developed and sold one of the residential areas
12.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
13.
Observatory
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An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geology, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed, historically, observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant or Stonehenge. Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories, space based, airborne, ground based, ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes, for optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a percentage of clear nights per year, dry air. At high elevations, the Earths atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence, sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra. Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the USA, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory in Chile. Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A — a place in the part of Eastern Antarctica. This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility, beginning in 1930s, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since the mid-20th century, a number of observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes, above 4. The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory, the Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at 5,230 m, was the worlds highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory. As a result, the resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price, Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all, Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earths atmosphere
14.
Hollywood Sign
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The Hollywood Sign is a landmark and American cultural icon located in Los Angeles, California. It is situated on Mount Lee, in the Hollywood Hills area of the Santa Monica Mountains, the sign overlooks Hollywood, Los Angeles. HOLLYWOOD is spelled out in 45-foot -tall white capital letters and is 350 feet long and it was originally created in 1923 as an advertisement for a local real estate development, but it garnered increasing recognition after the sign was left up. The sign was a frequent target of pranks and vandalism, but it has undergone restoration. The sign is protected and promoted by The Trust For Public Land, an organization, while its site. From the ground, the contours of the give the sign a wavy appearance. When observed at an altitude, the letters appear nearly level. The sign makes frequent appearances in popular culture, particularly in establishing shots for films, signs of similar style, but spelling different words, are frequently seen as parodies. The sign was erected in 1923 and originally read HOLLYWOODLAND and its purpose was to advertise the name of a new segregated housing development in the hills above the Hollywood district of Los Angeles. H. J. Whitley had already used a sign to advertise his development Whitley Heights and he suggested to his friend Harry Chandler, the owner of the Los Angeles Times newspaper, that the land syndicate in which he was involved make a similar sign to advertise their land. Real estate developers Woodruff and Shoults called their development Hollywoodland and advertised it as an environment without excessive cost on the Hollywood side of the hills. They contracted the Crescent Sign Company to erect 13 letters on the hillside, the sign company owner, Thomas Fisk Goff, designed the sign. Each letter was 30 feet wide and 50 feet high, the sign would flash in segments, HOLLY, WOOD, and LAND would first light up individually, then the whole sign would light up. Below the Hollywoodland sign was a searchlight to attract more attention, the poles that supported the sign were hauled to the site by mules. Cost of the project was $21,000, equivalent to $295,189 in 2016, the sign was officially dedicated in 1923. Over the course of more than half a century, the sign, designed to stand for only 18 months, sustained extensive damage, while Kothe was not injured, his 1928 Ford Model A was destroyed, as was the original 50 foot tall illuminated letter H. In 1949, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce began a contract with the City of Los Angeles Parks Department to repair, the contract stipulated that LAND be removed to spell Hollywood and reflect the district, not the Hollywoodland housing development. The Parks Department dictated that all subsequent illumination would be at the Chambers expense, the 1949 effort gave it new life, but the signs unprotected wood and sheet metal structure continued to deteriorate
15.
Space
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Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. Physical space is conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework. Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in the Renaissance and then reformulated in the 17th century, in Isaac Newtons view, space was absolute—in the sense that it existed permanently and independently of whether there was any matter in the space. Other natural philosophers, notably Gottfried Leibniz, thought instead that space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, given by their distance and direction from one another. In the 18th century, the philosopher and theologian George Berkeley attempted to refute the visibility of spatial depth in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Kant referred to the experience of space in his Critique of Pure Reason as being a pure a priori form of intuition. In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are non-Euclidean, in space is conceived as curved. According to Albert Einsteins theory of relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates from Euclidean space. Experimental tests of general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a model for the shape of space. In the seventeenth century, the philosophy of space and time emerged as an issue in epistemology. At its heart, Gottfried Leibniz, the German philosopher-mathematician, and Isaac Newton, unoccupied regions are those that could have objects in them, and thus spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an abstraction from the relations between individual entities or their possible locations and therefore could not be continuous but must be discrete. Space could be thought of in a way to the relations between family members. Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations do not exist independently of the people, but since there would be no observational way of telling these universes apart then, according to the identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real difference between them. According to the principle of sufficient reason, any theory of space that implied that there could be two possible universes must therefore be wrong. Newton took space to be more than relations between objects and based his position on observation and experimentation
16.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
17.
Griffith J. Griffith
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Griffith Jenkins Griffith was a Welsh-American industrialist and philanthropist. Griffiths legacy was marred by his notorious shooting of his wife in 1903, Griffith J. Griffith was born in Bettws, Glamorganshire, Wales, on January 4,1850. He immigrated to the United States in 1865, settling in Ashland, in 1873 he moved to San Francisco, California, and became manager of the Herald Publishing Company. In 1887 he married Mary Agnes Christina Mesmer, in 1878 G. J. Griffith became mining correspondent for the Alta California, a San Francisco newspaper. As a reporter he gained knowledge of the mining industry on the Pacific Coast and in Nevada. As a mining expert, Griffith acquired a fortune, in 1882 Griffith moved to Los Angeles and purchased approximately 4,000 acres of the Rancho Los Feliz Mexican land grant. On December 16,1896, Griffith and his wife Christina presented 3,015 acres of the Rancho Los Feliz to the city of Los Angeles for use as a public park, Griffith called it a Christmas present. After accepting the donation, the city passed an ordinance to name the property Griffith Park, in honor of the donor. It must be made a place of rest and relaxation for the masses, I consider it my obligation to make Los Angeles a happy, cleaner, and finer city. I wish to pay my debt of duty in this way to the community in which I have prospered, Griffith later donated another 1,000 acres along the Los Angeles River. While vacationing in Santa Monica on September 3,1903, Griffith shot his wife in the suite of the Arcadia Hotel. Surprisingly, the shot did not kill her, but she was left disfigured, in the sensational case, Griffith was charged with assault with a deadly weapon with intent to commit murder. The prosecution was led by Henry T. Gage, former governor of California, Griffith was convicted of a lesser charge, assault with a deadly weapon. The judge sentenced him to two years in San Quentin State Prison, instructing that he be given medical aid for his condition of alcoholic insanity. On November 4,1904, during his sentence, Mrs. Griffith was granted a divorce on the grounds of cruelty. The court also stated that G. J. Griffith would pay for his sons education at Stanford University, the decree was made in the record time of four-and-a-half minutes. G. J. Griffith was released from prison December 3,1906 and his conduct at the penitentiary was called exemplary. Griffith returned to Los Angeles and began lecturing on prison reform, in December 1912 Griffith offered a second Christmas present to Los Angeles, in the form of a Greek Theater and a Hall of Science to be built at his expense in Griffith Park
18.
Planetarium
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A planetarium is a theatre built primarily for presenting educational and entertaining shows about astronomy and the night sky, or for training in celestial navigation. Whatever technologies are used, the objective is normally to link together to provide an accurate relative motion of the sky. Typical systems can be set to display the sky at any point in time, past or present, planetaria range in size from the Hayden Planetariums 21-meter dome seating 423 people, to three-meter inflatable portable domes where children sit on the floor. Such portable planetaria serve education programs outside of the permanent installations of museums, the term planetarium is sometimes used generically to describe other devices which illustrate the solar system, such as a computer simulation or an orrery. Planetarium software refers to an application that renders a three-dimensional image of the sky onto a two-dimensional computer screen. The term planetarian is used to describe a member of the staff of a planetarium. The ancient Greek polymath Archimedes is attributed with creating a primitive device that could predict the movements of the Sun and the Moon. The discovery of the Antikythera mechanism proved that such devices already existed during antiquity, campanus of Novara described a planetary equatorium in his Theorica Planetarum, and included instructions on how to build one. The Globe of Gottorf built around 1650 had constellations painted on the inside and these devices would today usually be referred to as orreries. In fact, many planetaria today have what are called projection orreries, the small size of typical 18th century orreries limited their impact, and towards the end of that century a number of educators attempted some larger scale simulations of the heavens. The efforts of Adam Walker and his sons are noteworthy in their attempts to fuse theatrical illusions with educational aspirations, walkers Eidouranion was the heart of his public lectures or theatrical presentations. Every Planet and Satellite seems suspended in space, without any support and these devices most probably sacrificed astronomical accuracy for crowd-pleasing spectacle and sensational and awe-provoking imagery. The oldest, still working planetarium can be found in the Dutch town Franeker and it was built by Eise Eisinga in the living room of his house. It took Eisinga seven years to build his planetarium, which was completed in 1781 and this was displayed at the Deutsches Museum in 1924, construction work having been interrupted by the war. The planets travelled along overhead rails, powered by electric motors,180 stars were projected onto the wall by electric bulbs. Atwoods work at the Chicago Academy of Sciences and by the ideas of Walther Bauersfeld, in August 1923, the first Zeiss planetarium projected images of the night sky onto the white plaster lining of a 16 m hemispherical concrete dome, erected on the roof of the Zeiss works. The first official public showing was at the Deutsches Museum in Munich on October 21,1923, when Germany was divided into East and West Germany after the war, the Zeiss firm was also split. Part remained in its headquarters at Jena, in East Germany
19.
Mount Wilson Observatory
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The Mount Wilson Observatory is an astronomical observatory in Los Angeles County, California, United States. The MWO is located on Mount Wilson, a 1, 740-metre peak in the San Gabriel Mountains near Pasadena, the observatory was conceived and founded by George Ellery Hale, who had previously built the 1 meter telescope at the Yerkes Observatory, then the worlds largest telescope. The Mount Wilson Solar Observatory was first funded by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1904, among the conditions of the lease was that it allow public access. There are three solar telescopes at Mount Wilson Observatory, today, just one of these telescopes, the 60 foot Solar Tower, is still used for solar research. The Snow Solar Telescope was the first telescope installed at the fledgling Mount Wilson Solar Observatory and it was the worlds first permanently mounted solar telescope. Solar telescopes had previously been portable so they could be taken to solar eclipses around the world, the telescope was donated to Yerkes Observatory by Helen Snow of Chicago. George Ellery Hale, then director of Yerkes, had the telescope brought to Mount Wilson to put it into service as a scientific instrument. Stellar research soon followed as the brightest stars could have their spectra recorded with very long exposures on glass plates, today the Snow solar telescope is mostly used by undergraduate students who get hands on training in solar physics and spectroscopy. It was also used publicly for the May 9,2016 transit of Mercury across the face of the sun, the 60-foot Solar Tower soon built on the work started at the Snow telescope. At its completion in 1908, the tower design of the 60 foot focal length solar telescope allowed much higher resolution of the solar image. The higher resolution came from situating the optics higher above the ground, on June 25,1908, Hale would record Zeeman splitting in the spectrum of a sunspot, showing for the first time that magnetic fields existed somewhere besides the earth. A later discovery was of the polarity in sunspots of the new solar cycle of 1912. The success of the 60 foot Tower prompted Hale to pursue yet another, taller tower telescope, in the 1960s, Robert Leighton discovered the sun had a 5-minute oscillation and the field of heliosiesmology was born. The 60 foot Tower is operated by the Department of Physics, the 150-foot focal length solar tower expanded on the solar tower design with its tower-in-a-tower design. An inner tower supports the optics above, while an outer tower and this design allowed complete isolation of the optics from the effect of wind swaying the tower. Two mirrors feed sunlight to a 12-inch lens which focuses light down at the ground floor and it was first completed in 1910, but unsatisfactory optics caused a two-year delay before a suitable doublet lens was installed. Research included solar rotation, sunspot polarities, daily sunspot drawings, the solar telescope would be the worlds largest for 50 years until the McMath-Pierce Solar telescope was completed at Kitt Peak in Arizona in 1962. In 1985, UCLA took over operation of the tower from the Carnegie Observatories after it was decided to stop funding the observatory
20.
George Ellery Hale
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George Ellery Hale was born on June 29,1868 in Chicago, Illinois to William Ellery Hale and Mary Browne. He is descended from Thomas Hale of Watton-on-Stone, Hertfordshire, England and his father acquired a considerable fortune manufacturing and installing passenger elevators during the reconstruction of Chicago, which had been destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. He spent his youth fascinated by the books and machinery given to him by his parents—one of his most prized possessions was a small microscope, with his fathers encouragement, he built a small shop in their house that turned into a laboratory. The microscope led to his interest in optics, at the age of fourteen, George built his first telescope. His father later replaced it with a second-hand Clark refractor that they mounted on the roof of their Kenwood house, soon he was photographing the night skies, observing a partial eclipse of the sun, and drawing sun-spots. As an avid reader with a strong interest in the field of astrophysics, Hale was drawn to the writings of William Huggins, Norman Lockyer. His fascination with science, however, did not preclude interests more typical of a boy, such as fishing, boating, swimming, skating, tennis. He was a reader of the stories of Jules Verne—particularly drawn to the tales of adventure set in the mountains of California. Hale spent summers at his grandmothers house in the old New England village of Madison, Connecticut, after graduating from Oakland Public School in Chicago, Hale attended the Allen Academy, where he studied chemistry, physics, and astronomy. He supplemented his practical experience by attending a course in shop-work at the Chicago Manual Training School. During these years, Hale developed a knowledge of the principles of architecture and city planning with the help of his fathers friend, upon Burnhams advice and encouragement, Hale decided at the age of seventeen to continue his education at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Hale was educated at MIT, at the Harvard College Observatory, as an undergraduate at MIT, he is known for inventing the spectroheliograph, with which he made his discovery of solar vortices. In 1908, he used the Zeeman effect with a modified spectroheliograph to establish that sunspots were magnetic and this systematic property of sunspot magnetic fields is now commonly referred to as the Hale–Nicholson law, or in many cases simply Hales law. He was coeditor of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 1892–95, and after 1895 editor of the Astrophysical Journal and he also served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1921 to 1923. Hale replied in November, saying that such observations could be done only during an eclipse of the sun. At Mount Wilson, he hired and encouraged Harlow Shapley and Edwin Hubble toward some of the most significant discoveries of the time and he was a prolific organizer who helped create a number of astronomical institutions, societies and journals. Hale also played a role in developing the California Institute of Technology into a leading research university. After retiring as director at Mount Wilson, he built the Hale Solar Laboratory in Pasadena, California, as his office and workshop, from early youth, Hale had been internationally oriented, travelling widely throughout Europe in his younger years
21.
Andrew Carnegie
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He built a leadership role as a philanthropist for the United States and the British Empire. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away to charities, foundations and his 1889 article proclaiming The Gospel of Wealth called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, and it stimulated a wave of philanthropy. Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, and emigrated in 1848 to the United States with his parents, Carnegie started work as a telegrapher and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges and oil derricks. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman raising money for American enterprise in Europe and he built Pittsburghs Carnegie Steel Company, which he sold to J. P. Morgan in 1901 for $480 million. It became the U. S. Steel Corporation, after selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed John D. Rockefeller as the richest American for the next couple of years. Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to philanthropy, with special emphasis on local libraries, world peace, education. Andrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, in a typical weavers cottage with only one main room, the main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his legal grandfather, in 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street, following the demand for more heavy damask from which his father, William Carnegie, benefited. He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, which had been a gift to the town by the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask, Lauders son, also named George Lauder, grew up with Andrew and would become his business partner. When Carnegie was thirteen, his father had fallen on hard times as a handloom weaver. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother who was a cobbler and she eventually became the primary breadwinner by the 1840s. Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to move with his family to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, Andrews family had to borrow money from the Lauders in order to migrate. Allegheny was an industrial area that produced many products including wool. The Made in Allegheny label used on these and other diversified products was becoming more and more popular. His first job at age 13 in 1848 was as a bobbin boy and his starting wage was $1.20 per week. Andrews father, William Carnegie, started off working in a cotton mill and his mother, Margaret Morrison Carnegie, earned money by binding shoes. In 1849, Carnegie became a messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburghs businesses
22.
Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered
23.
John C. Austin
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Born in Bodicote, Oxfordshire, England, Austin was an apprentice to architect Williams S. Barwick in the late 1880s. He moved to Los Angeles in 1895, and became one of the leading architects. Austin was also active in affairs in Los Angeles. He was elected President of the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce in January 1930, as head of the Chamber of Commerce, Austin initiated a public-art campaign to beautify the city through the erection of statuary and monuments. One of the issues on which Austin became a leader was the need to develop a water system for Los Angeles. He spoke publicly and was an advocate in the community in favor of a 1930 bond issue to raise $38.8 million to develop the citys water supply. As the Great Depression deepened in Los Angeles, Austin also advocated federal spending as a means to stimulate the economy, in April 1930, a letter from Austin to Pres. Herbert Hoover was published in the Los Angeles Times, in it, Austin proposed the creation of an emergency fund, raised by taxation or appropriation, which could be used to develop public improvements and to provide needed employment. Austin argued that such programs were needed so that good citizens not fall prey to the propaganda of Communists. In January 1931, after expressing concern that we are just drifting along in this matter, Austin traveled to Washington, D. C. to press for federal construction projects in Los Angeles. Austin announced that he was going east with a crowbar to try and pry something loose, later that year, Pres. Hoover appointed Austin to coordinate the federal governments unemployment relief efforts in ten Southern California counties. Shortly after his appointment to the effort, however, Austins wife of 29 years, Hilda Violet Austin. In 1949, the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce presented Austin with its first ever Achievement Award, in 1963, Los Angeles Mayor Samuel Yorty presented Austin with a scroll commending him for serving in an outstanding manner as a distinguished architect. Austin died in 1963 at his home in Pasadena, California, Austins work as an architect includes, The Beckett Mansion, Los Angeles former Residence built in 1905 for the Dr. The Academy Awards have been held at the Shrine on ten occasions and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987. Along with John Parkinson and Albert C, Martin, Sr. Martin was hired to design what has become the most recognized building in Los Angeles. The selection of an architect for the city led to fierce competition among the citys leading architects. The City Council selected the firm of Curlett and Beelman, but the Board of Public Works chose Martin, Parkinson, controversy continued when the architects turned in drawings for 28-story tower to house a municipal government that could adequately fit into the first four floors
24.
Russell W. Porter
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Russell Williams Porter was an American artist, engineer, amateur astronomer and explorer. He was a pioneer in the field of illustration and is sometimes referred to as the founder or one of the founders of amateur telescope making. Russell W. Porter, the youngest of five children, was born in 1871 Springfield and his parents were Frederick and Caroline Porter. Russell showed an aptitude for art. Porter became interested in the arctic when he attended Robert Pearys lectures on Greenland in 1892 and he signed up to sail on the ship Miranda as surveyor and artist for Frederick Cooks voyage to Greenland that next year. The voyage ended with the ship colliding with an iceberg and the crew being rescued by Inuit. Porter continued travel to the arctic with Peary and Greenland again in 1896, to Baffin Island in 1897, with the Yukon gold rush in 1898, to Labrador in 1899, and northern Greenland in 1900. Porter was a in charge of astronomical observations on the Ziegler Polar Expeditions financed by New York businessman William Ziegler in 1901 and 1903. The second expedition was stranded in the arctic for 3 years when their ship, in 1906 Porter again joined Frederick Cook in an expedition to Alaska’s Mount McKinley. Porter’s party surveyed a 3, 000-square-mile region around the mountain while Cook’s party broke off to climb the mountain, when the parties rendezvoused, Porter was skeptical of Cooks claims that he climbed the mountain. After his arctic adventures, Porter settled down in Port Clyde, Maine where he tried to start a colony at Lands End but failed, he built rental cottages. There he married Alice Marshall, the postmistress, Caroline, a daughter, was born in 1912. He also took up astronomy and the hobby of telescope making and he was encouraged by his good friend back in Springfield, fellow amateur astronomer and telescope builder James Hartness. In 1913, Hartness sent Porter some telescope building ideas and literature along with two 16-inch-diameter glass blanks, Porter wrote an article about his design for the May 1916 issue of Popular Astronomy. In 1915, Porter returned to MIT as a professor of architecture, there he helped Hartness to produce an optical comparator, an instrument for accurately checking the pitch, form, and lead of screw threads. In August 1920, with the help of Hartness, Porter started a class on how to make telescopes, fifteen people signed up for that class,14 men, most of whom were workers from Jones & Lamson, and one woman, a school teacher. The members of small group decided to form an astronomical club. Soon after, they built a clubhouse on a 30-acre plot belonging to Porter on Breezy Hill outside of town and they called the clubhouse Stellafane, Latin for shrine to the stars
25.
Apollo program
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Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon, Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration, Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a lifeboat for these functions, Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds of rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moons composition. The program laid the foundation for NASAs subsequent human spaceflight capability, Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, while the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a station, circumlunar flights. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that I was naming the spacecraft like Id name my baby. Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, in July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs. In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of prestige, pledging to make the US not first but, first and, first if. Despite Kennedys rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president and he knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. On April 12,1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on Americas response to the Soviets
26.
Leonard Nimoy
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Leonard Simon Nimoy was an American actor, film director, photographer, author, singer and songwriter. He was known for his role as Spock of the Star Trek franchise, foreshadowing his fame as a semi-alien, he played Narab, one of three Martian invaders, in the 1952 movie serial Zombies of the Stratosphere. The character has had a significant cultural impact and garnered Nimoy three Emmy Award nominations, TV Guide named Spock one of the 50 greatest TV characters. After the original Star Trek series, Nimoy starred in Mission, narrated Civilization IV, and made several well-received stage appearances. He also had a role in the science fiction series Fringe. Nimoys public profile as Spock was so strong that both of his autobiographies, I Am Not Spock and I Am Spock, were written from the viewpoint of sharing his existence with the character, in 2015 an asteroid was named 4864 Nimoy in his honor. In September 2016, For the Love of Spock, a documentary that covered his life. Leonard Simon Nimoy was born on March 26,1931, in the West End of Boston, Massachusetts and they reunited after arriving in the United States. His mother, Dora, was a homemaker, and his father, Max Nimoy and he had an elder brother, Melvin. He also began acting at the age of eight in a childrens, Nimoy also realized he had an aptitude for singing, which he developed while a member of his synagogues choir. His singing during his bar mitzvah at age 13 was so good that he was asked to repeat his performance the week at another synagogue. He is still the only man I know whose voice was two bar mitzvahs good and his first major role was at 17, as Ralphie in an amateur production of Clifford Odets Awake and Sing. Which dealt with the struggles of a matriarchal Jewish family similar to his during the Great Depression, playing this teenage kid in this Jewish family that was so much like mine was amazing, he said. The same dynamics, the tensions in the household. The role lit a passion that led him to pursue an acting career, I never wanted to do anything else. Shatner notes that Nimoy also worked on radio shows for children, often voice acting Bible stories, adding, Obviously. Many years later as Captain Kirk, I would be busy rescuing civilizations in distress on distant planets while Leonards Mr. Spock would be examining the morality of man– and alienkind. Nimoy took drama classes at Boston College, and after moving to Los Angeles and he took method actor Marlon Brando as a role model, and like him, wore jeans and T-shirt
27.
Phoenix (spacecraft)
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Phoenix was a robotic spacecraft on a space exploration mission on Mars under the Mars Scout Program. The Phoenix lander descended on Mars on May 25,2008, Mission scientists used instruments aboard the lander to search for environments suitable for microbial life on Mars, and to research the history of water there. The total mission cost was about US $386 million, which includes cost of the launch, the multi-agency program was headed by the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory at the University of Arizona, under the direction of NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory. It was the first mission to Mars led by a university in NASA history. The operational funding for the mission extended through November 10,2008, Phoenix was NASAs sixth successful landing out of seven attempts and was the first successful landing in a Martian polar region. The lander completed its mission in August 2008, and made a last brief communication with Earth on November 2 as available solar power dropped with the Martian winter, the mission was declared concluded on November 10,2008, after engineers were unable to re-contact the craft. After unsuccessful attempts to contact the lander by the Mars Odyssey orbiter up to and past the Martian summer solstice on May 12,2010, the program was considered a success because it completed all planned science experiments and observations. One was to study the history of water, the key to unlocking the story of past climate change. The second was to evaluate past or potential planetary habitability in the ice-soil boundary, Phoenixs instruments were suitable for uncovering information on the geological and possibly biological history of the Martian Arctic. Phoenix was the first mission to return data from either of the poles, the primary mission was anticipated to last 90 sols – just over 92 Earth days. However, the craft exceeded its expected operational lifetime by a little over two months before succumbing to the cold and dark of an advancing Martian winter. Even had it survived some of the winter, the cold would have prevented it from lasting all the way through. The 2003–2004 observations of gas on Mars were made remotely by three teams working with separate data. Methane could also be the product of a process or the result of volcanic or hydrothermal activity. The mission was funded on the expectation that Phoenix would find water ice on the arctic plains of Mars. In August 2003 NASA selected the University of Arizona Phoenix mission for launch in 2007 and it was hoped this would be the first in a new line of smaller, low-cost, Scout missions in the agencys exploration of Mars program. The selection was the result of an intense competition with proposals from other institutions. The $325 million NASA award is more than six times larger than any single research grant in University of Arizona history
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Mars
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Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, after Mercury. Named after the Roman god of war, it is referred to as the Red Planet because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. Mars is a planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet, Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Mars trojan, there are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers, liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is about 6⁄1000 that of the Earths, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be largely of water. The volume of ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted. On November 22,2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior, Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye, as can its reddish coloring. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.91, which is surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometers across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earths atmosphere. Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth with an area only slightly less than the total area of Earths dry land. Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earths volume and 11% of Earths mass, the red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron oxide, or rust. It can look like butterscotch, other common colors include golden, brown, tan. Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a metallic core overlaid by less dense materials. Current models of its interior imply a core with a radius of about 1,794 ±65 kilometers, consisting primarily of iron and this iron sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements than Earths. The core is surrounded by a mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet
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Ed Krupp
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Edwin Charles Krupp is an American astronomer, researcher, author, and popularizer of science. He is also known as Ed or E. C and he is an internationally recognized expert in the field of archaeoastronomy, the study of how ancient cultures viewed the sky and how those views affected their cultures. He has taught at the level, as a planetarium lecturer. He has been the director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles since first taking over the position in 1974 after the departure of the previous director, William J. Kaufmann III. Krupp is a member of the American Astronomical Society and the International Astronomical Union and he is also a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and a member of that organizations Council for Media Integrity. Edwin Charles Krupp was born in Chicago, Illinois, on November 18,1944 where as a child his parents took him to many of the local museums. In 1956 the family moved to Los Angeles where Krupps father, in 1961 Krupp attended the Summer Science Program. Among other things, SSP teaches astronomy to high school students, Krupp has remained active with SSP, first as as a graduate student teaching assistant from 1968 to 1972 and later as a frequent guest lecturer. Krupp has said of SSP, In some respects, SSP remains the most academically cohesive and that, I suspect, is true for most who are fortunate enough to attend it. If it werent for SSP, my vision would be narrower, my aspirations less ambitious, Krupp studied physics and astronomy at Pomona College in Claremont, California. His undergraduate advisor was Robert J. Chambers, while studying at Pomona College, Krupp participated in cross-country, track, and soccer. He also worked at KSPC, the Pomona College non-commercial community radio station and he lived for two years at the Brackett Observatory, during this time he served as observatory caretaker, telescope demonstrator, and weatherman. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1966, Ed pursued graduate studies in astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, and received a Master of Arts degree in 1968. He received his PhD in 1972, his disertation concerned the morphology of rich clusters of galaxies and his graduate adviser was George O. Abell. Ed has been a frequent lecturer throughout his career and he has lectured on science based tours he has led and other venues. Krupp took his first job at Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles while he was still a candidate at UCLA. This was as a planetarium lecturer and Krupp did not enjoy this job at first, saying to his wife Robin, Gee this isnt science, Its showbusiness. ”But, after he started noticing the audiences responding with increasing enthusiasm he started saying, Hey. Krupp was appointed Observatory Curator in 1972 upon completion of his PhD, in 1974 the director of Griffith Observatory, William J. Kaufmann III, left, and Krupp was appointed acting director
30.
Foucault pendulum
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The Foucault pendulum, or Foucaults pendulum, named after the French physicist Léon Foucault, is a simple device conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. While it had long known that the Earth rotates, the introduction of the Foucault pendulum in 1851 was the first simple proof of the rotation in an easy-to-see experiment. Today, Foucault pendulums are popular displays in museums and universities. The first public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum took place in February 1851 in the Meridian of the Paris Observatory. A few weeks later, Foucault made his most famous pendulum when he suspended a 28-kg brass-coated lead bob with a 67-m-long wire from the dome of the Panthéon, Paris. The plane of the pendulums swing rotated clockwise approximately 11. 3° per hour, the original bob used in 1851 at the Panthéon was moved in 1855 to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. A second temporary installation was made for the 50th anniversary in 1902, during museum reconstruction in the 1990s, the original pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon, but was later returned to the Musée des Arts et Métiers before it reopened in 2000. On April 6,2010, the cable suspending the bob in the Musée des Arts et Métiers snapped, causing damage to the pendulum. An exact copy of the pendulum had been swinging permanently since 1995 under the dome of the Panthéon. The pendulum has since been reinstalled, so, relative to Earth, the plane of oscillation of a pendulum at the North Pole undergoes a full clockwise rotation during one day, a pendulum at the South Pole rotates counterclockwise. When a Foucault pendulum is suspended at the equator, the plane of oscillation remains fixed relative to Earth, for example, a Foucault pendulum at 30° south latitude, viewed from above by an earthbound observer, rotates counterclockwise 360° in two days. To demonstrate rotation directly rather than indirectly via the swinging pendulum, the instrument could be observed either with a microscope viewing a tenth of a degree scale or by a long pointer. At least three copies of a Foucault gyro were made in convenient travelling and demonstration boxes and copies survive in the UK, France. A Foucault pendulum requires care to set up because imprecise construction can cause additional veering which masks the terrestrial effect, a pendulum day is the time needed for the plane of a freely suspended Foucault pendulum to complete an apparent rotation about the local vertical. This is one day divided by the sine of the latitude. From the perspective of a frame moving in tandem with Earth, but not sharing its rotation. If the plane of swing was north-south at the outset, it is east-west one sidereal day later and this implies that there has been exchange of momentum, the Earth and the pendulum bob have exchanged momentum. The Earth is so much more massive than the pendulum bob that the Earths change of momentum is unnoticeable, nonetheless, since the pendulum bobs plane of swing has shifted, the conservation laws imply that an exchange must have occurred
31.
Carl Zeiss AG
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Carl Zeiss is a German manufacturer of optical systems, industrial measurements and medical devices, founded in Jena, Germany in 1846 by optician Carl Zeiss. Together with Ernst Abbe and Otto Schott they built a base for modern optics, there are currently two parts of the company, Carl Zeiss AG located in Oberkochen with important subsidiaries in Aalen, Göttingen and Munich, and Carl Zeiss GmbH located in Jena. Carl Zeiss AG is the company of the Zeiss Gruppe. The Zeiss Gruppe is located in Heidenheim and Jena, also controlled by the Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung are the glass manufacturers Schott AG and Jenaer Glas, located in Mainz and Jena respectively. Carl Zeiss is one of the oldest existing optics manufacturers in the world, Carl Zeiss opened an optics workshop in Jena in 1846. By 1847 he was making microscopes full-time, by 1861 Zeiss was considered to be among the best scientific instrument makers in Germany with about 20 people working under him with his business still growing. By 1866 the Zeiss workshop sold their 1, 000th microscope, in 1872 physicist Ernst Abbe joined Zeiss and along with Otto Schott designed greatly improved lenses for the optical instruments they were producing. After Carl Zeisss death in 1888, the business was incorporated as the Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung in 1889, by World War I, Zeiss was the worlds largest location of camera production. Zeiss Ikon represented a significant part of the production along with dozens of brands and factories. The Hensoldt System Technology division was continued by Zeiss under the Hensoldt name until 2006, as part of Nazi Germany Zwangsarbeiter program, Zeiss used forced labour during the Second World War. The destruction of the war caused many companies to divide into smaller subcompanies, at the end of the war Jena was occupied by the US Army. As part of the World War II reparations, the Soviet army took most of the existing Zeiss factories and tooling back to the Soviet Union as the Kiev camera works. The western business was restarted in Oberkochen as Opton Optische Werke Oberkochen GmbH in 1946, which became Zeiss-Opton Optische Werke Oberkochen GmbH in 1947, but was soon renamed to Carl Zeiss. West German Zeiss products were labelled Opton for sale in the Eastern bloc and this collaboration continued under Yashicas successor, Kyocera, until the latter ceased all camera production in 2005. Zeiss later produced lenses for the industry and, more recently, has again produced high-quality 35 mm camera lenses. Jenoptik GmbH was split off as a specialty company in the areas of photonics, optoelectronics, the Hensoldt AG was renamed Carl Zeiss Sports Optics GmbH on 1 October 2006. The companies of the Zeiss Gruppe in and around Dresden have branched into new technologies, screens and products for the automotive industry, today, there are arguably three companies with primarily Zeiss Ikon heritage, Zeiss Germany, the Finnish/Swedish Ikon, and the independent eastern Zeiss Ikon. On 28 June 2013, Carl Zeiss officially announced its plan to rename the brand from Carl Zeiss to simply Zeiss, all the products will be standardized under the Zeiss brand
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Refracting telescope
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A refracting telescope is a type of optical telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image. The refracting telescope design was used in spy glasses and astronomical telescopes but is also used for long focus camera lenses. A refractors magnification is calculated by dividing the length of the objective lens by that of the eyepiece. Refractors were the earliest type of optical telescope, Galileo Galilei, happening to be in Venice in about the month of May 1609, heard of the invention and constructed a version of his own. Galileo then communicated the details of his invention to the public, all refracting telescopes use the same principles. The objective in a refracting telescope refracts or bends light and this refraction causes parallel light rays to converge at a focal point, while those not parallel converge upon a focal plane. The telescope converts a bundle of rays to make an angle α. The ratio β/α is called the angular magnification and it equals the ratio between the retinal image sizes obtained with and without the telescope. Refracting telescopes can come in different configurations to correct for image orientation. Because the image was formed by the bending of light, or refraction, the design Galileo Galilei used in 1609 is commonly called a Galilean telescope. It used a convergent objective lens and a divergent eyepiece lens, a Galilean telescope, because the design has no intermediary focus, results in a non-inverted and upright image. Galileo’s best telescope magnified objects about 30 times, because of flaws in its design, such as the shape of the lens and the narrow field of view, the images were blurry and distorted. Despite these flaws, the telescope was still enough for Galileo to explore the sky. The Galilean telescope could view the phases of Venus, and was able to see craters on the Moon, parallel rays of light from a distant object would be brought to a focus in the focal plane of the objective lens. The eyepiece lens intercepts these rays and renders them parallel once more, non-parallel rays of light from the object traveling at an angle α1 to the optical axis travel at a larger angle after they passed through the eyepiece. This leads to an increase in the apparent angular size and is responsible for the perceived magnification, the final image is a virtual image, located at infinity and is the same way up as the object. The Keplerian telescope, invented by Johannes Kepler in 1611, is an improvement on Galileos design and it uses a convex lens as the eyepiece instead of Galileos concave one. The advantage of this arrangement is that the rays of light emerging from the eyepiece are converging and this allows for a much wider field of view and greater eye relief, but the image for the viewer is inverted
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Solar telescope
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A solar telescope is a special purpose telescope used to observe the Sun. Solar telescopes usually detect light with wavelengths in, or not far outside, obsolete names for sun telescopes include heliograph and photoheliograph. Solar telescopes need optics large enough to achieve the best possible diffraction limit, however, recently newer narrower filters and higher framerates have also driven solar telescopes towards photon-starved operations. Both the European Solar Telescope as well as the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope have larger apertures not only to increase the resolution, to alleviate this, solar telescopes are usually built on towers and the structures are painted white. The Dutch Open Telescope is built on a framework to allow the wind to pass through the complete structure. Another solar telescope-specific problem is the heat generated by the tightly-focused sunlight, for this reason, a heat stop is an integral part of the design of solar telescopes. For the upcoming ATST, the load is 2.5 MW/m2. The goal of such a stop is not only to survive this heat load. However, this is not possible for apertures over 1 meter, therefore, the EST and ATST have active cooling of the dome to minimize the temperature difference between the air inside and outside the telescope. Because the Sun travels on a fixed path across the sky, some solar telescopes are fixed in position. One example of this is the McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope, the Einstein Tower became operational in 1924 McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope McMath-Hulbert Observatory Swedish Vacuum Solar Telescope Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope Richard B. Advanced Technology Solar Telescope, a telescope with 4m aperture. European Solar Telescope, a future 4-meter class aperture telescope, national Large Solar Telescope, is a Gregorian multi-purpose open telescope proposed to be built and Installed in India and aims to study the suns microscopic structure. The Radio Solar Telescope Network is a network of solar observatories maintained and operated by the U. S. Air Force Weather Agency. CERN Axion Solar Telescope, looks for solar axions in the early 2000s In the field of astronomy there are many methods used to observe the sun. In contrast to professional telescopes, amateur solar telescopes are much smaller. List of solar telescopes List of telescope types Heliostat Solar telescopes, Wolfgang Schmidt, doi,10. 4249/scholarpedia.4333 CSIRO Solar Heliograph part 2 Solar Gallery of an amateur astronomer Solar Gallery of the Hong Kong Astronomical Society Lawrence, Pete
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California Institute of Technology
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The California Institute of Technology is a private doctorate-granting university located in Pasadena, California, United States. The vocational and preparatory schools were disbanded and spun off in 1910, the university is one among a small group of Institutes of Technology in the United States which is primarily devoted to the instruction of technical arts and applied sciences. Caltech has six divisions with strong emphasis on science and engineering, managing $332 million in 2011 in sponsored research. Its 124-acre primary campus is located approximately 11 mi northeast of downtown Los Angeles, first-year students are required to live on campus, and 95% of undergraduates remain in the on-campus House System at Caltech. Although Caltech has a tradition of practical jokes and pranks. The Caltech Beavers compete in 13 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division IIIs Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, Caltech is frequently cited as one of the worlds best universities. There are 112 faculty members who have elected to the United States National Academies. In addition, numerous faculty members are associated with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute as well as NASA, according to a 2015 Pomona College study, Caltech ranked number one in the U. S. for the percentage of its graduates who go on to earn a PhD. Caltech started as a school founded in Pasadena in 1891 by local businessman and politician Amos G. Throop. The school was known successively as Throop University, Throop Polytechnic Institute, the vocational school was disbanded and the preparatory program was split off to form an independent Polytechnic School in 1907. At a time when research in the United States was still in its infancy, George Ellery Hale. He joined Throops board of trustees in 1907, and soon began developing it and he engineered the appointment of James A. B. Scherer, a literary scholar untutored in science but a capable administrator and fund raiser, scherer persuaded retired businessman and trustee Charles W. Gates to donate $25,000 in seed money to build Gates Laboratory, the first science building on campus. In 1910, Throop moved to its current site, arther Fleming donated the land for the permanent campus site. The promise of Throop attracted physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes from MIT to develop the institution and assist in establishing it as a center for science, with the onset of World War I, Hale organized the National Research Council to coordinate and support scientific work on military problems. This institution, with its able investigators and excellent research laboratories, through the National Research Council, Hale simultaneously lobbied for science to play a larger role in national affairs, and for Throop to play a national role in science. During the course of the war, Hale, Noyes and Millikan worked together in Washington on the NRC, subsequently, they continued their partnership in developing Caltech. Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes and Millikan, Caltech grew to prominence in the 1920s
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Solar System
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The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are the planets, with the remainder being significantly smaller objects, such as dwarf planets, of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly, the moons, two are larger than the smallest planet, Mercury. The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud. The vast majority of the mass is in the Sun. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are terrestrial planets, being composed of rock. The four outer planets are giant planets, being more massive than the terrestrials. All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a flat disc called the ecliptic. The Solar System also contains smaller objects, the asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptunes orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc, which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices, within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets, identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris. In addition to two regions, various other small-body populations, including comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust clouds. Six of the planets, at least four of the dwarf planets, each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun, the heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of the interstellar medium, it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc. The Oort cloud, which is thought to be the source for long-period comets, the Solar System is located in the Orion Arm,26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way. For most of history, humanity did not recognize or understand the concept of the Solar System, the invention of the telescope led to the discovery of further planets and moons. The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G2 main-sequence star that contains 99. 86% of the known mass. The Suns four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the mass, with Jupiter. The remaining objects of the Solar System together comprise less than 0. 002% of the Solar Systems total mass, most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earths orbit, known as the ecliptic
36.
Zeiss projector
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A Zeiss projector is one of a line of planetarium projectors manufactured by the Carl Zeiss Company. The first modern planetarium projectors were designed and built in 1924 by the Zeiss Works of Jena, Zeiss projectors are designed to sit in the middle of a dark, dome-covered room and project an accurate image of the stars and other astronomical objects on the dome. They are generally large, complicated, and imposing machines, the first Zeiss Mark I projector was installed in the Deutsches Museum in Munich in August,1923. It possessed a distinctive appearance, with a sphere of projection lenses supported above a large. Marks II through VI were similar in appearance, using two spheres of star projectors separated along an axis that contained projectors for the planets. Beginning with Mark VII, the axis was eliminated and the two spheres were merged into a single, egg-shaped projection unit. The Mark I was created in 1923–1924 and was the worlds first modern planetarium projector, the Mark II was developed during the 1930s jointly by Carl Zeiss AG factories in Jena and Oberkochen. Following WWII and the division of Germany, each developed its own line of projectors. Marks III – VI were developed in Oberkochen from 1957–1989, meanwhile, the East German facility in Jena developed the ZKP projector line. The Mark VII was developed in 1993 and was the first joint project of the two Zeiss factories following German reunification, as of 2011, Zeiss currently manufactures three main models of planetarium projectors. The Starmaster line of projectors are designed for smaller domes than the Universarium, between 1923 and 2011, Zeiss manufactured a total of 631 projectors. Therefore, the table is highly incomplete. List of planetariums Planetarium Planetarium Jena Walther Bauersfeld Zeiss Planetariums
37.
Celebrity chef
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A celebrity chef is a kitchen chef who has become famous and well known. Today celebrity chefs often become celebrities by presenting cookery advice and demonstrations via mass media, several chefs have been credited with being the first celebrity chef, among them historically Bartolomeo Scappi and Marie-Antoine Carême. In the modern era since the advent of several chefs have been attributed the title of the first celebrity chef, including Julia Child in the United States. Sales of certain foodstuffs can also be enhanced, such as when Delia Smith caused the sale of white eggs across the UK to increase by 10% in what has since been termed the Delia effect, in South Korea, a celebrity chef is referred to as a Cheftainer. The earliest chef to be credited with being a celebrity was the 16th-century Italian and he was the personal chef to Pope Pius V, and is credited with writing one of the first modern recipe books, Opera. The 19th-century French chef Marie-Antoine Carême has also since been referred to as a celebrity of his era, the first chef to achieve widespread fame and celebrity status was Alexis Soyer. Born in France, Soyer became the most celebrated cook in early Victorian England, in 1837, he became chef de cuisine at the Reform Club in London, where he designed the kitchens with Charles Barry. His exceptional cooking skills were combined with an excellent eye to marketing and his image was even successfully used as a trademark to market a range of bottled sauces produced by Crosse & Blackwell. Soyer also invented many popular new recipes and foods - he produced and marketed a drink made of a variety of fruits mixed with aerated water. His special dish at the Club, Soyers Lamb Cutlets Reform, is still on the Club menu today, at the Reform Club, he instituted many innovations including cooking with gas, refrigerators cooled by cold water, and ovens with adjustable temperatures. His kitchens were so famous that they were opened for conducted tours, when Queen Victoria was crowned on 28 June 1838, he prepared a breakfast for 2,000 people at the Club. He was also known for his philanthropy. During the Great Irish Famine in April 1847, he implemented a network of soup kitchens to feed the poor and his famine soup was served to thousands of the poor for free. Soyer wrote a number of bestselling books about cooking, one of them selling over a quarter of a million copies. His 1854 book A Shilling Cookery for the People was a book for ordinary people who could not afford elaborate kitchen utensils or large amounts of exotic ingredients. Other works included The Gastronomic Regenerator, The modern Housewife or ménagère, the earliest television celebrity chef in the UK was Fanny Cradock. She appeared on British television for two decades, from the 1950s through the 1970s. Her television career came to an end when she appeared as a judge on reality television show The Big Time in 1976 and she appeared to pretend to retch as contestant Gwen Troake described her menu for former Prime Minister Edward Heath
38.
Wolfgang Puck
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Wolfgang Johannes Puck is an Austrian-born American celebrity chef, restaurateur, and occasional actor. Wolfgang Puck restaurants, catering services, cookbooks and licensed products are handled by Wolfgang Puck Companies, Wolfgang Puck was born in Sankt Veit an der Glan, Carinthia, Austria. He learned cooking from his mother, who worked as a pastry chef. When his mother remarried, he took the name of his adoptive father Josef Puck, after two years at La Tour in Indianapolis, Puck moved to Los Angeles to become chef and part owner at Ma Maison restaurant. Fifteen years later, in 1997, Puck and Lazaroff moved the award-winning Spago to Beverly Hills and it has been recognized as one of the Top 40 Restaurants in the U. S. since 2004. His success enabled him to launch the Wolfgang Puck Companies which includes the Wolfgang Puck Fine Dining Group, Wolfgang Puck Worldwide, Inc. and he also made a cameo appearance as himself on an episode of Tales from the Crypt, and appeared in a TV commercial advertising California. Wolfgang Puck is active in philanthropic endeavors and charitable organizations, co-founding the Puck-Lazaroff Charitable Foundation in 1982, the foundation supports the annual American Wine & Food Festival which benefits Meals on Wheels, it has raised more than $15 million since its inception. Puck is The Honorary Chair Chef for the Five Star Sensation Benefit in Cleveland, Ohio, Wolfgang Pucks favorite food is macaroons. Wolfgang Pucks signature dish at his restaurant, Spago, is House Smoked Salmon Pizza. Wolfgang Puck married designer Gelila Assefa in 2007 and he has four children, two from his second marriage and two with Assefa. His second wife, Barbara, continues to play a role in his restaurants, in 1993, Spago Hollywood was inducted into the Nations Restaurant News Fine Dining Hall of Fame. The next year it received the James Beard Restaurant of the Year Award, in 2002, Puck received the 2001–2002 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Service Show, Wolfgang Puck. Spago Beverly Hills received a James Beard Foundation Outstanding Service Award in 2005 and it was awarded two Michelin stars in the 2008 and 2009 Los Angeles Michelin Guide. CUT Beverly Hills was awarded a Michelin star in 2007, in 2013, Puck was inducted into the Culinary Hall of Fame. In July 2016, CUT at the Marina Bay Sands, Singapore was awarded a Michelin Star, Puck will receive a star at the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2017. Spago, Pucks first restaurant opened on the Sunset Strip serving California cuisine, Spago Istanbul by Wolfgang Puck at St. Regis Istanbul. Chinois on Main, Santa Monica, California, Asian fusion, postrio, San Francisco, Mediterranean and Asian fusion. Spago, Beverly Hills, known for serving California cuisine, Spago Beverly Hills, Spago Las Vegas, Spago Maui, and Spago Beaver Creek
39.
Virgo Cluster
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The Virgo Cluster is a cluster of galaxies whose center is 53.8 ±0.3 Mly away in the constellation Virgo. Comprising approximately 1300 member galaxies, the forms the heart of the larger Virgo Supercluster. However, the Local Group experiences the mass of the Virgo Supercluster as the Virgocentric flow and it is estimated that the Virgo Clusters mass is 1. 2×1015 M☉ out to 8 degrees of the clusters center or a radius of about 2.2 Mpc. Described by Messier as nebulae without stars, their nature was not recognized until the 1920s. The cluster subtends an arc of approximately 8 degrees centered in the constellation Virgo. Many of the galaxies of the cluster are visible with a small telescope. Its brightest member is the elliptical galaxy Messier 49, however its most famous member is the elliptical galaxy Messier 87. The cluster is a heterogeneous mixture of spirals and ellipticals. The elliptical galaxies are more concentrated than the spiral galaxies. This strongly suggests the Virgo cluster is a young cluster that is still forming. Other two nearby aggregations known as M Cloud, W Cloud, and W Cloud seem to be background systems independent of the main cluster. The large mass of the cluster is indicated by the peculiar velocities of many of its galaxies, sometimes as high as 1,600 km/s with respect to the clusters center. The Virgo cluster lies within the Virgo Supercluster, and its gravitational effect slows down the nearby galaxies, the large mass of the cluster has the effect of slowing down the recession of the Local Group from the cluster by approximately ten percent. As with many other galaxy clusters, Virgos intracluster medium is filled with a hot. Below is given a table of bright or notable objects in the Virgo Cluster, note that in some cases a galaxy may be considered in one subunit or in another Column 1, The name of the galaxy. Column 2, The right ascension for epoch 2000, Column 3, The declination for epoch 2000. Column 4, The blue apparent magnitude of the galaxy, Column 5, The galaxy type, E=Elliptical, S0=Lenticular, Sa, Sb, Sc, Sd=Spiral, SBa, SBb, SBc, SBd=Barred spiral, Sm, SBm, Irr=Irregular. Column 6, The angular diameter of the galaxy, Column 7, The diameter of the galaxy
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Centered in the Universe
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Centered in the Universe is a fulldome presentation that premiered the evening of October 29,2006 at the Galactic Gala which marked the reopening of the renovated Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. The 33-minute planetarium program utilizes a Zeiss Universarium star projector and an innovative laser video projection system developed by Evans & Sutherland to create an immersive environment, a live presenter narrates the script. As the audience is seated, the dome is suffused with a cool blue light. At the conclusion of the introduction, the orb fades, the theater darkens, as the sunset proceeds, the star projector rises to simulate the night sky. In accelerated time, we see the complex motions of the sun, moon, the scene dissolves to ancient Alexandria, Egypt. We see the Great Library and the Pharos Lighthouse, in a courtyard, next to a pool surrounded by torches, we see the 2nd Century astronomer Claudius Ptolemy adjusting an armillary sphere to chart star positions. Behind Ptolemy is a table on which rests a scroll. We approach the scroll and see that it depicts a model of the universe. The flame from a lamp pans across the field of view and we move into a courtyard where Galileo is observing with his telescope. On an easel lit by a lantern we see his sketches of the moons of Jupiter and these drawings also morph into 3D objects to demonstrate how Galileos observations transformed our perception of the planets and helped establish the Copernican model of the solar system. Over the desk of a modern researcher we see a representation of the Big Bang. The device of transforming raw data, such as sketches and photographs, according to Andrew Hofman, Visual Effects Supervisor, Centered in the Universe presented unique challenges. Some long-established practices in film making are simply not available in the dome venue. Developing a visual style to work within this limitation was integral to the success of the show, the sheer size of the image files was also daunting. Each frame was composed of 17 million pixels, as opposed to the mere 3 million required for conventional cinema, software behaved erratically, machines ran out of RAM, hard drives filled up and networks, even air conditioning, were overtaxed. Delays in the delivery of the laser video projectors required animators to continue making color adjustments until a few days before the premiere, although every frame of the film was created using computer graphics, conventional artwork played an important role in developing the look and feel of the show. Art Director Chris Butler did extensive research to design props and sets that would allow the 3D animators to create historically authentic environments, animators studied photographs provided by Galileo expert Dava Sobel to ensure that architectural details of the astronomers house were modeled correctly. Centered in the Universe features an orchestral score blending avant-garde and classical motifs composed by Alan Ett, Scott Liggett
41.
Atmospheric pressure
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Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimetre in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilograms and that force is a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2. A column 1 square inch in cross-section would have a weight of about 14.7 lb or about 65.4 N and it is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition. The standard atmosphere is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa, the mean sea level pressure is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television. When barometers in the home are set to match the weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level. The altimeter setting in aviation, is an atmospheric pressure adjustment, average sea-level pressure is 1013.25 mbar. In aviation weather reports, QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals, except in the United States, Canada, however, in Canadas public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals. The highest sea-level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea-level pressure above 1050 mbar, the lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 mbar. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earths surface to the top of the mesosphere, although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, one can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C, at low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 meters. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather, Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars and these variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian cycle and semi-circadian cycle. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure recorded on Earth was 1085.7 hPa measured in Tosontsengel
42.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
43.
Samuel Oschin telescope
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The Samuel Oschin telescope is a 48-inch-aperture Schmidt camera at the Palomar Observatory in northern San Diego County, California. It consists of a 49. 75-inch Schmidt corrector plate and a 72-inch mirror, the instrument is strictly a camera, there is no provision for an eyepiece to look through it. It originally used 10- and 14-inch glass photographic plates, since the focal plane is curved, these plates had to be preformed in a special jig before being loaded into the camera. Construction on the Schmidt telescope began in 1939 and it was completed in 1948 and it was named the Samuel Oschin telescope in 1986. Before that it was just called the 48-inch Schmidt, the camera has been converted to use a CCD imager. This is a mosaic of 12 CCDs covering the field of view of the camera. The corrector plate was replaced using glass that is transparent to a wider range of wavelengths. The camera was originally hand-guided through one of two 10-inch-aperture refracting telescopes mounted on either side of the camera, the camera is now fully automated and remote-controlled. The data collected is transmitted over the High Performance Wireless Research and it is programmed and operated primarily from Pasadena, California, with no operator on site. In 2002, astronomer Jean Mueller approached Richard Ellis, the director of the Caltech Optical Observatories, Mueller was also rewarded by a visit to the Keck Observatory in Hawaii. The Oschin Telescope was responsible for the discovery of 90377 Sedna on 2003-11-14 and Eris, the peculiar Type Ia supernova SN 2002cx was discovered with the Oschin telescope on 2002 May 12.21 UT. Other discoveries include 90482 Orcus and 50000 Quaoar, both large trans-Neptune objects, in June 2011 it was reported the telescope discovered 6 supernovae located 8 billion light years from Earth whose composition lacks hydrogen. This is different from normal supernovae, and will contribute to the research of star formation. S, national Park Service Picture, c.1960 Edwin Hubble at the 48 Schmidt. Order comes to a universe, Caltech336, Vol.203
44.
Palomar Mountain
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Palomar Mountain is a mountain ridge in the Peninsular Ranges in northern San Diego County. It is famous as the location of the Palomar Observatory and Hale Telescope, the Luiseno Indian name for Palomar Mountain was Paauw and High Point was called Wikyo. The Spanish name Palomar, in English meaning pigeon roost, comes from the Spanish colonial era in Alta California when Palomar Mountain was known as the home of band-tailed pigeons, Palomar Mountain is most famous as the home of the Palomar Observatory and the Hale Telescope. The 200-inch telescope was the worlds largest and most important telescope from 1949 until 1992, the observatory currently consists of three large telescopes. Palomar Mountain is the location of Palomar Mountain State Park, a California State Park, there are campgrounds for vacationers, and a campground for local school children until the San Diego Unified School District was forced to close it due to state budget cuts. The park averages 70,000 visitors annually, the campgrounds in the park were temporarily closed on October 2,2011, due to state budget cuts. The park was among 70 California State Parks threatened by cuts in fiscal years 2011-2012 and 2012-2013, but the park. Palomar Mountain, especially in the park area, is densely wooded with abundant oak. Ferns are abundant everywhere in the shady forest, the forest is supported by annual precipitation totals in excess of 30 inches. Beginning in the 1920s a lookout tower has been present on Boucher Hill on Palomar Mountain, the tower had been active until it was abandoned in 1983 and then was reactivated when the FFLA began manning it in 2012. Boucher Hill sees more than 11,000 visitors a season, the tower opens around May 1st in conjunction with the fire season and closes in early December. During this period the tower is typically staffed 7 days a week from 9am -5pm, doane Valley, located within the State Park, is home to the Camp Palomar Outdoor School for 6th grade students in the San Diego Unified School District. At the base of Palomar Mountain on S6 is Oak Knoll Campground, Palomar Gardens was made somewhat famous by an earlier resident, George Adamski. Adamski had an observatory at Palomar Gardens and photographed objects in the sky that he claimed were UFOs. Adamski co-authored Flying Saucers Have Landed in 1953, about his alien encounter experiences, the 1977 film The Crater Lake Monster had many scenes filmed on Palomar Mountain, including scenes shot at the summit restaurant, but not the scenes of the monster in a lake. High Point, is in the Cleveland National Forest, in the Palomar Mountain range is one of the highest peaks in San Diego County, at 6,140 feet, surpassed by Cuyamaca Peak, High Point is located approximately two miles east of the observatory. It may be reached via Palomar Divide Truck Trail, a road that starts off highway 79 near Warner Springs. The trip is 13 miles one way with 3000 ft of elevation gain via Palomar Divide Truck Trail, there is an operational USFS fire lookout on High Point, built in 1964
45.
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics, Einsteins work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Briefly before, he aquired the Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for his whole life and he continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe. He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany and he settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1940. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project, Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works, on 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einsteins papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einsteins intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein synonymous with genius, Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, the Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, the loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan, when the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the schools regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning, at the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctors note. During his time in Italy he wrote an essay with the title On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field
46.
Tesla coil
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The Tesla coil is an electrical resonant transformer circuit designed by inventor Nikola Tesla in 1891. It is used to produce high-voltage, low-current, high frequency alternating-current electricity, Tesla experimented with a number of different configurations consisting of two, or sometimes three, coupled resonant electric circuits. Tesla coil circuits were used commercially in sparkgap radio transmitters for wireless telegraphy until the 1920s, today their main use is for entertainment and educational displays, although small coils are still used today as leak detectors for high vacuum systems. A Tesla coil is a radio frequency oscillator that drives an air-core double-tuned resonant transformer to produce high voltages at low currents, Teslas original circuits as well as most modern coils use a simple spark gap to excite oscillations in the tuned transformer. More sophisticated designs use transistor or thyristor switches or vacuum tube electronic oscillators to drive the resonant transformer, Tesla coils can produce output voltages from 50 kilovolts to several million volts for large coils. The alternating current output is in the low frequency range. Typical voltages are between 5 and 30 kilovolts, optionally, a capacitive electrode in the form of a smooth metal sphere or torus attached to the secondary terminal of the coil. Its large surface area suppresses premature corona discharge and streamer arcs, increasing the Q factor, Tesla coil is also called resonant transformer, oscillation transformer or radio-frequency transformer. The transformer of Tesla coil has lower coupling coefficient between coils than an ordinary transformer used in AC power circuits, because the coupling coefficient is low, the resonant transformer seems to have low energy transfer efficiency, but the actual energy transfer efficiency is surprisingly good. This is because it is designed to store electrical energy in the tank circuit on the secondary coil. The tank circuit functions as an LC circuit that stores electric energy by the inductance of the secondary coil. The primary coil consisting of a few turns of heavy copper wire or tubing, is connected to a capacitor through the spark gap. The secondary coil consists of turns of fine wire on a hollow cylindrical form inside the primary. When energy tuned to the resonant frequency 1 of the secondary coil is given from the spark gap. In this case, when the circuit on the primary side is tuned so as to have the same frequency as the resonance frequency of the secondary coil. Generally, in the spark gap type, since the frequency of the energy can not be concentrated to frequency 1. Are generated on the secondary coil, however at high frequencies an iron core causes energy losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis, so it is not used in the Tesla coil. Ordinary transformers are designed to be tightly coupled, generally, this means that only 5% to 20% of the magnetic field of each coil passes through the other when the secondary coil is open circuited
47.
Earle Ovington
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Earle Lewis Ovington was an American aeronautical engineer, aviator and inventor, and served as a lab assistant to Thomas Edison. Ovington piloted the first official flight in the United States in a Blériot XI on September 23,1911. He carried a sack of mail from Nassau Boulevard aerodrome, Garden City, New York to Mineola and he circled at 500 feet and tossed the bag over the side of the cockpit and the sack burst on impact, scattering letters and postcards. He delivered 640 letters and 1,280 postcards, including a letter to himself from the United States Post Office Department designating him as Official Air Mail Pilot #1 and he was born on December 20,1879 in Illinois. He married Adelaide in 1911 and they had two children, Earle Kester Ovington and Audrey Ovington He built a house in the Samarkand area of Santa Barbara, California which included an airstrip. While this airstrip wasnt the ultimate site of the Santa Barbara Municipal Airfield and he died on July 21,1936. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea,1911 in aviation Dean Smith, pioneer air mail pilot Ovington, Mrs. Adelaide Alexander, An Aviators Wife, Dodd, Mead and company,1920. Campbell, Robert D. Reminiscences of a Birdman, Living History Press,2009, ISBN0615281885 Earle Lewis Ovington at Flickr picture of Earle Lewis Ovington by photographer James Walter Collinge, last picture in gallery
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