1.
Bilbao
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Bilbao is a city in northern Spain, the largest city in the province of Biscay and in the Basque Country as a whole. Bilbao is the tenth largest city in Spain, with a population of 345,141 As of 2015, Bilbao is also the main urban area in what is defined as the Greater Basque region. Bilbao is situated in the part of Spain, some 16 kilometres south of the Bay of Biscay, where the economic social development is located. Its main urban core is surrounded by two mountain ranges with an average elevation of 400 metres. This was due to its port activity based on the export of iron extracted from the Biscayan quarries, at the same time an extraordinary population explosion prompted the annexation of several adjacent municipalities. The official name of the town is Bilbao, as known in most languages of the world, there is no consensus among historians about the origin of the name. Generally accepted accounts state that prior to the 12th century the independent rulers of the territory, the symbols of their patrimony are the tower and church used in the shield of Bilbao to this day. One possible origin was suggested by the engineer Evaristo de Churruca and he said that it was a Basque custom to name a place after its location. For Bilbao this would be the result of the union of the Basque words for river and cove, the historian José Tussel Gómez argues that it is just a natural evolution of the Spanish words bello vado, beautiful river crossing. On the other hand, according to the writer Esteban Calle Iturrino, the first, where the present Casco Viejo is located, would be called billa, which means stacking in Basque, after the configuration of the buildings. The second, on the bank, where now Bilbao La Vieja is located, would be called vaho. From the union of these two derives the name Bilbao, which was written as Bilvao and Biluao, as documented in its municipal charter. An -ao ending is present in nearby Sestao and Ugao. Titles Bilbao holds the historic category of borough, with the titles of «Very noble and very loyal and it was the Catholic Monarchs who awarded the title «Noble borough» on 20 September 1475. Philip III of Spain, via a letter in 1603 awarded the borough the titles of «Very noble, after the Siege of Bilbao, during the First Carlist War, on 25 December 1836, the title of «Unbeaten» was added. Remains of an ancient settlement were found on the top of Mount Malmasín, burial sites were also found on Mounts Avril and Artxanda, dated 6,000 years old. Some authors identify the old settlement of Bilbao as Amanun Portus, cited by Pliny the Elder, or with Flaviobriga, ancient walls, which date from around the 11th century, have been discovered below the Church of San Antón. On 21 June 1511, Queen Joanna of Castile ordered the creation of the Consulate of Bilbao and this would become the most influential institution of the borough for centuries, and would claim jurisdiction over the estuary, improving its infrastructure
2.
Abando
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Abando was the name of an old municipality of Biscay, that was eventually absorbed by Bilbao. The district has a population of 51,875 inhabitants and is divided into two neighbourhoods, the proper Abando and Indautxu to the west of Moyúa square. It has an area of 2.14 km2, all of it is built up and its density is 24. It is speculated that Abando could correspond to the town of Portus Amanus, mentioned by Romans, in 1300, the city of Bilbao was founded in an area that was previously part of Abando and Begoña. During the 18th century Abando was the most populated parish of Biscay and this population was disperse in farms occupying a wide rural area, except for some denser areas close to the river, on the opposite shore of what was then Bilbao. During the 19th century Bilbao became too congested and needed space to grow and this annexation affected one of the most famous natives of Abando, Sabino Arana, and was one of the driving forces for the inception of the Basque nationalism. Today the districts of Abando, Rekalde and Basurto are built in what was the old parish of Abando, manuel Montero García, History of Biscay
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Art museum
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An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
5.
Euskotren Tranbia
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It began operations for the first time in Bilbao in 2002 and in Vitoria in 2008. It is one of the four commercial brands under which Basque Railways operates, the entire network, as the Euskotren Trena network, uses 1,000 mm narrow gauge rail tracks. Euskotren Tranbia operates the services, while Euskotren Trena operates the commuter rail networks, Euskotren Autobusa the bus services. In 2012 the commercial brand changed from Euskotran to Euskotren Tranbia with the word tranbia being Basque for tram, the first network, then named EuskoTran and later Euskotran started in Bilbao in 2002, after two years under construction, connecting the Bilbao-Atxuri Station with Uribitarte. The line was expanded to the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, the hospital of Basurto. The tramway of Vitoria-Gasteiz opened in 2008 and has a Y-shaped network, Euskotran Tranbia runs on a mixture of street track shared with other traffic, dedicated tracks and grass tracks. The stops of Bilbao-Atxuri Station, Ribera and Abando, all of them in Bilbao, do not have their own separate stop, except for Bilbao-Atxuri and Legibitzarra/Parlamento, the second one in the Vitoria network, all stops are unstaffed and rely on automated ticket machines. All the stations have displays and screens with the map, the current time and temperature. Due the low platforms, the access between them crossing the tracks by pedestrian level crossing. They are virtually level with the doors and are all wider than 2 m and this allows wheelchairs, prams, pushchairs and the elderly to board the tram easily with no steps. In street sections, the pavement is integrated with the tram stop, the Bilbao line has 14 stops, while the Vitoria one has 20. The Euskotren Tranbia networks serves the following stations, bilbaos tram uses both regular paper tickets than can be acquired in the automated machines in every stop, there are simple, daily and monthly tickets available. The ticket pricing is not based on zone-based rules, as theres a price for the whole network. The Creditrans is available in the whole network, in the future the smart electronic card Barik will be available for use as well. A simple ticket costs €1,40 or €0,70 as of 2012, vitorias tram uses both regular paper tickets and the electronic cards BAT, which also work for the TUVISA bus system. The TUVISA bus cards are also valid, the ticket pricing is not based on zone-based rules, as theres a unique price for the whole network. A simple ticket costs €1,25 or €0,66 as of 2012, Euskotren Tranbia operates with the Urbos series produced by the Basque company CAF. Each 25 m long tram can carry 192 people,50 of them seated, access to the trams is at platform level, making it easy for handicapped passengers to get on and off through the trams eight doors
6.
Museum
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Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
7.
Frank Gehry
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Frank Owen Gehry, CC is a Canadian-born American architect, residing in Los Angeles. A number of his buildings, including his private residence, have become world-renowned attractions and it was his private residence in Santa Monica, California, that jump-started his career. Gehry is also the designer of the future National Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial, Gehry was born Frank Owen Goldberg on February 28,1929, in Toronto, Ontario, to parents Sadie Thelma and Irving Goldberg. His father was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Russian Jewish parents, a creative child, he was encouraged by his grandmother, with whom he would build little cities out of scraps of wood. With these scraps from her husbands store, she entertained him for hours, building imaginary houses. His use of corrugated steel, chain link fencing, unpainted plywood and he would spend time drawing with his father, while his mother introduced him to the world of art. So the creative genes were there, Gehry says, but my father thought I was a dreamer, I wasnt gonna amount to anything. It was my mother who thought I was just reticent to do things and he was given the Hebrew name Ephraim by his grandfather, but only used it at his bar mitzvah. In 1947, his family immigrated to the United States settling in California, Gehry got a job driving a delivery truck, and studied at Los Angeles City College, eventually to graduate from the University of Southern Californias School of Architecture. During that time, he became a member of Alpha Epsilon Pi, according to Gehry, I was a truck driver in L. A. going to City College, and I tried radio announcing, which I wasnt very good at. I tried chemical engineering, which I wasnt very good at and didnt like and you know, somehow I just started wracking my brain about, What do I like. And I remembered art, that I loved going to museums and I loved looking at paintings and those things came from my mother, who took me to concerts and museums. I remembered Grandma and the blocks, and just on a hunch, Gehry graduated with a Bachelor of Architecture degree from USC in 1954. After graduating from college, he spent time away from the field of architecture in other jobs. In the fall of 1956, he moved his family to Cambridge and he left before completing the program, disheartened and underwhelmed. Gehry returned to Los Angeles to work for Victor Gruen Associates, in 1957 he was given the chance to design and construct his first private residence at the age of 28, with friend and old classmate Greg Walsh. Built in Idyllwild, California for his wife Anita’s family neighbor Melvin David, The David Cabin, completed in 1958, beams protrude from the exterior sides and exposed, unfinished ceiling beams are prominent features. In 1961, he moved to Paris where he worked for architects Pereira, in 1962, Gehry established a practice in Los Angeles which became Frank Gehry and Associates in 1967 and then Gehry Partners in 2001
8.
Basque Country (autonomous community)
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The Basque Country is an autonomous community of northern Spain. It includes the Basque provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa, the Basque Country or Basque Autonomous Community was granted the status of nationality within Spain, attributed by the Spanish Constitution of 1978. The term Basque Country may also refer to the cultural region, the home of the Basque people. The territory has three areas, which are defined by the two parallel ranges of the Basque Mountains. The main range of forms the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. The highest point of the range is in the Aizkorri massif, the three areas are, Formed by many valleys with short rivers that flow from the mountains to the Bay of Biscay, like the Nervión, Urola or Oria. The coast is rough, with cliffs and small inlets. The main features of the coast are the Bilbao Abra Bay and the Estuary of Bilbao, the Urdaibai estuary, between the two mountain ranges, the area is occupied mainly by a high plateau called Llanada Alavesa, where the capital Gasteiz is located. The rivers flow south from the mountains to the Ebro River, the main rivers are the Zadorra River and Bayas River. From the southern mountains to the Ebro is the so-called Rioja Alavesa, some of Spains production of Rioja wine takes place here. Precipitation average is about 1200 mm, the middle section is more influence by the continental climate, but with a varying degree of the northern oceanic climate. This gives warm, dry summers and cold, snowy winters, the Ebro valley has a pure continental climate, winters are cold and dry and summers very warm and dry, with precipitation peaking in spring and autumn. Precipitation is scarce and irregular, as low as 300 mm, almost half of the 2,155,546 inhabitants of the Basque Autonomous Community live in Greater Bilbao, Bilbaos metropolitan area. Of the ten most populous cities, six form part of Bilbaos conurbation, with 28. 2% of the Basque population born outside this region, immigration is crucial to Basque demographics. Over the 20th century most of this came from other parts of Spain, typically from Galicia or Castile. Over recent years, sizeable numbers of population have returned to their birthplaces and most immigration to the Basque country now comes from abroad. Roman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in Basque Country, bilbao-Bilbo Vitoria-Gasteiz San Sebastián-Donostia Barakaldo Getxo Irun Portugalete Santurtzi Basauri Errenteria Spanish and Basque are co-official in all territories of the autonomous community. The Basque-speaking areas in the autonomous community are set against the wider context of the Basque language, spoken to the east in Navarre
9.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
10.
Monarchy of Spain
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The Monarchy of Spain, constitutionally referred to as the Crown, is a constitutional institution and historic office of Spain. It used to be called the Hispanic Monarchy. The monarchy comprises the monarch, his or her family. The Spanish monarchy is represented by King Felipe VI, his wife Queen Letizia, and their daughters Leonor, Princess of Asturias, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 reestablished a constitutional monarchy as the form of government for Spain. The 1978 constitution affirmed the role of the King of Spain as the personification and embodiment of the Spanish State, constitutionally, the king is the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces. According to the constitution, the monarch is also instrumental in promoting relations with the nations of its historical community, the King of Spain serves as the president of the Ibero-American States Organization, purportedly representing over 700,000,000 people in twenty-four member nations worldwide. In 2008, Juan Carlos I was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America, a dynastic marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon united Spain in the 15th century. The last pretender of the Crown of the Byzantine Empire, Andreas Palaiologos, sold his title to Ferdinand II of Aragon. However, there is no evidence that any Spanish monarch has used the Byzantine imperial titles, the Spanish Empire became one of the first global powers as Isabella and Ferdinand funded Christopher Columbuss exploratory voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. This led to the discovery of America, which became the focus of Spanish colonization, in 2010, the budget for the Spanish monarchy was 7.4 million euros, one of the lowest public expenditures for the institution of monarchy in Europe. One of the earliest influential dynasties was the House of Jiménez which united much of Christian Iberia under its leadership in the 11th century. From Sancho III of Navarre until Urraca of León and Castile, the Jiménez rulers sought to bring their kingdoms into the European mainstream and often engaged in cross-Pyrenees alliances and marriages, and became patrons to Cluniac Reforms. Urracas son and heir Alfonso VII of León and Castile, the first of the Spanish branch of the Burgundy Family, was the last to claim the title of Spain. The Castilian Civil War ended with the death of King Peter at the hands of his illegitimate half-brother Henry, Henry II became the first of the House of Trastámara to rule over a Spanish kingdom. King Peters heiress, his granddaughter Catherine of Lancaster, married Henry III, reuniting the dynasties in the person of their son, each kingdom retained its basic structure. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs conquered the Kingdom of Granada in southern Spain and this date marks the unification of Spain. The territories of the Spanish empire overseas were dependencies of the crown of Castile, in the early 16th century, the Spanish monarchy controlled several territories in Europe under the Habsburg King Charles I, son of Queen Joanna of Castile. His reign ushered in the Spanish Golden Age a period of colonial expansion
11.
Juan Carlos I of Spain
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Juan Carlos I was King of Spain from 1975 until his abdication in 2014. Juan Carlos is the grandson of Alfonso XIII, the last king of Spain prior to the abolition in 1931. Juan Carlos was born in Rome, Italy, during his familys exile, Juan Carloss father, Don Juan, was the fourth child of Alfonso who had renounced his claims to the throne in January 1941. Don Juan was seen by Franco to be too liberal and in 1969, was bypassed in favour of Juan Carlos as Francos successor, Juan Carlos spent his early years in Italy and came to Spain in 1947 to continue his studies. After completing his education in 1955, he began his military training. Later, he attended the Naval Military School, the General Academy of the Air, in 1962, Juan Carlos married Princess Sophia of Greece in Athens, daughter of King Paul. The couple had two daughters and a son together, Elena, Cristina, and Felipe, due to Francos declining health, Juan Carlos first began periodically acting as Spains head of state in the summer of 1974. Expected to continue Francos legacy, soon after his accession, Juan Carlos, however, introduced reforms to dismantle the Francoist regime and this led to the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 in a referendum, which re-established a constitutional monarchy. In 1981, Juan Carlos played a role in preventing a coup that attempted to revert Spain to Francoist government in the Kings name. In 2008, he was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America, in 2014, Juan Carlos, citing personal reasons, abdicated in favour of his son, who acceded the throne as Felipe VI. He was baptized as Juan Carlos Alfonso Víctor María de Borbón y Borbón-Dos Sicilias and he was given the name Juan Carlos after his father and maternal grandfather, Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. His early life was dictated largely by the concerns of his father. He moved to Spain in 1948 to be educated there after his father persuaded Franco to allow it and he began his studies in San Sebastián and finished them in 1954 at the San Isidro Institute in Madrid. He then joined the army, doing his officer training from 1955 to 1957 at the Military Academy of Zaragoza, Juan Carlos has two sisters, Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz, and Infanta Margarita, Duchess of Soria. He also had a brother, Alfonso. On the evening of Holy Thursday,29 March 1956, Juan Carloss younger brother Alfonso died in a gun accident at the familys home Villa Giralda in Estoril, Portugal. The accident took place at 20.30 hours, after the Infantes return from the Maundy Thursday religious service and it is alleged that Juan Carlos began playing with a gun that had apparently been given to Alfonso by General Franco. Rumors appeared in newspapers that the gun had actually held by Juan Carlos at the moment the shot was fired
12.
Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation
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The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation is a nonprofit organization founded in 1937 by philanthropist Solomon R. Guggenheim and his long-time art advisor, artist Hilla von Rebay. The foundation is an institution for the collection, preservation. The first museum established by the foundation was The Museum of Non-Objective Painting and this became The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 1952, and the foundation moved the collection into its first permanent museum building, in New York City, in 1959. The foundation next opened the Peggy Guggenheim Collection in Venice, Italy, the Foundation seeks, in its constituent museums, to unite distinguished architecture and artworks. The foundations first permanent museum, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, is housed in a spiral building designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Both of these innovative designs received wide press and critical attention, the Peggy Guggenheim Collection is housed in an 18th-century Italian palace, the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni, on the Grand Canal. The foundations collections have expanded greatly through eight decades and include every major movement of 20th- and its directors and curators have attempted to form a single collection that is not encyclopedic, but rather based on their unique visions. The collection has grown in scope to include new media and performance art, Solomon R. Guggenheim, a member of a wealthy mining family, began collecting works of the old masters in the 1890s. He retired from his business in 1919 to devote time to art collecting. In 1926, at age 66, he met artist Hilla von Rebay, Rebay introduced him to European avant-garde art, in particular abstract art that she felt had a spiritual and utopian aspect. Guggenheim completely changed his collecting strategy, in 1930, the two visited Wassily Kandinskys studio in Dessau, Germany, and Guggenheim began to purchase Kandinskys work. The same year, Guggenheim began to display the collection to the public at his apartment in the Plaza Hotel in New York City, in 1937, Guggenheim established the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation to foster the appreciation of modern art. The foundations first venue for the display of art was called the Museum of Non-Objective Painting and it opened in 1939 under the direction of Rebay, its first curator, in a former automobile showroom at East 54th Street in midtown Manhattan. This moved, in 1947, to another rented space at 1071 Fifth Avenue, by the early 1940s, the foundation had accumulated such a large collection of avant-garde paintings that the need for a permanent building to house the art collection had become apparent. In 1943, Guggenheim and Rebay commissioned architect Frank Lloyd Wright to design the museum building, Rebay conceived of the space as a temple of the spirit that would facilitate a new way of looking at the modern pieces in the collection. In 1948, the collection was expanded through the purchase of art dealer Karl Nierendorfs estate of some 730 objects. By that time, the collection included a broad spectrum of expressionist and surrealist works, including paintings by Paul Klee, Oskar Kokoschka. Guggenheim died in 1949, and the museum was renamed the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 1952, the foundation expanded its display activities with a series of traveling exhibitions
13.
Contemporary architecture
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Contemporary architecture is the architecture of the 21st century. Contemporary buildings are designed to be noticed and to astonish, Some feature concrete structures wrapped in glass or aluminum screens, very asymmetric facades, and cantilevered sections which hang over the street. Skyscrapers twist, or break into crystal-like facets, facades are designed to shimmer or change color at different times of day. Most of the landmarks of contemporary architecture are the works of a group of architects who work on an international scale. Some of the most striking and innovative works of architecture are art museums, which are often examples of sculptural architecture. The Quadracci Pavilion of the Milwaukee Art Museum in Milwaukee, Wisconsin was designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. Its structure includes a movable, wing-like brise soleil that opens up for a wingspan of 217 feet during the day, folding over the tall and it also harmonizes with two stone churches opposite. Inside, the walls of the galleries are all different, sloping, Libeskind completed another striking museum, the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, also known as The Crystal, a building whose form, resembles a shattered crystal. Libeskinds museums have been admired and attacked by critics. The De Young Museum in San Francisco was designed by the Swiss architects Herzog & de Meuron and it opened in 2005, replacing an older structure that was badly damaged in an earthquake in 1989. The new museum was designed to blend with the landscape of the park. The building can move up to three feet on ball-bearing sliding plates and viscous fluid dampers that absorb kinetic energy, the Zentrum Paul Klee by Renzo Piano is an art museum near Berne Switzerland located next to an autoroute in the Swiss countryside. The museum blends into the landscape by taking the form of three rolling hills, made of steel and glass, one building houses the gallery while the other two hills contain an education center and administrative offices. The roofs geometry is irregular, featuring curves and counter-curves over the entire building, the entire wooden structure is covered with a white fibreglass membrane and a coating of teflon, which protects from direct sunlight, but allows light to pass through. The Louis Vuitton Foundation by Frank Gehry is gallery of art located adjacent to the Bois de Boulogne in Paris was opened in October 2014. Gehry had to work within strict height and volume restrictions, which required any part of the building two stories to be made of glass. Because of the limits, the building is low, sited in an artificial lake with water cascading beneath the building. The interior gallery structures are covered in a white fiber-reinforced concrete called Ductal, similar in concept to Gehrys Walt Disney Concert Hall, the building is wrapped in curving glass panels resembling sails inflated by the wind
14.
Ferrovial
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It is a publicly traded company and is part of the IBEX35 capitalization-weighted stock market index. The company is headquartered in Madrid, the company was founded by Rafael del Pino y Moreno in 1952 as a railroad construction company called Ferrovial, from the Spanish word for railroad. Joaquín Ayuso was appointed CEO of the Ferrovial group in January 2002, in June 2002, Ferrovial acquired the concession for Sydney airport, the largest airport in Australia. In 2006, a Ferrovial-led consortium purchased the British company BAA Limited, for £10bn and BAA sold its stake in Bristol airport to Macquarie Airports. Then in 2007, Ferrovial finalised the sale of its stake in Sydney Airport, also in 2007 Ferrovial sold Budapest Airport to a consortium led by Hochtief AirPort GmbH for £1. 3bn and announced changes in its corporate structure. Iñigo Meirás, former Head of the Services Division, was appointed CEO of the new Airports Division, Santiago Olivares, who was head of the international area of the Services division and CEO of the handling subsidiary, Swissport, was appointed CEO of Ferrovial Servicios. Enrique Díaz Rato, then CEO of Cintra, was appointed to head the Toll Roads & Car Parks Division, at the end of the year BAA finalised the sale of its stakes in 6 Australian airports to Hastings Fund Management Limited for approx. In 2008, BAA sold World Duty Free Europe to Autogrill for £546. 5m, later in the year Ferrovial appointed Íñigo Meirás as the new CEO, relieving Joaquín Ayuso who was subsequently named Vice-Chairman of the group. In 2012 BAA sold Edinburgh Airport to Global Infrastructure Partners for £807m, Ferrovial also announced the sale of a 10% stake in the parent company of Heathrow Airport Holdings Ltd to Qatar Holding LLC for £478m. Following this sale Ferrovial now has an indirect interest in Heathrow of 33. 65%, on 19 January 2013, Heathrow Airport Holdings announced the sale of Stansted Airport for £1. Ferrovial owns 50% stake in AGS Airports Ltd, Ferrovial owns 100% of Cintra, a leading international toll road and car park operator. W. Webber, the Texan construction company Ferrovial owns 59. 06% of Budimex, major construction projects undertaken by Ferrovial include the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao completed in 1997 and Terminal 4 at Madrid–Barajas Airport completed in 2006. Ferrovial is one of the sponsors for the much talked about M3 motorway being built in Ireland, in March 2010, Ferrovial Agroman was awarded a design and build contract to build Heathrow Airports new T2A Terminal for £812m in joint venture with UK construction company Laing ORourke
15.
Thomas Krens
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From the beginning of his work at the Guggenheim, Krens promised, and delivered, great change, and was frequently in the spotlight, often as a figure of controversy. Krens spearheaded spectacular exhibitions such as The Art of the Motorcycle and ambitious shows covering the art of entire countries, including China, as director, Krens increased the Guggenheim’s endowment from US$20 million to US$118 million. Krens graduated from Williams College in 1969 with a degree in political science, after earning a masters degree in studio art from SUNY Albany in 1971, he returned to Williams to teach printmaking and was appointed director of the Williams College Museum of Art in 1980. During this time, Krens earned an M. B. A. from Yale University, in 1986, he was made consultant for the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York, and two years later became director of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation. The 90s were a period of expansion of museums across the US, not only the Guggenheim. Krens was at the forefront of movement, and became a high-profile figure in the world of art museums, corporate and foundation philanthropy. On the subject of branding the Guggenheim, Krens said, A good brand becomes an article of faith among a consumer audience. If you buy a BMW or a Mercedes, or stay at a Four Seasons hotel or go the Louvre, you can be pretty much guaranteed a quality experience. During his tenure, Krens has increased the Guggenheim’s endowment to $118 million from $20 million, moreover, under his leadership the Guggenheim organized major retrospectives of Claes Oldenburg, James Rosenquist, Roy Lichtenstein, Ellsworth Kelly, Roni Horn, Richard Prince, and Matthew Barney. In 1989, Krens negotiated a gift of Impressionist paintings from the widow of Justin K and these works later became part of the Guggenheim’s collection. In Bilbao, Krens led a program that has included major installations of works by Richard Serra, Koons, Jenny Holzer. He also has doubled the size of the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, krenss conception came to fruition when the site became the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art in 1999. He was not discouraged by those that did not get off the ground, Krens pointed out that the Guggenheim and many museums already had more objects in storage than they could hope to display, and spreading them geographically is a good solution. The Guggenheim in 1992 had space to display at one time 3% of its 6,000 works, the strategy pursued, radical in the eyes of traditionalists, consisted of new construction and renovation, financed by bonds, and franchising by building satellite institutions around the world. Krens denied that deaccessioning was a policy as well, though he was accused of treating the museums collection of masterpieces as mere assets, the success of the Guggenheim Bilbao expansion was credited to Krens tenacity and salesmanship, and was a major victory for him. As of 2006 the Guggenheim museums worldwide had received a steady 2.5 million visitors a year for the prior 4–5 years, part of the strategy of international expansion was for host country governments to bear the costs, benefiting from prestige and tourist income. Krens pointed out that the works acquired were no longer considered contemporary, but rather classics, Krens has been the subject of criticism, both for his businesslike style and the way he changed museums, in particular the showmanship, populism and commercialization involved. Krens denied seeking to become a figure, and said his media reputation is the result of mostly inaccurate caricatures
16.
Deconstructivism
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Deconstructivism is a movement of postmodern architecture which appeared in the 1980s, which gives the impression of the fragmentation of the constructed building. It is characterized by an absence of harmony, continuity, or symmetry and its name comes from the idea of Deconstruction, a form of semiotic analysis developed by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Architects whose work is described as deconstructionism include Peter Eisenman, Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, Rem Koolhaas, Daniel Libeskind, Bernard Tschumi. Besides fragmentation, Deconstructivism often manipulates the structures surface skin and creates by non-rectilinear shapes which appear to distort, the finished visual appearance is characterized by unpredictability and controlled chaos. The New York exhibition featured works by Frank Gehry, Daniel Libeskind, Rem Koolhaas, Peter Eisenman, Zaha Hadid, Coop Himmelbau, since the exhibition, some architects associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from it. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture, Tschumi believed that Deconstructivism was simply a move against the practice of Postmodernism, which he said involved making doric temple forms out of plywood. The term Deconstructivism in contemporary architecture is opposed to the rationality of Modernism and Postmodernism. Though postmodernist and nascent deconstructivist architects both published in the journal Oppositions, that journals contents mark a break between the two movements. Deconstructivism took a stance to architectural history, wanting to disassemble architecture. In addition to Oppositions, a text for both deconstructivism and postmodernism was Robert Venturis Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. It argues against the purity, clarity and simplicity of modernism, with its publication, functionalism and rationalism, the two main branches of modernism, were overturned as paradigms. The reading of the postmodernist Venturi was that ornament and historical allusion added a richness to architecture that modernism had foregone, some Postmodern architects endeavored to reapply ornament even to economical and minimal buildings, described by Venturi as the decorated shed. Rationalism of design was dismissed but the functionalism of the building was still somewhat intact and this is close to the thesis of Venturis next major work, that signs and ornament can be applied to a pragmatic architecture, and instill the philosophic complexities of semiology. The deconstructivist reading of Complexity and Contradiction is quite different, the basic building was the subject of problematics and intricacies in deconstructivism, with no detachment for ornament. Rather than separating ornament and function, like such as Venturi. This subverts the functional aspects of modernist simplicity while taking modernism, particularly the style, of which its white stucco skin is reminiscent. Another example of the deconstructivist reading of Complexity and Contradiction is Peter Eisenmans Wexner Center for the Arts, the Wexner Center takes the archetypal form of the castle, which it then imbues with complexity in a series of cuts and fragmentations. A three-dimensional grid, runs somewhat arbitrarily through the building, the grid, as a reference to modernism, of which it is an accoutrement, collides with the medieval antiquity of a castle
17.
Philip Johnson
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In 1978 he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and in 1979 the first Pritzker Architecture Prize. Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio on July 8,1906 and he was descended from the Jansen family of New Amsterdam, and included among his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out the first town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. In 1928 he met Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting formed the basis for a relationship of both collaboration and competition In 1930, Johnson joined the architecture department of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. There he arranged for American visits by Gropius and Le Corbusier, in 1932, working with Hitchcock and Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, he organized the first exhibition on Modern architecture at the Museum of Modern Art in 1932. The show and their published book International Style, Modern Architecture Since 1922 played an important part in introducing modern architecture to the American public. When the rise of the Nazis in Germany forced the modernists Marcel Breuer and Mies van der Rohe to leave Germany, in 1936, in the depths of the Great Depression, he left the Museum of Modern Art for a brief venture into journalism and politics. In his 1994 biography of Johnson, Schultze wrote, In politics he proved to be a model of futility and he was never much of a political threat to anyone, still less an effective doer of either political good or political evil. In 1941, at the age of 35, Johnson abandoned politics and journalism and enrolled in the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in 1941, Johnson designed and actually built his first building, a house still existing at 9 Ash Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The house, strongly influenced by Mies van der Rohe, has a wall around the lot which merges with the structure, after the United States entered World War II in December 1941, Johnson enlisted in the Army. He spent his service during the war in the United States. In 1946, after he completed his service, Johnson returned to the Museum of Modern Art as a curator. At the same time, he began working to establish his architectural practice and he built a small house, in th style of Mies, in Saaponack, Long Island in 1946. This was followed by one of this most famous buildings, which he built for himself, the Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, completed in 1949, which has become a landmark of modern architecture. Johnson had curated an exhibit of Mies van der Rohes at the Museum of Modern Art in 1947, the house is a 56 foot by 32 foot glass rectangle, sited at the edge of a crest on Johnsons estate overlooking a pond. The buildings sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel, the floor, of brick, is not flush with the ground, the interior is an open space divided by low walnut cabinets, a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling. The New York Times described it in 2005 as one of the 20th centurys greatest residential structures, Johnson continued to add to the Glass House estate during each period of his career. After completing the Glass House, he completed two more houses in New Canaan in a similar to that of Mies, the Hodgson House
18.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
19.
Richard Serra
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Richard Serra is an American minimalist sculptor and video artist known for working with large-scale assemblies of sheet metal. Serra was involved in the Process Art Movement and he lives and works in Tribeca, New York, and on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia. Serra was born on November 2,1938, in San Francisco as the second of three sons and his father, Tony, was a Spanish native of Mallorca who worked as candy factory foreman. His mother, Gladys Feinberg, was a Los Angeles-born Russian Jewish immigrant from Odessa. He went on to study English literature at the University of California, Berkeley in 1957 before transferring to the University of California, Santa Barbara, while at Santa Barbara, he studied art with Howard Warshaw and Rico Lebrun. On the West Coast, he helped himself by working in steel mills. Serra discussed his life and influences in an interview in 1993. ”Serra studied painting in the M. F. A. program at the Yale University School of Art. Fellow Yale Art and Architecture alumni of the 1960s include the painters, photographers and he claims to have taken most of his inspiration from the artists who taught there, most notably Philip Guston and the experimental composer Morton Feldman, as well as designer Josef Albers. With Albers, he worked on his book Interaction of Color and he continued his training abroad, spending a year each in Florence and Paris. In 1964, he was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship for Rome, since then, he has lived in New York, where he first used rubber in 1966 and began applying his characteristic work material lead in 1968. In New York, his circle of friends included Carl Andre, Walter De Maria, Eva Hesse, Sol LeWitt, and Robert Smithson. At one point, to fund his art, Serra started a business, Low-Rate Movers, and employed Chuck Close, Philip Glass, Spalding Gray. In 1966, Serra made his first sculptures out of materials such as fiberglass. Serras earliest work was abstract and process-based made from molten lead hurled in large splashes against the wall of a studio or exhibition space. He began in 1969 to be concerned with the cutting, propping or stacking of lead sheets, rough timber, etc. to create structures, some very large. His “Prop” pieces from the late 1960s are arranged so that weight and gravity balance lead rolls, cutting Device, Base Plate Measure consists of an assemblage of heterogeneous materials into which two parallel cuts have been made and the results strewn around in a chance configuration. In Malmo Role, a steel plate, one and a half inches thick. Still, he is known for his minimalist constructions from large rolls
20.
Harvard Design Magazine
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Harvard Design Magazine is a biannual publication of the Harvard Graduate School of Design. It is indexed by the standard subject bibliographies, including Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, Bibliography of the History of Art, Harvard Design Magazine is a registered nonprofit organization. Harvard Design Magazine was founded in 1997 by former editor William S. Saunders, in 2013, Jennifer Sigler became the magazines Editor in Chief, together with Leah Whitman-Salkin, Deputy Editor, and Meghan Ryan Sandberg, Publications Coordinator. In 2014, the magazine was redesigned, with Jiminie Ha as creative director, the magazine probes beyond the established design disciplines to enrich and diversify current discourse. Distinguished and unexpected voices from the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, and urban planning meet those from the realms of art, science, Harvard Design Magazine has been published since 1997. Its past issues, as listed below, are available for sale, Number 43, Shelf Life Number 42, Run for Cover. Number 41, Family Planning Number 40, Well, Well, Well Number 39, Wet Matter Number 38, Number 34, Architectures of Latin America Number 33, Design Practices Now, Vol. II Number 32, Design Practices Now, Vol. I Number 31, + Pleasure, Vol. II, Landscapes, Urbanism, Number 28, Can Designers Improve Life in Non-Formal Cities. Number 21, Rising Ambitions, Expanding Terrain, Realism and Utopianism Number 20, Stocktaking 2004, Nine Questions about the Present and Future of Design Number 19, blurring Disciplinary Boundaries Number 18, Building Natures Ruin. Realities, Illusions, and Efficacy of Nature-Sustaining Design Number 17, Design, commodification, Collaboration, and Resistance Number 16, HARD/soft, Cool/WARM. Gender in Design, plus Classic Books part II Number 15, Five Houses, plus American Scenes Number 14, Number 13, East of Berlin, Postcommunist Cities Now Number 12, Sprawl and Spectacle Number 11, Design and Class Number 10, What is Nature Now
21.
Organization of the artist
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Gehry enforces this organizational set-up when his designs are being built to avoid subordination of the design creator and to manage the project effectively. The heart of the organization of the artist is to ensure that the design of the artist is actually built and not some compromise decided by political. Gehry initially developed the concept of the organization of the artist as a reaction against what he calls the marginalization of the artist, the organization of the artist thus serves the dual purpose of artistic freedom and economic prudence. In other projects, Gehry has been successful in enforcing the organization of the artist. The integrity of Gehrys design was preserved only by the Disney family stepping in and demanding that Gehry stay on, the organization of the artist is particularly relevant to organizations that place innovation and innovators at the core of their business model. Apple Inc. and Pixar are such organizations and they are organized according to versions of the organization of the artist. Former Apple CEO Steve Jobs explicitly celebrated the ideas of Frank Gehry in Apples Think Different campaign
22.
KLM
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KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, legally Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N. V. is the flag carrier airline of the Netherlands. KLM is headquartered in Amstelveen, with its hub at nearby Amsterdam Airport Schiphol and it is part of the Air France–KLM group, and is a member of the SkyTeam airline alliance. KLM was founded in 1919, it is the oldest airline in the still operating under its original name and had 32,505 employees as of 2013. KLM operates scheduled passenger and cargo services to approximately 130 destinations, in 1919, a young aviator lieutenant named Albert Plesman sponsored the ELTA aviation exhibition in Amsterdam. The exhibition was a success, after it closed several Dutch commercial interests intended to establish a Dutch airline. In September 1919, Queen Wilhelmina awarded the yet-to-be-founded KLM its Royal predicate, Plesman became its first administrator and director. The first KLM flight took place on 17 May 1920, KLMs first pilot, Jerry Shaw, flew from Croydon Airport, London, to Amsterdam. The flight was using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel De Haviland DH-16, registration G-EALU. In 1920, KLM carried 440 passengers and 22 tons of freight, in April 1921, after a winter hiatus, KLM resumed its services using its own pilots, and Fokker F. II and Fokker F. III aircraft. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services, KLMs first intercontinental flight took off on 1 October 1924. The final destination was Jakarta, Java, in the Dutch East Indies, in September 1929, regular scheduled services between Amsterdam and Batavia commenced. Until the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, this was the worlds longest-distance scheduled service by airplane. By 1926, it was offering flights to Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Brussels, Paris, London, Bremen, Copenhagen, in 1930, KLM carried 15,143 passengers. The Douglas DC-2 was introduced on the Batavia service in 1934, the first experimental transatlantic KLM flight was between Amsterdam and Curaçao in December 1934 using the Fokker F. XVIII Snip. The first of the airlines Douglas DC-3 aircraft were delivered in 1936, KLM was the first airline to serve Manchesters new Ringway airport, starting June 1938. When Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, a number of KLM aircraft—mostly DC-3s, five DC-3s and one DC-2 were taken to England. During the war, these aircraft and crew members flew scheduled flights between Bristol and Lisbon under BOAC registration. Some KLM aircraft and their crews ended up in the Australia-Dutch East Indies region, after the end of the Second World War in August 1945, KLM immediately started to rebuild its network
23.
Cubism
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Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Other common threads between these movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization. Cubism began between 1907 and 1911, Pablo Picassos 1907 painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braques 1908 Houses at L’Estaque prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques, Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, english art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Douglas Coopers restrictive use of terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed, wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the Salle 41 artists, e. g. John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram, The diagram being a symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as not as imitations or recreations. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian, artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. Picassos paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as seen in Les Demoiselles dAvignon
24.
Willem de Kooning
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Willem de Kooning was a Dutch-American abstract expressionist artist who was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, and moved to New York in 1927. Willem de Kooning was born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, on April 24,1904 and his parents, Leendert de Kooning and Cornelia Nobel, were divorced in 1907, and de Kooning lived first with his father and then with his mother. He left school in 1916 and became an apprentice in a firm of commercial artists, until 1924 he attended evening classes at the Academie van Beeldende Kunsten en Technische Wetenschappen, now the Willem de Kooning Academie. In 1926 de Kooning travelled to the United States as a stowaway on the Shelley, a British freighter bound for Argentina and he stayed at the Dutch Seamens Home in Hoboken, New Jersey, and found work as a house-painter. In 1927 he moved to Manhattan, where he had a studio on West Forty-fourth Street and he supported himself with jobs in carpentry, house-painting and commercial art. De Kooning began painting in his time and in 1928 he joined the art colony at Woodstock. He also began to some of the modernist artists active in Manhattan. None of them were executed, but a sketch for one was included in New Horizons in American Art at the Museum of Modern Art, De Kooning met his wife, Elaine Fried, at the American Artists School in New York. She was 14 years his junior, thus was to begin a lifelong partnership affected by alcoholism, lack of money, love affairs, quarrels and separations. They were married on December 9,1943, at this time, de Koonings work borrowed strongly from Gorkys surrealist imagery and was influenced by Picasso. This only changed when de Kooning met the younger painter Franz Kline, Kline died young and he was one of de Koonings closest artist friends. Klines influence is evident in de Koonings calligraphic black images of this period, in the late 1950s, de Koonings work shifted away from the figurative work of the women and began to display an interest in more abstract, less representational imagery. He became a US citizen in 1961 and moved to East Hampton in 1963 and this became his primary residence and he remained there until the end of his life. On Long Island de Kooning, in addition to his painting, inspired in part by the work of Henry Moore, de Kooning created highly abstracted figurative sculpture very reminicent of his figurative paintings. It was revealed toward the end of his life that de Kooning began losing his memory in the late 1980s and had been suffering from Alzheimers disease for some time. This revelation has initiated considerable debate among scholars and critics about how responsible de Kooning was for the creation of his late work, succumbing to the progress of his disease, William de Kooning painted his final works in 1991. He passed away in 1997 at the age of 92, upon death William de Kooning was cremated. His final place of rest is publicly unknown, De Koonings paintings of the 1930s and early 1940s are abstract still-lifes characterised by geometric or biomorphic shapes and strong colours
25.
Mark Rothko
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Mark Rothko, born Markus Yakovlevich Rothkowitz, was an American painter of Russian Jewish descent. Although Rothko himself refused to adhere to any art movement, he is identified as an abstract expressionist. With Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning, he is one of the most famous postwar American artists, Mark Rothko was born in Dvinsk, Vitebsk Governorate, in the Russian Empire. His father, Jacob Rothkowitz, was a pharmacist and an intellectual who initially provided his children with a secular and political, rather than religious, according to Rothko, his pro-Marxist father was violently anti-religious. In an environment where Jews were often blamed for many of the evils that befell Russia, despite Jacob Rothkowitzs modest income, the family was highly educated, and Rothko was able to speak Russian, Yiddish, and Hebrew. Fearing that his sons were about to be drafted into the Imperial Russian Army. Markus remained in Russia, with his mother and elder sister Sonia and they arrived as immigrants, at Ellis Island, in late 1913. From that point, they crossed the country, to join Jacob, jacobs death, a few months later, from colon cancer, left the family without economic support. Sonia operated a cash register, while Markus worked in one of his uncles warehouses and his fathers death also led Rothko to sever his ties with religion. After he had mourned his fathers death for almost a year at a local synagogue, Markus had started school in the United States in 1913, quickly accelerating from third to fifth grade. In June 1921, he completed the level, with honors, at Lincoln High School in Portland. He learned his fourth language, English, and became a member of the Jewish community center. Like his father, Rothko was passionate about issues such as workers’ rights, at the time, Portland was the epicentre of revolutionary activity in the U. S. and the region where revolutionary syndicalist union Industrial Workers of the World, was strongest. He heard Emma Goldman speak on one of her West Coast activist lecture tours, with the onset of the Russian Revolution, Rothko organised debates about it. Despite the repressive political atmosphere, he wished to become a union organiser. Rothko received a scholarship to Yale, at the end of his freshman year in 1922, the scholarship was not renewed, and he worked as a waiter and delivery boy to support his studies. He found the Yale community to be elitist and racist, Rothko and a friend, Aaron Director, started a satirical magazine, The Yale Saturday Evening Pest, which lampooned the schools stuffy, bourgeois tone. In any event, Rothkos nature was more that of a man than a diligent pupil, One of his fellow students remembers that he hardly seemed to study
26.
Clyfford Still
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Still was born in 1904 in Grandin, North Dakota and spent his childhood in Spokane, Washington and Bow Island in southern Alberta, Canada. In 1925 he visited New York, briefly studying at the Art Students League and he attended Spokane University from 1926 to 1927 and returned in 1931 with a fellowship, graduating in 1933. That fall, he became a fellow, then faculty member at Washington State College. He spent the summers of 1934 and 1935 at the Trask Foundation in Saratoga Springs, in 1941 Still relocated to the San Francisco Bay area where he worked in various war industries while pursuing painting. He had his first solo exhibition at the San Francisco Museum of Art in 1943 and he taught at the Richmond Professional Institute, now Virginia Commonwealth University, from 1943 to 1945, then went to New York City. Mark Rothko, whom Still had met in California in 1943, introduced him to Peggy Guggenheim, the following year Guggenheim closed her gallery and Still, along with Rothko and other Abstract Expressionists, joined the Betty Parsons gallery. Still returned to San Francisco, where he became an influential professor at the California School of Fine Arts. He lived in New York for most of the 1950s, the height of Abstract Expressionism, in the early 1950s, Still severed ties with commercial galleries. In 1961 he moved to a 22-acre farm near Westminster, Maryland, Still used a barn on the property as a studio during the warm weather months. In 1966, Still and his wife purchased a 4, 300-square-foot house at 312 Church Street in New Windsor, Maryland, about eight miles from their farm. Still married Lillian August Battan in about 1930 and they had two daughters born in 1939 and 1942. The couple separated in the late 1940s and divorced in 1954, in 1957 he married Patricia Alice Garske, who had been one of his students at Washington State and was 16 years his junior. Unlike Mark Rothko or Barnett Newman, who organized their colors in a simple way. His jagged flashes of color give the impression that one layer of color has been torn off the painting, revealing the colors underneath. By 1947, he had begun working in the format that he would intensify, among Stills well known paintings is 1957-D No. 1,1957, which is black and yellow with patches of white. These four colors, and variations on them are predominant in his work, in 1943, Stills first solo show took place at the San Francisco Museum of Art. In 1947, Jermayne MacAgy, Assistant Director of the California Palace of the Legion of Honor, the artist then declined all public exhibitions from 1952 to 1959
27.
Francesco Clemente
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Francesco Clemente is an Italian contemporary artist. He has lived at times in Italy, in India. Some of his work is influenced by the art and culture of India. He has worked in artistic media including drawing, fresco, graphics, mosaic, oils. Clemente was born in 1952 in Naples, in Campania in southern Italy, in 1970 he enrolled in the faculty of architecture of the Sapienza, the university of Rome, but did not complete a degree there. Boetti, who was ten years older, became both a friend and a mentor, in 1974 they visited Afghanistan together, with Ontani, Clemente gave performances at the Galleria LAttico. His work is varied, embracing different mediums and cultures In the 1970s he moved from photography to drawing. In the 1980s he divided his time between India and New York, in an interview with The Brooklyn Rail, Clemente commented these poets had been looking at the East for inspiration and I was also anxious to evade the materialism of the West. In the 1990s Clemente explored erotic imagery, inspired by the Tantra traditions both of India and Tibet, in the 2000s Clemente underwent a darker and grotesque phase, returning in recent years to images of repose and transformation. Since the 1980s until today, Clemente has also chronicled New York intellectual and social life through portraits, Clementes art has been presented in solo and group shows internationally. Retrospectives have been held in the 1990s at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, at The Royal Academy in London, at the Centre Pompidou, Paris and at the Sezon Museum of Art, Tokyo. Clementes art was featured in 1999-2000 at the Solomon R Guggenheim Museum, New York. In the 2000s retrospectives were held at the Irish Museum of Modern Art in Dublin, at the Museo MADRE, Naples and at the Schirn Kunsthalle, an exhibition of self-portraits and of Clementes own version of the Tarot Cards was held at the Uffizi Gallery, Florence in 2011. The artist is represented by Bruno Bischofberger in Switzerland, BlainSouthern in London. Clementes work is featured in the 1998 movie, Great Expectations, Francesco Clemente is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Royal Academy of Arts, London, the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, amazon ISBN9783777445212 Clemente, Francesco, Hollein, Max and Walcott, Derek. Barnes and Noble ISBN9783869842257 Danto, C, Barnes and Noble ISBN9788881586981 Clemente, Francesco, Walcott, Derek. Barnes and Noble ISBN9788881587452 Clemente, Francesco, Danto, Arthur, Barnes and Noble ISBN9788881587957 Jain, Jyotindra
28.
Anselm Kiefer
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Anselm Kiefer is a German painter and sculptor. He studied with Joseph Beuys and Peter Dreher during the 1970s and his works incorporate materials such as straw, ash, clay, lead, and shellac. The poems of Paul Celan have played a role in developing Kiefers themes of German history, in his entire body of work, Kiefer argues with the past and addresses taboo and controversial issues from recent history. Themes from Nazi rule are particularly reflected in his work, for instance and it is also characteristic of his work to find signatures and/or names of people of historical importance, legendary figures or historical places. All of these are encoded sigils through which Kiefer seeks to process the past, Kiefer has lived and worked in France since 1992. Since 2008, he has lived and worked primarily in Paris, the son of a German art teacher, Kiefer was born in Donaueschingen two months before the end of World War II. In 1951, his family moved to Ottersdorf, and he attended school in Rastatt. He entered University of Freiburg, and studied pre-Law and Romance languages, however, after 3 semesters he switched to Art, studying at Art academies in Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and Düsseldorf. In Karlsruhe, he studied under Peter Dreher, an important realist and he received an Art degree in 1969. Kiefer moved to Dusseldorf in 1970, in 1971 he moved to Hornbach, in southwestern Germany, where he established a studio. He remained there until 1992, his output during this first creative time is known at The German Years, in 1992 he relocated to France. In 1969, at Galerie am Kaiserplatz, Karlsruhe, he presented his first single exhibition Besetzungen with a series of photographs about controversial political actions, by 1970, while studying informally under Joseph Beuys at Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, his stylistic leanings resembled Georg Baselitzs approach. He worked with glass, straw, wood and plant parts, the fragility of his work contrasts with the stark subject matter in his paintings. This use of materials to express ideas was influenced by Beuys. It is also typical of the Neo-Expressionist style, Kiefer returned to the area of his birthplace in 1971. In the years followed, he incorporated German mythology in particular in his work. He went on extended journeys throughout Europe, the USA and the Middle East, besides paintings, Kiefer created sculptures, watercolors, woodcuts, and photographs. Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, Kiefer made numerous paintings, watercolors, woodcuts, in the early 1980s, he created more than thirty paintings, painted photographs, and watercolors that refer in their titles and inscriptions to the Romanian Jewish writer Paul Celans poem Todesfuge
29.
Jenny Holzer
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Jenny Holzer is an American neo-conceptual artist, based in Hoosick Falls, New York. The main focus of her work is the delivery of words, Holzer belongs to the feminist branch of a generation of artists that emerged around 1980, looking for new ways to make narrative or commentary an implicit part of visual objects. Her contemporaries include Barbara Kruger, Cindy Sherman, Sarah Charlesworth, the public dimension is integral to Holzers work. Her large-scale installations have included advertising billboards, projections on buildings and other architectural structures, text-based light projections have been central to Holzer’s practice since 1996. As of 2010, her LED signs have become more sculptural, Holzer is no longer the author of her texts, and in the ensuing years, she returned to her roots by painting. In 1974, Holzer took summer courses at the Rhode Island School of Design and she moved to Manhattan in 1976, joined the Whitney Museums independent study program and began her first work with language, installation and public art. She also was an member of the artists group Colab. Holzers initial public works, Truisms, are among her best-known and they first appeared as anonymous broadsheets that she printed in black italic script on white paper and wheat-pasted to buildings, walls and fences in and around Manhattan. These one-liners are a distillation of a reading list from the Whitney Independent Study Program. She printed other Truisms on posters, T-shirts and stickers, in late 1980, Holzers mail art and street leaflets were included in the exhibition Social Strategies by Women Artists at Londons Institute of Contemporary Arts, curated by Lucy Lippard. In 1981, Holzer initiated the Living series, printed on aluminum and bronze plaques, the Living series addressed the necessities of daily life, eating, breathing, sleeping, and human relationships. Sponsored by the Public Art Fund program, the use of light-emitting diodes allowed Holzer to reach a larger audience, the texts in her subsequent Survival series, compiled in 1983-85, speak to the great pain, delight, and ridiculousness of living in contemporary society. Continuing this practice, her installation at the Guggenheim Museum in 1989 featured a 163-meter-long sign forming a continuous circle spiraling up a parapet wall, in 1989, Holzer became the first female artist chosen to represent the United States at the Venice Biennale in Italy. The installation, Mother and Child, won Holzer the Leone DOro for best pavilion, the original installation is retained in its entirety in the collection of the Albright-Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo, the organizing institution for the American Pavilion at the 1990 Biennale. As of 2010, Holzers work has focused on government documents, concerning Iraq. Using texts from a different context, more recent projects have involved the use of redacted government documents. Her main concern is to enlighten, bringing to light something thought in silence, Living Series, using monumental media such as bronze plaques and billboards. Under a Rock, a series juxtaposing electronic messages with poetic phrases etched on stone benches, laments, a multi-media installation at the Dia Art Foundation featuring 13 stone sarcophagi
30.
Chinese culture
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Chinese culture is one of the worlds oldest cultures, tracing back to thousands of years ago. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a geographical region in eastern Asia with customs. Important components of Chinese culture include ceramics, architecture, music, literature, martial arts, cuisine, visual arts, philosophy, there are 56 officially labelled ethnic groups in China. In terms of numbers however, Han Chinese is by far the largest group, throughout history, many groups have merged into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared. At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic, the term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the family name and they were located on the Yellow and Yangtze River. Traditional Chinese Culture covers large geographical territories, where region is usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Each region is represented by three ancestral items. For example, Guangdong is represented by chenpi, aged ginger, others include ancient cities like Linan, which include tea leaf, bamboo shoot trunk, and hickory nut. Such distinctions give rise to the old Chinese proverb, 十里不同風, 百里不同俗/十里不同风, 百里不同俗, literally the praxis vary within ten li, since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of Chinese monarch has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society, conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials ranking high in the hierarchy, and the rest of the population under regular Chinese law. From the late Zhou Dynasty onwards, traditional Chinese society was organized into a system of socio-economic classes known as the four occupations. However, this system did not cover all groups while the distinctions between all groups became blurred ever since the commercialization of Chinese culture in the Song Dynasty. This led to the creation of a meritocracy, although success was only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics and those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. A major mythological structure developed around the topic of the mythology of the imperial exams, trades and crafts were usually taught by a shifu. The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women in the Han Dynasty and outlined the four women must abide to, while scholars such as Zhu Xi. Chinese marriage and Taoist sexual practices are some of the rituals, most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism
31.
Weathering steel
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U. S. Steel holds the registered trademark on the name COR-TEN. Although USS sold its discrete plate business to International Steel Group in 2003, it still sells COR-TEN branded material in strip-mill plate, the original COR-TEN received the standard designation A242 from the ASTM International standards group. Newer ASTM grades are A588 and A606 for thin sheet, all alloys are in common production and use. Weathering refers to the composition of these steels, allowing them to exhibit increased resistance to atmospheric corrosion compared to other steels. This is because the forms a protective layer on its surface under the influence of the weather. The corrosion-retarding effect of the layer is produced by the particular distribution and concentration of alloying elements in it. The layer protecting the surface develops and regenerates continuously when subjected to the influence of the weather, in other words, the steel is allowed to rust in order to form the protective coating. The mechanical properties of weathering steels depend on which alloy and how thick the material is. The original A242 alloy has a strength of 50 kilopounds per square inch. It has yield strength of 46 ksi and ultimate strength of 67 ksi for medium weight rolled shapes and plates from 0. 75–1 inch thick. The thickest rolled sections and plates – from 1. 5–4 in thick have yield strength of 42 ksi, a 588 has a yield strength of at least 50 ksi, and ultimate tensile strength of 70 ksi for all rolled shapes and plate thicknesses up to 4 in thick. It is very used in marine transportation, in the construction of intermodal containers as well as visible sheet piling along recently widened sections of Londons M25 motorway. The first use of weathering steel for architectural applications was the John Deere World Headquarters in Moline, the building was designed by architect Eero Saarinen, and completed in 1964. The main buildings of Odense University, designed by Knud Holscher and Jørgen Vesterholt and built 1971–1976, are clad in weathering steel, earning them the nickname Rustenborg. In 1977, Robert Indiana created a Hebrew version of the Love sculpture made from weathering steel using the four-letter word ahava for the Israel Museum Art Garden in Jerusalem, in Denmark, all masts for supporting the catenary on electrified railways are made of weathering steel for aesthetic reasons. Weathering steel was used in 1971 for the Highliner electric cars built by the St. Louis Car Company for Illinois Central Railroad, the use of weathering steel was seen as a cost-cutting move in comparison with the contemporary railcar standard of stainless steel. A subsequent order in 1979 was built to similar specs, including weathering steel bodies, the cars were painted, a standard practice for weathering steel railcars. The durability of weathering steel did not live up to expectations and these cars have been retired by 2016
32.
Avant-garde art
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The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
33.
Yves Klein
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Yves Klein was a French artist considered an important figure in post-war European art. He is the member of the French artistic movement of Nouveau réalisme founded in 1960 by art critic Pierre Restany. Klein was a pioneer in the development of art, and is seen as an inspiration to. Klein was born in Nice, in the Alpes-Maritimes department of France and his parents, Fred Klein and Marie Raymond, were both painters. From 1942 to 1946, Klein studied at the École Nationale de la Marine Marchande, at this time, he became friends with Arman and Claude Pascal and started to paint. During the years 1948 to 1952, he traveled to Italy, Great Britain, Spain, and Japan. In Japan, at the age of 25, he became a master at judo receiving the rank of yodan from the Kodokan and he also stayed in Japan in 1953. Klein later wrote a book on judo called Les Fondements du judo, in 1954, Klein settled permanently in Paris and began in earnest to establish himself in the art world. Parodying a traditional Catalogue raisonné, the featured a series of intense monochromes linked to various cities he had lived in during the previous years. Yves Peintures anticipated his first two shows of oil paintings, at the Club des Solitaires, Paris, October 1955 and Yves, Proposition monochromes at Gallery Colette Allendy, February 1956. From the reactions of the audience, realized that. viewers thought his various, uniformly colored canvases amounted to a new kind of bright, abstract interior decoration. Discovered with the help of Edouard Adam, a Parisian paint dealer, the optical effect retained the brilliance of the pigment which, Klein later deposited a Soleau envelope for this recipe to maintain the authenticity of the pure idea. This colour, reminiscent of the lapis lazuli used to paint the Madonnas robes in medieval paintings, was to become known as International Klein Blue, the paintings were attached to poles placed 20 cm away from the walls to increase their spatial ambiguities. The show was a critical and commercial success, traveling to Paris, Düsseldorf, the Parisian exhibition, at the Iris Clert Gallery in May 1957, became a seminal happening. To mark the opening,1001 blue balloons were released and blue postcards were sent out using IKB stamps that Klein had bribed the postal service to accept as legitimate, concurrently, an exhibition of tubs of blue pigment and fire paintings was held at Galerie Collette Allendy. Thanks to a publicity drive,3,000 people queued up. The art historian Olivier Berggruen situates Klein as one who strove for total liberation, Klein had studied judo in Japan between 1952 and 1954, and also displayed an interest in Zen Buddhism. Recently my work with color has led me, in spite of myself, to search little by little, with assistance, for the realization of matter
34.
David Hockney: A Bigger Picture
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David Hockney, A Bigger Picture was an exhibition at the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao from 15 May to 30 September 2012 of recent work of the English painter David Hockney. Consisting of paintings, collages and electronically produced art, the show took as its subject matter the East Riding of Yorkshire landscape. The exhibition in Bilbao came after a successful run earlier in the year at the Royal Academy of Arts, a London institution which collaborated with the Guggenheim to present the show. The Bilbao show was one of the most popular ever held at the museum, drawing over 296,000 visitors, since 1960, David Hockney has been making Pop-primitive paintings. They are considered whimsical and anti-nostalgic, as artistic trends favored at turns more conceptual or abstract work, Hockney steadfastly continued pursuing his interest in representational landscapes, albeit with a twist. He combined Cubism and cartooning, art historical tradition and the latest Apple product, the title of the show is inspired by an iconic Hockney works, 1967s A Bigger Splash. The exhibit included oil paintings, charcoal drawings, sketches, digital videos, the exhibit focused on natural development throughout the year. This was especially noted in the masterpiece, Spring’s Arrival in Wold Gate and it is noted for Hockney’s polychromatic style expressed in the diversity of colours. 51 paintings made and shown on iPads were displayed showing the transition from winter to summer on Woldgate in the East Riding of Yorkshire, using the app Brushes the artist replaced the traditional sketchbook with the digital medium. In addition to iPad Paintings, David Hockney also did collages to add detail to them. During the exhibition there were some related activities organized by the museum, these included a conference on the East Riding of Yorkshire’s landscapes, the conference was delivered by Edith Devaney, exhibitions commissioner, and explained and analyzed the main aspects of the displayed works. Devaney lectured on Hockney’s work with new technologies, especially the iPad, the workshop, led by Óscar Ciencia, showed how to work with an iPad, for artistic creation and graphic entertainment. The exhibition was one of the most popular in Spain in the summer of 2012 and it listed first in El Mundo’s list of 12 exhibitions to see that season. David Hockney exhibitions Guggenheim Museum Bilbao Royal Academy of Arts Guggenheim Museum Bilbaos page on the exhibition
35.
Jeff Koons
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He lives and works in both New York City and his hometown of York, Pennsylvania. His works have sold for substantial sums, including at least one world record price for a work by a living artist. Balloon Dog was one of the first of the Balloon dogs to be fabricated, critics are sharply divided in their views of Koons. Some view his work as pioneering and of major art-historical importance, others dismiss his work as kitsch, crass, and based on cynical self-merchandising. Koons has stated there are no hidden meanings in his works. Koons was born in York, Pennsylvania, to Henry and Gloria Koons and his father was a furniture dealer and interior decorator, his mother was a seamstress. When he was nine years old, his father would place old-master paintings copied and signed by his son in the window of his shop in an attempt to attract visitors, as a child he went door to door after school selling gift-wrapping paper and candy to earn pocket money. As a teenager he revered Salvador Dalí so much that he visited him at the St. Regis Hotel in New York City, Koons studied painting at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago and the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore. While a visiting student at the Art Institute, Koons met the artist Ed Paschke and he lived in Lakeview, and then in the Pilsen neighborhood at Halsted Street and 19th Street. After college, Koons moved to New York in 1977 and worked at the desk of the Museum of Modern Art while establishing himself as an artist. During this time, he dyed his hair red and would often cultivate a pencil mustache, in 1980, he got licensed to sell mutual funds and stocks and began working as a Wall Street commodities broker at First Investors Corporation. After a summer with his parents in Sarasota, Florida, he returned to New York and found a new career as a broker, first at Clayton Brokerage Company. He did this job when he encountered the problem of financing his first series, and I would always know that I didnt need the art market. Jeff Koons rose to prominence in the mid-1980s as part of a generation of artists who explored the meaning of art in a media-saturated era. He gained recognition in the 1980s and subsequently set up a studio in a SoHo loft on the corner of Houston Street. It was staffed with over 30 assistants, each assigned to a different aspect of producing his work—in a similar mode as Andy Warhols Factory. Today, he has a 1,500 m2 factory near the old Hudson rail yards in Chelsea, Koons developed a color-by-numbers system, so that each of his assistants could execute his canvases and sculptures as if they had been done by a single hand. I think art takes you outside yourself, takes you past yourself, I believe that my journey has really been to remove my own anxiety
36.
James Bond in film
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The James Bond film series is a British series of spy films based on the fictional character of MI6 agent James Bond,007, who originally appeared in a series of books by Ian Fleming. It is one of the longest continually-running film series in history, in that time Eon Productions has produced 24 films, most of them at Pinewood Studios. With a combined gross of over $7 billion to date, the produced by Eon constitute the fourth-highest-grossing film series. Six actors have portrayed 007 in the Eon series, the latest being Daniel Craig, Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman co-produced most of the Eon films until 1975, when Broccoli became the sole producer. The single exception during this period was Thunderball, on which Broccoli, from 1984 Broccoli was joined by his stepson Michael G. Wilson as producer and in 1995 Broccoli stepped aside from Eon and was replaced by his daughter Barbara, who has co-produced with Wilson since. Broccolis family company, Danjaq, has ownership of the series through Eon. The Eon series has seen continuity both in the actors and in the production crews, with directors, writers, composers, production designers. No to For Your Eyes Only, the films were distributed solely by United Artists, when Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer absorbed United Artists in 1981, MGM/UA Entertainment Co. was formed and distributed the films until 1995. MGM solely distributed three films from 1997 to 2002 after United Artists was retired as a mainstream studio, Feldman, and a 1983 remake of Thunderball entitled Never Say Never Again, produced by Jack Schwartzman, who had obtained the rights to the film from McClory. It was adapted for the screen by Anthony Ellis and Charles Bennett, Bennett was well known for his collaborations with Alfred Hitchcock, including The 39 Steps and Sabotage. Due to the restriction of a play, the adapted version lost many of the details found in the book, although it retained its violence. The hour-long Casino Royale episode, which starred American actor Barry Nelson as Bond and Peter Lorre as the villain Le Chiffre, in 1959 producer Albert R. Cubby Broccoli at Warwick Films expressed interest in adapting the Bond novels, but his colleague Irving Allen was unenthusiastic. Towards the end of Saltzmans option period, screenwriter Wolf Mankowitz introduced him to Broccoli, a number of Hollywood studios did not want to fund the films, finding them too British or too blatantly sexual. Eventually the two signed a deal with United Artists for 100 per cent financial backing and distribution of seven films, Saltzman and Broccoli also created the company Danjaq, which was to hold the rights to the films which Eon Productions was to produce. Eon had originally intended to film Flemings novel Thunderball first, but Kevin McClory took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright over the book, and so Eon decided to film Dr. Eon asked several directors—Bryan Forbes, Guy Green, Val Guest and Guy Hamilton—to helm the film, Eon had originally hired Wolf Mankowitz and Richard Maibaum to write Dr. Nos screenplay, partly because of Mankowitzs help in brokering the deal between Broccoli and Saltzman. An initial draft of the screenplay was rejected because the scriptwriters had made the villain, Dr. No, a monkey, and Mankowitz left the film. To play the role of Bond, Sean Connery was not Broccoli or Flemings first choice, but he was selected after Patrick McGoohan had turned down the role
37.
The World Is Not Enough
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The World Is Not Enough is the nineteenth film in the James Bond series, and the third to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. The film was directed by Michael Apted, with the story and screenplay written by Neal Purvis, Robert Wade. It was produced by Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli, the title is taken from a line in the 1963 novel On Her Majestys Secret Service. During his assignment, Bond unravels a scheme to increase prices by triggering a nuclear meltdown in the waters of Istanbul. Filming locations included Spain, France, Azerbaijan, Turkey and the UK, despite mixed critical reception, The World Is Not Enough earned $361,832,400 worldwide. It was also the first Eon-produced Bond film to be released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer instead of United Artists. The banker is killed by his assistant before he can reveal the assassins name, Bond escapes with the money, but it is revealed to be booby-trapped, Sir Robert is killed by an explosion inside MI6 headquarters back in London. Bond gives chase to the assistant/assassin on a boat on the Thames to the Millennium Dome, Bond offers her protection, but she refuses, then causes the balloon to explode, killing herself. After getting cleared by the doctor, Bond traces the recovered money to Viktor Renard Zokas, following an earlier attempt on his life by MI6, Renard was left with a bullet in his brain which is gradually destroying his senses, making him immune to pain. M assigns Bond to protect Kings daughter, Elektra, against Renard, Bond flies to Azerbaijan, where Elektra is overseeing the construction of an oil pipeline. During a tour of the proposed route in the mountains, Bond. Afterwards Bond visits Valentin Zukovsky at a casino to acquire information about Elektras attackers, he discovers that Elektras head of security, Bond kills Davidov and boards a plane bound for a Russian ICBM base in Kazakhstan. He poses as a Russian nuclear scientist, meets American nuclear physicist Christmas Jones, inside, Renard is removing the GPS locator card and weapons-grade plutonium from a nuclear bomb. Before Bond can kill him, Jones blows his cover, Renard drops a hint that he and Elektra are collaborating and flees with the plutonium, while Bond and Jones escape the exploding silo with the locator card. Back in Azerbaijan, Bond discloses to M that Elektra may not be as innocent as she seems. An alarm sounds while he is handing M the locator card as proof of the theft, Bond and Jones enter the pipeline to deactivate the bomb, and Jones discovers that half of the plutonium is missing. They both jump clear of the rig, a section of pipeline is destroyed, and they are presumed killed. Back at the centre, Elektra reveals she and Renard are conspirators
38.
Sivaji (film)
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Sivaji is a 2007 Indian Tamil-language masala film directed by S. Shankar and produced by AVM Productions. Rajinikanth and Shriya Saran play the roles, with Suman, Vivek. A. R. Rahman composed the soundtrack and background music, while Thotta Tharani and K. V. Anand were the art director. The film revolves around a well-established software systems architect, Sivaji, on his return, he dreams of giving back to society with free medical treatment and education. However his plans face a roadblock in the form of the businessman, Adiseshan. When corruption also arises, Sivaji is left no option. The film was dubbed in Hindi, which released on 8 January 2010. The film was received by critics, and became a commercial success worldwide. It went on to win a National Film Award, three Filmfare Awards and two Vijay Awards, the film was converted into 3D and released on 12 December 2012 as Sivaji 3D. The runtime of the 3D version was shorter than the original, cut to 155 minutes and it also became the first Indian film to use Dolby Atmos surround sound technology. Sivaji, an Indian software architect, returns to India from the United States and he aims to establish a non-profit trust called Sivaji Foundation, which includes a network of hospitals and educational institutions that serve the poor free of charge. An influential businessman, Adiseshan, sees Sivaji as his competitor because he runs profit-making educational institutions, Sivaji is forced to bribe the corrupt civil service, but eventually, the bribes demanded become so high that he has to mortgage his house and sell his car to pay them. When Sivaji goes to court, he loses the case filed against him by Adiseshan regarding the methods Sivaji had used to open his foundation as a result of bribing numerous government officials, simultaneously, Sivaji falls in love with a girl named Tamizhselvi. However, upon asking for his horoscope, an astrologer warns that their union will result in Sivajis death, when Tamizhselvi refuses the proposal due to her concern for Sivaji, he calms her fears and convinces her to marry him. Following the loss in the case, Tamizhselvi requests Sivaji out of fear not to come for her again. Sivaji is reduced to utter poverty, realising that the methods he used are unlikely to work again, he decides to play the game his own way. He further obtains details on people who have illegal earnings across Tamil Nadu and he then transfers the money to the bank accounts of his friends around the world by hawala forgery. They then deposit the money as donations to Sivaji Foundation, making the money usable, Sivaji informs the Income Tax Investigation and Vigilance Department about the details of the illegal money held by the tax evaders and gets them arrested
39.
A. R. Rahman
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Allah-Rakha Rahman, is an Indian composer, singer-songwriter, music producer, musician and philanthropist. A. R. Rahmans works are noted for integrating Indian classical music with music, world music. Among his awards are two Academy Awards, two Grammy Awards, a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe, four National Film Awards, fifteen Filmfare Awards and he has been awarded the Padma Bhushan, the third highest civilian award, in 2010 by the Government of India. In 2009, Rahman on the Time 100 list of the worlds most influential people, the UK-based world-music magazine Songlines named him one of Tomorrows World Music Icons in August 2011. With an in-house studio, Rahmans film-scoring career began during the early 1990s with the Tamil film Roja, working in Indias film industries, international cinema and theatre, Rahman is one of the worlds all-time best-selling recording artists. In a notable career, he has been acclaimed for redefining contemporary Indian film music. Rahman has become a humanitarian and philanthropist, donating and raising money for a number of causes and charities. Rahmans body of work for film and stage has given him the nickname of the Mozart of Madras, Rahman was born in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. His father, R. K. Shekhar, was a composer and conductor for Tamil and Malayalam films, Rahman assisted his father in the studio. After his fathers death when Rahman was nine years old, the rental of his fathers musical equipment provided his familys income, raised by his mother, Kareema, Rahman was a keyboard player and arranger for bands such as Roots and founded the Chennai-based rock group Nemesis Avenue. He mastered the keyboard, piano, synthesizer, harmonium and guitar, Rahman began his early musical training under Master Dhanraj, and at age 11 began playing in the orchestra of Malayalam composer M. K. Arjunan. Studying in Chennai, Rahman graduated with a diploma in Western classical music from the school, Rahman was introduced to Qadiri Islam when his younger sister was seriously ill in 1984. His mother was a practicing Hindu and he converted to Islam with other members of his family in 1989 at age 23, changing his name from R. S. Dileep Kumar to Allah Rakha Rahman. Rahman initially composed scores for documentaries and jingles for advertisements and Indian television channels, in 1987 Rahman, then still known as Dileep, composed jingles for a line of watches introduced by Allwyn. He also arranged the jingles for advertisements that went on to become very popular, including the popular jingle for Titan Watches. In 1992, he was approached by director Mani Ratnam to compose the score and soundtrack for his Tamil film, Rahmans film career began in 1992 when he started Panchathan Record Inn, a recording and mixing studio in his backyard. It would become the recording studio in India, and arguably one of Asias most sophisticated. Cinematographer Santosh Sivan signed Rahman for the Malayalam film Yodha, a Mohanlal starrer directed by Sivans brother Sangeeth Sivan that released in September 1992, the following year, Rahman received the Rajat Kamal award for best music director at the National Film Awards for Roja
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Mariah Carey
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Mariah Carey is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and actress. In 1990, Carey rose to fame with the release of Vision of Love from her eponymous debut album, the album produced four chart-topping singles in the US and began what would become a string of commercially successful albums which solidified the singer as Columbias highest selling act. Carey and Boyz II Men spent a record sixteen weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100 in 1995–1996 with One Sweet Day, following a contentious divorce from Sony Music head Tommy Mottola, Carey adopted a new image and traversed towards hip hop with the release of Butterfly. In 1998, she was honored as the worlds best-selling recording artist of the 1990s at the World Music Awards, Carey parted with Columbia in 2000, and signed a record-breaking $100 million recording contract with Virgin Records America. In the weeks prior to the release of her film Glitter and its soundtrack in 2001. The project was received and led to a general decline in the singers career. Careys recording contract was out for $50 million by Virgin. After a relatively unsuccessful period, she returned to the top of music charts with The Emancipation of Mimi, Carey once again ventured into film with a well-received supporting role in Precious, and was awarded the Breakthrough Performance Award at the Palm Springs International Film Festival. Throughout her career, Carey has sold more than 200 million records worldwide, according to the RIAA, she is the third-best-selling female artist in the United States, with 63.5 million certified albums. With the release of Touch My Body, Carey gained her 18th number-one single in the United States, in 2012, the singer was ranked second on VH1s list of the 100 Greatest Women in Music. Mariah Carey was born in Huntington, New York, to Patricia and her mother is of Irish descent, while her father had African-American and Afro-Venezuelan ancestry. The surname Carey was adopted by her Venezuelan grandfather, Francisco Núñez, Patricia was an occasional opera singer and vocal coach before she met Alfred in 1960. As he began earning a living as an engineer, the couple married later that year. After their elopement, Patricias family disowned her for marrying a black man, Carey later explained that she felt neglected by her maternal family while growing up, which affected her greatly. In the years between the births of Careys older sister Alison and herself, the Carey family struggled within the community due to their ethnicity, Careys name was derived from the song They Call the Wind Maria, originally from the 1951 Broadway musical Paint Your Wagon. When Carey was three, her parents divorced, after their separation, Alison moved in with her father, while the other two children, Mariah and brother Morgan, remained with their mother. Carey grew apart from her father and would stop seeing him altogether. By age four, she recalled that she had begun to sneak the radio under her covers at night, during elementary school, she excelled in subjects that she enjoyed, such as music, art, and literature, but did not find interest in others
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