1.
Paul Staines
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Paul De Laire Staines is a libertarian political blogger, who publishes the Guido Fawkes website. His website was described by The Daily Telegraph as one of Britains leading political blogsites in 2007, since 2013 the Sun on Sunday newspaper has published a weekly Guido Fawkes column. Born and raised in England, Staines is an Irish citizen, Staines acquired an interest in politics as a libertarian in the 1980s and did public relations for acid house parties in the early 1990s. He then spent several years in finance, first as a broker then as a trader, in 2001 he sued his funds financial backer in a commercial dispute. Consequently, Staines declared himself bankrupt in October 2003 after two years of litigation, and legal costs on both running into hundreds of thousands of pounds. In September 2004, Staines began the Guido Fawkes Blog of plots, rumours, the name is an alternative of Guy Fawkes, and continues that symbolism with the masthead slogan tittle tattle, gossip and rumours about Westminsters Mother of Parliaments. Written from the perspective of the man to enter parliament with honest intentions. The intention being to blow it up with gunpowder, in 2006, Staines along with Jag Singh co-founded MessageSpace, a digital advertising agency which operates an advertising network representing dozens of leading political websites. MessageSpace also advises clients on digital campaigning using social media. In 2012 it advised the successful Boris Johnson London mayoral campaign, private Eye reported in June 2012 that MessageSpace was advising the Russian Embassy in London on using social media. In 2013 Staines together with Singh and Matthew Elliott co-founded WESS Digital, st Kitts and Nevis-based Global & General Nominees Limited publishes the Guido Fawkes Blog. Staines describes himself as an adviser to GGN and he is a director of Global & General Nominees Limited. Staines was born in Ealing, London to Dublin-born Mary and Indian-born Terril De Laire Staines and he grew up in Sudbury, Middlesex. Raised a Catholic, he attended Salvatorian College Catholic grammar school in Harrow, subsequently, he read business information studies at the Humberside College of Higher Education, but did not complete the course. In 1981, he won the UK Atari Asteroids video games championship, as a young man he was a member of the Social Democratic Party, sitting on the national executive of its youth wing, and the Conservative Party. He lives in Ireland and was a member of the now defunct Irish political party, in 2002, Staines was banned from driving for 12 months for driving under the influence. In 2008, Staines was again convicted of driving under the influence, his fourth alcohol-related offence, Staines is a libertarian who described in a 2000 publication how he became a libertarian in 1980 after reading Karl Poppers The Open Society and its Enemies. He joined the Young Conservatives whilst at Humberside College of Higher Education, having joined the Federation of Conservative Students, he described his politics as Thatcher on drugs
2.
George Cruikshank
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George Cruikshank was a British caricaturist and book illustrator, praised as the modern Hogarth during his life. His book illustrations for his friend Charles Dickens, and many other authors and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, was one of the leading caricaturists of the late 1790s and Cruikshank started his career as his fathers apprentice and assistant. His older brother, Isaac Robert, also followed in the business as a caricaturist. Cruikshanks early work was caricature, but in 1823, at the age of 31 and he illustrated the first,1823 English translation of Grimms Fairy Tales, published in two volumes as German Popular Stories. On 16 October 1827, he married Mary Ann Walker, two years after her death, on 7 March 1851, he married Eliza Widdison. The two lived at 263 Hampstead Road, North London, upon his death, it was discovered that Cruikshank had fathered 11 illegitimate children with a mistress named Adelaide Attree, his former servant, who lived close to where he lived with his wife. Adelaide was ostensibly married and had taken the married surname Archibold, Cruikshanks early career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. He achieved early success collaborating with William Hone in his political satire The Political House That Jack Built, in the same year he produced the remarkable anti-abolitionist New Union Club. It satirised a dinner party organised by abolitionists with black guests and his first major work was Pierce Egans Life in London. This was followed by The Comic Almanack and Omnibus and he gained notoriety with his political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians. In 1820 he received a bribe of £100 for a pledge not to caricature His Majesty in any immoral situation. His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as James Gillray, Cruikshank replaced one of his major influences, James Gillray, as Englands most popular satirist. For a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals impartially, satirical material came to him from every public event – wars abroad, the enemies of Britain, the frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which he excelled. For Charles Dickens, Cruikshank illustrated Sketches by Boz, The Mudfog Papers, Cruikshank even acted in Dickenss amateur theatrical company. On 30 December 1871 Cruikshank published a letter in The Times which claimed credit for much of the plot of Oliver Twist, the letter launched a fierce controversy around who created the work. Cruikshank was not the first Dickens illustrator to make such a claim, the friendship between Cruikshank and Dickens soured further when Cruikshank became a fanatical teetotaler in opposition to Dickenss views of moderation. Nightcap and nightdress belonged to a past age and reminded you of Cruickshanks illustrations to the novels of Charles Dickens, in the late 1840s, Cruikshanks focus shifted from book illustration to an obsession with temperance and anti-smoking. Formerly a heavy drinker, he now supported, lectured to, and supplied illustrations for the National Temperance Society, for his efforts he was made vice president of the National Temperance League in 1856
3.
William Harrison Ainsworth
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William Harrison Ainsworth was an English historical novelist born at King Street in Manchester. He trained as a lawyer, but the legal profession held no attraction for him, while completing his legal studies in London he met the publisher John Ebers, at that time manager of the Kings Theatre, Haymarket. Ebers introduced Ainsworth to literary and dramatic circles, and to his daughter, Ainsworth briefly tried the publishing business, but soon gave it up and devoted himself to journalism and literature. His first success as a writer came with Rookwood in 1834, a stream of 39 novels followed, the last of which appeared in 1881. Ainsworth died in Reigate on 3 January 1882, on 4 October 1806, Ainsworths brother, Thomas Gilbert Ainsworth, was born. Although the family home was destroyed, it was a three-storey Georgian home in a well-to-do community. The area influenced Ainsworth with its historical and romantic atmosphere, which existed until the community was replaced by commercial buildings. Besides the community, Ainsworth read romantic works as a child, of these, Dick Turpin was a favourite of Ainsworth. During his childhood, he adopted Jacobean ideas and held Tory ideas in addition to his Jacobite sympathies, even though his community was strict Whig, during this time, Ainsworth began to write prolifically. The Ainsworth family moved to Smedly Lane, north of Manchester in Cheetham Hill and they kept the old residence in addition to the new, but resided in the new home most of the time. The surrounding hilly country was covered in woods, which allowed Ainsworth, when not playing, Ainsworth was tutored by his uncle, William Harrison. In March 1817, he was enrolled at Manchester Grammar School, the work emphasised that his classical education was of good quality but was reinforced with strict discipline and corporal punishment. Ainsworth was a student and was popular among his fellow students. His school days were mixed, his time within the school and with his family was even though there were struggles within the Manchester community. Ainsworth was connected to the event because his uncles joined in protest at the incident, during the time, he was able to pursue his own literary interests and even created his own little theatre within the family home at King Street. Along with his friends and brother, he created and acted in plays throughout 1820. During 1820, Ainsworth began to publish many of his works under the name Thomas Hall, the first work, a play called The Rivals, was published on 5 March 1821 in Arlisss Pocket Magazine. Throughout 1821, the magazine printed seventeen other works of Ainsworths under the names Thomas Hall, the genre and forms of the work greatly varied, with one being a claim to have found plays of a 17th-century playwright William Aynesworthe, which ended up being his own works
4.
Guy Fawkes (novel)
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Guy Fawkes first appeared as a serial in Bentleys Miscellany, between January and November 1840. It was subsequently published as a set in July 1841. The first of William Harrison Ainsworths seven Lancashire novels, the story is based on the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, Ainsworth relied heavily on historical documents describing the trial and execution of the conspirators, of whom Fawkes was one, but he also embellished the known facts. The novels themes deal with British politics and history, focusing on the surrounding the 1605 plot to destroy Parliament. Ainsworth also introduced gothic elements, to add a component to the work. The novel was popular, and marked the beginning of Ainsworths 40-year career in historical romances. Edgar Allan Poe described the style of writing as turgid pretension, during 1840, Ainsworth simultaneously wrote The Tower of London and Guy Fawkes, both initially published as serials. The stories began their publication in January 1840, Guy Fawkes was published in instalments in Bentleys Miscellany until November 1840, Ainsworth serialised the story again in his own magazine, Ainsworths Magazine, in 1849–50. As well as the two serialisations, the story has been published as a novel on seven occasions, the first, produced by Richard Bentley, the owner of Bentleys Miscellany, appeared in July 1841, as a 3-volume set illustrated by George Cruikshank. Two American editions and a French edition were published in the same year, routledge published three further editions, in 1842,1857, and 1878. The story of Guy Fawkes starts in summer 1605, when a plot to blow up Parliament was underway, the first book of the story begins with the execution of Catholic priests in Manchester. During the execution, Elizabeth Orton madly raves before being chased by an officer overseeing the execution, to avoid capture, she leaps into the River Irwell. She is pulled up by Humphrey Chetham, a Protestant member of the nobility, and Guy Fawkes, after she is brought out of the water, she predicts that both men will be executed before she dies. The novel transitions to Lancashire and the Radcliffe family, William Radcliffe is a supporter of the plot, and his daughter, Viviana Radcliffe, is revealed to love both Chetham and Fawkes. Fawkes travels to John Dee, an alchemist, who is able to call forth the ghost of Orton and this is not the only time Fawkes is warned, as he receives a vision from God that the plot will end in disaster. During this time, the Radcliffe family is exposed as hiding two priests, which provokes the destruction of the home by the British Army, having lost their home, the conspirators in the plot travel to London. In the second book, Fawkes and Viviana Radcliffe marry, Fawkes argues that he is bound to follow through with events. The book ends when the conspiracy to blow up Parliament fails on 5 November 1605, the third book deals with the trial of Fawkes and the other plotters
5.
York
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York is a historic walled city at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The municipality is the county town of Yorkshire to which it gives its name. The city has a heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events in England throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The city offers a wealth of attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent. The city was founded by the Romans as Eboracum in 71 AD and it became the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and later of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jórvík. In the Middle Ages, York grew as a wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England. In the 19th century, York became a hub of the railway network, in recent decades, the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway-related industries to one that provides services. The University of York and health services have become major employers, from 1996, the term City of York describes a unitary authority area which includes rural areas beyond the old city boundaries. In 2011 the urban area had a population of 153,717, the word York derives from the Latinised name for the city, variously rendered as Eboracum, Eburacum or Eburaci. The first mention of York by this name is dated to circa 95–104 AD as an address on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in Northumberland, the toponymy of Eboracum is uncertain because the language of the pre-Roman indigenous population was never recorded. They are thought to have spoken a Celtic language related to modern Welsh, in his Historia Regum Britanniae the 12th century chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth, suggests the name derives from that of a pre-Roman city founded by the legendary king Ebraucus. Alternatively, the word already existed as an Old English word for wild swine. The Anglo-Saxon newcomers probably interpreted the part as eofor, and -rac as ric, while -um was a common abbreviation of the Saxon -heem. To them, it sounded as a home rich in boar, as is common in Saxon place names, the -um part gradually faded, eoforic. When the Danish army conquered the city in 866, its name became Jórvík, the Old French and Norman name of the city following the Norman Conquest was recorded as Everwic in works such as Waces Roman de Rou. The form York was first recorded in the 13th century, many company and place names, such as the Ebor race meeting, refer to the Roman name. The Archbishop of York uses Ebor as his surname in his signature, archaeological evidence suggests that Mesolithic people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known whether their settlements were permanent or temporary. By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, the area was occupied by a known to the Romans as the Brigantes
6.
Hanged, drawn and quartered
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To be hanged, drawn and quartered was from 1351 a statutory penalty in England for men convicted of high treason, although the ritual was first recorded during the reign of King Henry III. Convicts were fastened to a hurdle, or wooden panel, and drawn by horse to the place of execution and their remains were often displayed in prominent places across the country, such as London Bridge. For reasons of public decency, women convicted of treason were instead burned at the stake. The severity of the sentence was measured against the seriousness of the crime and they included many English Catholic priests executed during the Elizabethan era, and several of the regicides involved in the 1649 execution of Charles I. The death penalty for treason was abolished in 1998, during the High Middle Ages those in England guilty of treason were punished in a variety of ways, including drawing and hanging. In the 13th century other, more brutal penalties were introduced, the 13th-century English chronicler Matthew Paris described how in 1238 a certain man at arms, a man of some education attempted to kill King Henry III. He was apparently sent by William de Marisco, an outlaw who some years earlier had killed a man under royal protection before fleeing to Lundy Island, de Marisco was captured in 1242 and on Henrys order dragged from Westminster to the Tower of London to be executed. There he was hanged from a gibbet until dead and his corpse was disembowelled, his entrails burned, his body quartered and the parts distributed to cities across the country. The punishment is more frequently recorded during Edward Is reign, welshman Dafydd ap Gruffydd became the first nobleman in England to be hanged, drawn and quartered after he turned against the king and proclaimed himself Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdon. Dafydds rebellion infuriated Edward so much that he demanded a novel punishment, therefore, following his capture and trial in 1283, for his betrayal he was drawn by horse to his place of execution. For killing English nobles he was hanged alive, for killing those nobles at Easter he was eviscerated and his entrails burned. For conspiring to kill the king in parts of the realm, his body was quartered. A similar fate was suffered by the Scottish leader Sir William Wallace, captured and tried in 1305, he was forced to wear a crown of laurel leaves and was drawn to Smithfield, where he was hanged and beheaded. His entrails were then burned and his corpse quartered and his head was set on London Bridge and the quarters sent to Newcastle, Berwick, Stirling and Perth. Treason was based on an allegiance to the sovereign from all subjects aged 14 or over and it remained for the king, Edward therefore introduced the Treason Act 1351. It was enacted at a time in English history when a right to rule was indisputable and was therefore written principally to protect the throne. The new law offered a definition of treason than had existed before. Petty treason referred to the killing of a master by his servant, men guilty of petty treason were drawn and hanged, whereas women were burned
7.
Westminster
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Westminster is an area of central London within the City of Westminster, part of the West End, on the north bank of the River Thames. Historically the area lay within St Margarets parish, City & Liberty of Westminster and it has been the home of the permanent institutions of Englands government continuously since about 1200 and is now the seat of British government. In a government context, Westminster often refers to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the closest tube stations are Westminster, St Jamess Park on the Jubilee, Circle, and District lines. Within the area is Westminster School, a public school which grew out of the Abbey. Bounding Westminster to the north is Green Park, a Royal Park of London, the area has a substantial resident population, indeed most of its listed buildings are residential. A proportion of residents are people of limited means, living in council, hotels, large Victorian homes and barracks exist nearer to Buckingham Palace. The name describes an area no more than 1 mile from Westminster Abbey, the settlement grew up around the palace and abbey, as a service area for them. The need for a church, St Margarets Westminster for the servants of the palace. It became larger and in the Georgian period became connected through urban development with the City along the Strand. It did not become a local government unit until created as a civil parish. Indeed, the Cathedral and diocesan status of the church lasted only from 1539 to 1556, as such it is first known to have had two Members of Parliament in 1545 as a new Parliamentary Borough, centuries after the City of London and Southwark were enfranchised. The historic core of Westminster is the former Thorney Island on which Westminster Abbey was built, the abbey became the traditional venue of the coronation of the kings and queens of England from that of Harold Godwinson onwards. From about 1200, near the abbey, the Palace of Westminster became the royal residence, marked by the transfer of royal treasury. Later the palace housed the developing Parliament and Englands law courts, thus London developed two focal points, the City of London and Westminster. The monarchs later moved to St James Palace and the Palace of Whitehall a little towards the north-east, the main law courts have since moved to the Royal Courts of Justice. The Westminster area formed part of the City and Liberty of Westminster in Middlesex, the ancient parish was St Margaret, after 1727 this became the civil parish of St Margaret and St John, the latter a new church required for the increasing population. The area around Westminster Abbey formed the extra-parochial Close of the Collegiate Church of St Peter surrounded by —, until 1900 the local authority was the combined vestry of St Margaret and St John, which was based at Westminster City Hall in Caxton Street from 1883. The Liberty of Westminster, governed by the Westminster Court of Burgesses, also included St Martin in the Fields, Westminster had its own quarter sessions, but the Middlesex sessions also had jurisdiction
8.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
9.
Hanging
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Hanging is the suspension of a person by a noose or ligature around the neck. Hanging has been a method of capital punishment since medieval times. The first account of execution by hanging was in Homers Odyssey, in this specialised meaning of the common word hang, the past and past participle is hanged instead of hung. Hanging is also a method of suicide in which a person applies a ligature to the neck and brings about unconsciousness. There are four ways of performing a judicial hanging, suspension hanging, the drop, the standard drop. A mechanised form of hanging, the upright jerker, was experimented with in the 18th century. Suspension, like the drop, causes death by using the weight of the body to tighten the noose around the trachea. Prisoners are reported to have little or no struggle before they go limp because their jugular vein and carotid arteries are blocked and blood flow to the brain is reduced. The short drop is performed by placing the condemned prisoner on the back of a cart, horse, or other vehicle, the object is then moved away, leaving the person dangling from the rope. A ladder was also used with the condemned being forced to ascend, after which the noose was tied. Another method involves using a stool, which the condemned is required to stand on, the executioner stands on a stepped platform approximately 4 feet high beside the condemned, and guides the head downward with his hand simultaneous to the efforts of his assistants. Nazi war criminal Karl Hermann Frank was also executed in this manner in 1946 in Prague and its use rapidly spread to English-speaking countries and those where judicial systems had an English origin. It was considered an improvement on the short drop because it was intended to be enough to break the persons neck, causing immediate paralysis. This method was used to execute condemned Nazis under United States jurisdiction after the Nuremberg Trials including Joachim von Ribbentrop and Ernst Kaltenbrunner. In the execution of Ribbentrop, historian Giles MacDonogh records that, The hangman botched the execution, a Life magazine report on the execution merely says, The trap fell open and with a sound midway between a rumble and a crash, Ribbentrop disappeared. The rope quivered for a time, then stood tautly straight and this process, also known as the measured drop, was introduced to Britain in 1872 by William Marwood as a scientific advance on the standard drop. The careful placement of the eye or knot of the noose contributed to breaking the neck, between 1892 and 1913, the length of the drop was shortened to avoid decapitation. After 1913, other factors were taken into account
10.
Gunpowder Plot
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Catesby may have embarked on the scheme after hopes of securing greater religious tolerance under King James had faded, leaving many English Catholics disappointed. Fawkes, who had 10 years of experience fighting in the Spanish Netherlands in suppression of the Dutch Revolt, was given charge of the explosives. The plot was revealed to the authorities in a letter sent to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle. During a search of the House of Lords at about midnight on 4 November 1605, most of the conspirators fled from London as they learned of the plots discovery, trying to enlist support along the way. Several made a stand against the pursuing Sheriff of Worcester and his men at Holbeche House, in the battle, Catesby was one of those shot. At their trial on 27 January 1606, eight of the survivors, including Fawkes, were convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn, details of the assassination attempt were allegedly known by the principal Jesuit of England, Father Henry Garnet. Although he was convicted of treason and sentenced to death, doubt has been cast on how much he knew of the plot. As its existence was revealed to him through confession, Garnet was prevented from informing the authorities by the absolute confidentiality of the confessional, although anti-Catholic legislation was introduced soon after the plots discovery, many important and loyal Catholics retained high office during King James Is reign. Between 1533 and 1540, the Tudor King Henry VIII took control of the English Church from Rome, English Catholics struggled in a society dominated by the newly separate and increasingly Protestant Church of England. The penalties for refusal were severe, fines were imposed for recusancy, Catholicism became marginalised, but despite the threat of torture or execution, priests continued to practise their faith in secret. Queen Elizabeth, unmarried and childless, steadfastly refused to name an heir, many Catholics believed that her Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, was the legitimate heir to the English throne, but she was executed for treason in 1587. In the months before Elizabeths death on 24 March 1603, Cecil prepared the way for James to succeed her, some exiled Catholics favoured Philip II of Spains daughter, Infanta Isabella, as Elizabeths successor. More moderate Catholics looked to Jamess and Elizabeths cousin Arbella Stuart, despite competing claims to the English throne, the transition of power following Elizabeths death went smoothly. Jamess succession was announced by a proclamation from Cecil on 24 March, leading papists, rather than causing trouble as anticipated, reacted to the news by offering their enthusiastic support for the new monarch. Jesuit priests, whose presence in England was punishable by death, also demonstrated their support for James, for decades, the English had lived under a monarch who refused to provide an heir, but James arrived with a family and a future line of succession. His wife, Anne of Denmark, was the daughter of a king, Jamess attitude towards Catholics was more moderate than that of his predecessor, perhaps even tolerant. During the late 16th century, Catholics made several assassination attempts against Protestant rulers in Europe and in England, including plans to poison Elizabeth I. Much of the rather nervous James Is political writing was concerned with the threat of Catholic assassination and refutation of the argument that faith did not need to be kept with heretics
11.
Recusancy
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Recusancy was the state of those who refused to attend Anglican services during the history of England and Wales, these individuals were known as recusants. The Recusancy Acts began during the reign of Elizabeth I and were repealed in 1650 and they imposed various types of punishment on those who did not participate in Anglican religious activity, such as fines, property confiscation, and imprisonment. As far as the term is used in the present day, recusant applies to the descendants of Roman Catholic British gentry and peerage families. Catholicism was the majority religion in various pockets, notably in parts of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria, and in Scotland, in parts of the Highlands and the Southern Hebrides. The term recusant is also used generally to refer to non-compliance with a perceived innovation of questionable orthodoxy. Some traditional Catholics have used the term following Vatican II, particularly in defence of the Latin mass, Catholics formed a large proportion, if not a plurality, of recusants, and it was to Catholics that the term initially was applied. Non-Catholic groups composed of Reformed Christians or Protestant dissenters from the Church of England were later labelled recusants as well, the recusancy laws were in force from the reign of Elizabeth I to that of George III, but not always enforced with equal intensity. Other Acts targeted Catholic recusants, including statutes passed under James I and Charles I, recusants were subject to various civil disabilities and penalties under English penal laws, most of which were repealed during the Regency and the reign of George IV. The Nuttall Encyclopædia notes that Dissenters were largely forgiven by the Act of Toleration under William III, early recusants included Protestant dissenters, whose confessions derived from the Calvinistic Reformers or Radical Reformers. With the growth of these groups after the Restoration of Charles II. The recusant period reaped an extensive harvest of saints and martyrs, among the recusants were some high-profile Catholic aristocrats such as the Howards and, for a time, the Plantagenet-descended Beauforts. In the English-speaking world, the Douay-Rheims Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate by expatriate recusants in Rheims, France, in 1582 and in Douai and it was revised by Bishop Richard Challoner in the years 1749–52. The 1750 revision is still printed today, the Douay-Rheims Challoner Bible is still often preferred by more conservative or Traditionalist Catholics. Other members of the Howard family, the Earls of Carlisle, Effingham, Recusancy was historically focused in Northern England, particularly Cumbria, Lancashire and Yorkshire. The Acton family is another well-known recusant family, the will of a William Latewise who died in 1603 in Goosnargh – part of the parish of Kirkham – states he was of Culcheth in the parish of Winwick. One of those preparing his inventory in 1608 was John Sterrope, around this time the area around Goosnargh was home to several Catholic families – Beesley, Hesketh, Keighley, Marsden, and Threlfall. Records show that members of the Latewysse family were fined for recusancy. In Wales, the few recusant families include Mostyn, Herbert, Morgan and, most notably and they helped to provide a resurgent Catholic Church in England with financial support
12.
Eighty Years' War
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The Eighty Years War or Dutch War of Independence was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces against the political and religious hegemony of Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands. After the initial stages, Philip II deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces, under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent, the northern provinces continued their resistance. They eventually were able to oust the Habsburg armies, and in 1581 they established the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, after a 12-year truce, hostilities broke out again around 1619 which can be said to coincide with the Thirty Years War. An end was reached in 1648 with the Peace of Münster, in the decades preceding the war, the Dutch became increasingly discontented with Habsburg rule. A major cause of discontent was heavy taxation imposed on the population, while support. At that time, the Seventeen Provinces were known in the empire as De landen van herwaarts over, the presence of Spanish troops, under the command of the Duke of Alba, brought in to oversee order, further amplified this unrest. Spain also attempted a policy of religious uniformity for the Catholic Church within its domains. The Reformation meanwhile produced a number of Protestant denominations, which gained followers in the Seventeen Provinces and these included the Lutheran movement of Martin Luther, the Anabaptist movement of the Dutch reformer Menno Simons, and the Reformed teachings of John Calvin. This growth lead to the 1566 Beeldenstorm, the Iconoclastic Fury which saw many churches in northern Europe stripped of their Catholic statuary, in October 1555, Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire began the gradual abdication of his several crowns. The balance of power was heavily weighted toward the local and regional governments, Philip did not govern in person but appointed Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy as governor-general to lead the central government. When Philip left for Spain in 1559 political tension was increased by religious policies, not having the liberal-mindedness of his father Charles V, Philip was a fervent enemy of the Protestant movements of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and the Anabaptists. Towards the end of Charles reign enforcement had become lax. Philip, however, insisted on rigorous enforcement, which caused widespread unrest, the new hierarchy was to be headed by Granvelle as archbishop of the new archdiocese of Mechelen. The reform was unpopular with the old church hierarchy, as the new dioceses were to be financed by the transfer of a number of rich abbeys. Granvelle became the focus of the opposition against the new governmental structures, after the recall of Granvelle, Orange persuaded Margaret and the Council to ask for a moderation of the placards against heresy. Philip delayed his response, and in this interval the opposition to his religious policies gained more widespread support, Philip finally rejected the request for moderation in his Letters from the Segovia Woods of October 1565. This Compromise of Nobles was supported by about 400 nobles, both Catholic and Protestant, and was presented to Margaret on 5 April 1566, impressed by the massive support for the compromise, she suspended the placards, awaiting Philips final ruling. The first half of the Eighty Years War between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic was fought between 1566 and 1609, when the Twelve Years Truce was signed in 1609, ending this first phase of war, the northern Netherlands had achieved de facto independence
13.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
14.
Low Countries
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Most of the Low Countries are coastal regions bounded by the North Sea or the English Channel. The countries without access to the sea have linked themselves politically and economically to those with access to one union of port. The Low Countries were the scene of the northern towns, newly built rather than developed from ancient centres. In that period, they rivaled northern Italy for the most densely populated region of Europe, all of the regions mainly depended on trade, manufacturing and the encouragement of the free flow of goods and craftsmen. Germanic languages such as Dutch and Luxembourgish were the predominant languages, secondary languages included French, Romance-speaking Belgium, the Romance Flanders, and Namur. Governor Mary of Hungary used both the expressions les pays de par deça and Pays dEmbas, which evolved to Pays-Bas or Low Countries, today the term is typically fitted to modern political boundaries and used in the same way as the term Benelux, which also includes Luxembourg. The name of the country the Netherlands has the same meaning. The same name of countries can be found in other European languages, for example German Niederlande, French, les Pays-Bas, and so on. In the Dutch language itself no plural is used for the name of the modern country, so Nederland is used for the modern nation and de Nederlanden for the 16th century domains of Charles V. In Dutch, and to an extent in English, the Low Countries colloquially means the Netherlands and Belgium, sometimes the Netherlands. For example, a Derby der Lage Landen, is an event between Belgium and the Netherlands. Belgium was renamed only in 1830, after splitting from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, politically, before the Napoleonic wars, it was referred to as the Southern, Spanish or later Austrian Netherlands. It is still referred to as part of the low countries, the region politically had its origins in Carolingian empire, more precisely, most of it was within the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia. After the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia, the Low Countries were brought under the rule of various lordships until they came to be in the hands of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy. Hence, a part of the low countries came to be referred to as the Burgundian Netherlands also called the Seventeen Provinces up to 1581. Even after the secession of the autonomous Dutch Republic in the north. The Low Countries were part of the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica, Germania Inferior and they were inhabited by Belgic and Germanic tribes. In the 4th and 5th century, Frankish tribes had entered this Roman region and they came to be ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, under which dynasty the southern part was re-Christianised
15.
Robert and Thomas Wintour
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Robert Wintour and Thomas Wintour, also spelt Winter, were members of the Gunpowder Plot, a failed conspiracy to assassinate King James I. Brothers, they were related to other conspirators, such as their cousin, Robert Catesby, by 1600, however, he changed his mind and became a fervent Catholic. On several occasions he travelled to the continent and entreated Spain on behalf of Englands oppressed Catholics, as momentum was building behind a peace settlement between the two countries, Thomass pleas fell on deaf ears. Thomas returned to the continent and again failed to elicit Spanish support, Robert, a devout Catholic who inherited Huddington Court near Worcester, joined the conspiracy the following year. The plot began to unravel following the delivery of a letter to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle. Thomas and Catesby confronted Monteagles brother-in-law, the recently recruited Francis Tresham, threatening to kill him, at that stage Thomas reportedly asked Catesby to abandon the scheme, to no avail. When Fawkes was captured at midnight on 4 November 1605. Thomas, by then reintegrated into the group, chose to remain with them, and in the firefight was shot in the shoulder. Robert, who had left before the battle, evaded capture until January 1606, much of what is written about the plot is based on Thomass confessions, given in the Tower of London in November 1605. The brothers were tried on 27 January 1606, and hanged, drawn, Robert and Thomas Wintour were sons of George Wintour of Huddington Court in Worcestershire, and his wife Jane, daughter of Sir William Ingleby of Ripley Castle near Knaresborough. A sister, Dorothy, married another conspirator, John Grant, two agnate half-siblings, John and Elizabeth, resulted from their fathers marriage to Elizabeth Bourn, following Janes death. Their paternal grandparents were Robert Wintour of Cavewell in Gloucestershire, and his wife Catherine, as scions of the Throckmortons, they could therefore claim a kinship with plotters like Robert Catesby and Francis Tresham. The Wintours took their name from the Welsh Gwyn Tour, wyntour was sometimes used in signatures, but not Winter. A faithful Catholic, Robert was married to Gertrude Talbot, daughter of the recusant John Talbot of Grafton and he inherited the Tudor Huddington Court near Worcester, along with a significant fortune with which he was known to be generous. Under Robert, Huddington Court became a refuge for priests. The Jesuit John Gerard wrote that he was esteemed in his life to be one of the wisest and most resolute, gerards appraisal of Thomas was just as complimentary. He was apparently an intelligent, witty and educated man, who could speak Latin, Italian, Spanish and he was of mean stature, but strong and comely and very valient, about 33 years old or somewhat more. Thomas worked as a servant to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle and he was educated as a lawyer, but following several years of dissipation travelled to Flanders and enrolled in the English army
16.
Robert Catesby
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Robert Catesby was the leader of a group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605. Most probably born in Warwickshire, Catesby was educated in nearby Oxford and his family were prominent recusant Catholics, and presumably to avoid swearing the Oath of Supremacy he left college before taking his degree. In 1601 he took part in the Essex Rebellion but was captured and fined, the Protestant James I, who became King of England in 1603, was less tolerant of Catholicism than his followers had hoped. Early in 1604 he began to recruit other Catholics to his cause, including Thomas Wintour, John Wright, Thomas Percy, news of his arrest caused the other plotters to flee London, warning Catesby along their way. With a much-diminished group of followers, Catesby made a stand at Holbeche House in Staffordshire and he was shot and later found dead, clutching a picture of the Virgin Mary. As a warning to others, his body was exhumed and his head exhibited outside Parliament, Robert Catesby was the third and only surviving son of Sir William and Anne Catesby, and was probably born in or after 1572 at his fathers main residence in Lapworth. Robert was a descendant of Sir William Catesby, the influential councillor of Richard III captured at the Battle of Bosworth. On his mothers side he was descended from Sir Robert Throckmorton of Coughton, the head of the Throckmortons, Sir Thomas Throckmorton, was also fined for his recusancy, and spent years in prison. Another relation, Sir Francis Throckmorton, had executed in 1584 for his involvement in a plot to free Mary. In 1586 Robert was educated at Gloucester Hall in Oxford, a noted for its Catholic intake. Those either studying at university or wishing to take public office could not do so without first swearing the Oath of Supremacy, presumably to avoid this consequence, he left without taking his degree, and may then have attended the seminary college of Douai. In 1593 he married Catherine Leigh, daughter of Sir Thomas Leigh of Stoneleigh in Warwickshire. Catherine came from a wealthy Protestant family and brought with her a dowry of £2,000, from the death of his grandmother the following year he inherited a property at Chastleton, in Oxfordshire. The couples first son William died in infancy, but their second son Robert survived, when Catesbys father died in 1598, his estates at Ashby St Ledgers were left to his wife, while Catesby and his family remained at Chastleton. Catesby had seemed happy to remain a Church Papist but after his wifes death later that year he became radicalised, in 1601 Catesby was involved in the Essex Rebellion. The rebellion was a failure however, and the wounded Catesby was captured, imprisoned at the Wood Street Counter, Sir Thomas Tresham helped pay some of Catesbys fine, following which Catesby sold his estate at Chastleton. Catesby funded the activities of some Jesuit priests, and while visiting them made occasional use of the alias Mr Roberts, Catholics had hoped that the persecution they suffered during Elizabeths reign would end when she was succeeded in 1603 by James I. His mother, Mary, Queen of Scots, had been a devout Catholic, much of Jamess political writing was concerned with such matters, and the refutation of the argument that faith did not need to be kept with heretics
17.
James VI and I
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James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
18.
Undercroft
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An undercroft is traditionally a cellar or storage room, often brick-lined and vaulted, and used for storage in buildings since medieval times. In modern usage, an undercroft is generally an area which is relatively open to the sides. While some were used as storerooms, others were rented out as shops. For example, the rooms at Myres Castle in Scotland circa 1300 were used as the medieval kitchen. Many of these early medieval undercrofts were vaulted or groined, such as the chamber at Beverston Castle or the groined stores at Myres Castle. The term is used to describe a crypt beneath a church. For example, there is a 14th-century undercroft or crypt extant at Muchalls Castle in Scotland, undercrofts were commonly built in England and Scotland throughout the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. They occur in such as London, Chester and Southampton. The undercroft beneath the Houses of Parliament in London was rented out to the conspirators behind the Gunpowder Plot, in modern buildings, the term undercroft is often used to describe a ground-level parking area that occupies the footprint of the building. This type of parking is, however, discouraged by some design guidelines. Another modern use of the term is to describe the rooms alongside swimming pool tanks, below ground level, that carry filtration services, the Undercroft, Southbank Centre – skateboarding and graffiti centre in London Void deck
19.
House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
20.
Gunpowder
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Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels, and the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Black powder firearms are in limited use today in hunting, shooting, Black powder has been replaced for most industrial uses by high explosives such as dynamite. Black powder is assigned the UN number UN0027 and has a class of 1. 1D. It has a point of approximately 427–464 °C. The specific flash point may vary based on the composition of the gunpowder. Gunpowders specific gravity is 1. 70–1.82 or 1. 92–2.08, Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate at subsonic speeds, whereas high explosives detonate, ignition of the powder packed behind a bullet must generate enough pressure to force it from the muzzle at high speed, but not enough to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good propellant, but is suitable for shattering rock or fortifications. Gunpowder was widely used to fill artillery shells and in mining and civil engineering to blast rock until the half of the 19th century. Black powder is used as a delay element in various munitions where its slow-burning properties are valuable. The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols, the earliest record of a written formula for gunpowder appears in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China, in the centuries following the Chinese discovery, gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world and Europe. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, the earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The most ardent protagonists were Nathaniel Halhad, Johann Backmann, Quintin Craufurd, however, due to lack of sufficient proof, these theories have not been widely accepted. A major problem confronting the study of the history of gunpowder is ready access to sources close to the events described. The translation difficulty has led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence, early writings potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where old words acquired new meanings. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations
21.
Palace of Westminster
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The Palace of Westminster is the meeting place of the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Commonly known as the Houses of Parliament after its occupants, the Palace lies on the bank of the River Thames in the City of Westminster. The palace is owned by the monarch in right of the Crown and for ceremonial purposes, the building is managed by committees appointed by both houses, which report to the Speaker of the House of Commons and the Lord Speaker. The first royal palace was built on the site in the 11th century, part of the New Palaces area of 3.24 hectares was reclaimed from the Thames, which is the setting of its nearly 300-metre long façade, called the River Front. Barry was assisted by Augustus Pugin, an authority on Gothic architecture and style. The Palace is one of the centres of political life in the United Kingdom, Westminster has become a metonym for the UK Parliament, the Palace of Westminster has been a Grade I listed building since 1970 and part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987. The Palace of Westminster site was important during the Middle Ages. Known in medieval times as Thorney Island, the site may have been first-used for a residence by Canute the Great during his reign from 1016 to 1035. St Edward the Confessor, the penultimate Anglo-Saxon monarch of England, Thorney Island and the surrounding area soon became known as Westminster. Neither the buildings used by the Anglo-Saxons nor those used by William I survive, the oldest existing part of the Palace dates from the reign of William Is successor, King William II. The Palace of Westminster was the principal residence in the late Medieval period. The predecessor of Parliament, the Curia Regis, met in Westminster Hall, simon de Montforts parliament, the first to include representatives of the major towns, met at the Palace in 1265. The Model Parliament, the first official Parliament of England, met there in 1295, in 1512, during the early years of the reign of King Henry VIII, fire destroyed the royal residential area of the palace. In 1534, Henry VIII acquired York Place from Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, renaming it the Palace of Whitehall, Henry used it as his principal residence. Although Westminster officially remained a royal palace, it was used by the two Houses of Parliament and by the various law courts. Because it was originally a residence, the Palace included no purpose-built chambers for the two Houses. Important state ceremonies were held in the Painted Chamber which had originally built in the 13th century as the main bedchamber for King Henry III. The House of Commons, which did not have a chamber of its own, the Commons acquired a permanent home at the Palace in St Stephens Chapel, the former chapel of the royal palace, during the reign of Edward VI
22.
Guy Fawkes Night
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Guy Fawkes Night, also known as Guy Fawkes Day, Bonfire Night and Firework Night, is an annual commemoration observed on 5 November, primarily in Great Britain. Its history begins with the events of 5 November 1605, when Guy Fawkes, Puritans delivered sermons regarding the perceived dangers of popery, while during increasingly raucous celebrations common folk burnt effigies of popular hate-figures, such as the pope. Towards the end of the 18th century reports appear of children begging for money with effigies of Guy Fawkes and 5 November gradually became known as Guy Fawkes Day. Towns such as Lewes and Guildford were in the 19th century scenes of increasingly violent class-based confrontations, fostering traditions those towns celebrate still, albeit peaceably. In the 1850s changing attitudes resulted in the toning down of much of the days anti-Catholic rhetoric, eventually the violence was dealt with, and by the 20th century Guy Fawkes Day had become an enjoyable social commemoration, although lacking much of its original focus. The present-day Guy Fawkes Night is usually celebrated at large organised events, centred on a bonfire, settlers exported Guy Fawkes Night to overseas colonies, including some in North America, where it was known as Pope Day. Those festivities died out with the onset of the American Revolution and this made 1605 the first year the plots failure was celebrated. The following January, days before the conspirators were executed, Parliament passed the Observance of 5th November Act. A new form of service was added to the Church of Englands Book of Common Prayer. Little is known about the earliest celebrations, in settlements such as Carlisle, Norwich and Nottingham, corporations provided music and artillery salutes. According to historian and author Antonia Fraser, a study of the earliest sermons preached demonstrates an anti-Catholic concentration mystical in its fervour. Delivering one of five 5 November sermons printed in A Mappe of Rome in 1612, Thomas Taylor spoke of the generality of his cruelty, which had been almost without bounds. By the 1620s the Fifth was honoured in market towns and villages across the country, Gunpowder Treason Day, as it was then known, became the predominant English state commemoration. Some parishes made the day a festive occasion, with public drinking, what unity English Protestants had shared in the plots immediate aftermath began to fade when in 1625 Jamess son, the future Charles I, married the Catholic Henrietta Maria of France. During Charless reign Gunpowder Treason Day became increasingly partisan, between 1629 and 1640 he ruled without Parliament, and he seemed to support Arminianism, regarded by Puritans like Henry Burton as a step toward Catholicism. By 1636, under the leadership of the Arminian Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud, the English church was trying to use 5 November to denounce all seditious practices, Puritans went on the defensive, some pressing for further reformation of the Church. Bonfire Night, as it was known, assumed a new fervour during the events leading up to the English Interregnum. Although Royalists disputed their interpretations, Parliamentarians began to uncover or fear new Catholic plots, effigies of Fawkes and the pope were present, the latter represented by Pluto, Roman god of the underworld
23.
Fireworks
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Fireworks are a class of low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for aesthetic and entertainment purposes. The most common use of a firework is as part of a fireworks display, Fireworks competitions are also regularly held at a number of places. Fireworks take many forms to produce the four primary effects, noise, light, smoke and they may be designed to burn with colored flames and sparks including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and silver. Displays are common throughout the world and are the point of many cultural. Fireworks were invented in ancient China in the 7th century to scare evil spirits. Such important events and festivities as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Moon Festival were, China is the largest manufacturer and exporter of fireworks in the world. Fireworks are generally classified as to where they perform, either as a ground or aerial firework, in the latter case they may provide their own propulsion or be shot into the air by a mortar. The most common feature of fireworks is a paper or pasteboard tube or casing filled with the combustible material, a number of these tubes or cases are often combined so as to make, when kindled, a great variety of sparkling shapes, often variously colored. The skyrocket is a form of firework, although the first skyrockets were used in war. The aerial shell, however, is the backbone of todays commercial aerial display, such rocket technology has also been used for the delivery of mail by rocket and is used as propulsion for most model rockets. The earliest documentation of fireworks dates back to 7th century China, the fireworks were used to accompany many festivities. It is thus a part of the culture of China and had its origin there, the art and science of firework making has developed into an independent profession. In China, pyrotechnicians were respected for their knowledge of techniques in mounting firework displays. Chinese people originally believed that the fireworks could expel evil spirits and bring about luck, during the Song Dynasty, many of the common people could purchase various kinds of fireworks from market vendors, and grand displays of fireworks were also known to be held. In 1110, a fireworks display in a martial demonstration was held to entertain Emperor Huizong of Song. A record from 1264 states that a rocket-propelled firework went off near the Empress Dowager Gong Sheng, rocket propulsion was common in warfare, as evidenced by the Huolongjing compiled by Liu Bowen and Jiao Yu. In 1240 the Arabs acquired knowledge of gunpowder and its uses from China, with the development of chinoiserie in Europe, Chinese fireworks began to gain popularity around the mid-17th century. Lev Izmailov, ambassador of Peter the Great, once reported from China and his writings would be translated in 1765, resulting in the popularization of fireworks and further attempts to uncover the secrets of Chinese fireworks
24.
St Michael le Belfrey, York
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St Michael le Belfrey is an Anglican church in York, England. It is situated next to York Minster in the centre of the city. The present church building was built between 1525 and 1536 and replaced a church dated back to at least 1294. The church is famous for being the place where Guy Fawkes was baptised on 16 April 1570, Fawkes later became a Roman Catholic, which led to the failed 1605 Gunpowder Plot. The church was also the scene of the wedding of Christopher Levett of York, the west front and bellcote date from 1867 and were supervised by the architect George Fowler Jones. Growth continued in the 1970s and the became known as a centre for charismatic renewal. The church continues to reflect the creativity that was encouraged under the David Watson era, there are three services usually held on Sunday and one during the week. The church is a member of the One Voice York network of churches, approximately 800 people attend the church and the present incumbent is the Reverend Matthew Porter. The other senior clergy are Reverend Ben Doolan, Reverend Greg Downes, Reverend Christian Selvaratnam, anglicanism portal Notes Bibliography St Michael le Belfrey Church website Visions Multimedia Worship St Michael le Belfrey Chinese Ministry St Mikes Football Club G2 café-church
25.
York Minster
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The Cathedral and Metropolitical Church of Saint Peter in York, commonly known as York Minster, is the cathedral of York, England, and is one of the largest of its kind in Northern Europe. The minster is the seat of the Archbishop of York, the second-highest office of the Church of England, and is the church for the Diocese of York. It is run by a dean and chapter, under the Dean of York, the title minster is attributed to churches established in the Anglo-Saxon period as missionary teaching churches, and serves now as an honorific title. Services in the minster are sometimes regarded as on the High Church or Anglo-Catholic end of the Anglican continuum, the minster has a very wide Decorated Gothic nave and chapter house, a Perpendicular Gothic Quire and east end and Early English North and South transepts. The nave contains the West Window, constructed in 1338, and over the Lady Chapel in the east end is the Great East Window, in the north transept is the Five Sisters Window, each lancet being over 52 feet high. The south transept contains a window, while the West Window contains a heart-shaped design colloquially known as The Heart of Yorkshire. York has had a verifiable Christian presence from the 4th century, however, there is circumstantial evidence pointing to much earlier Christian involvement. Tradition speaks of 28 British bishops, one for each of the greater British cities, over whom presided the Archbishops of London, York and Caerleon-on-Usk. The first recorded church on the site was a structure built hurriedly in 627 to provide a place to baptise Edwin. Moves toward a substantial building began in the decade of the 630s. A stone structure was completed in 637 by Oswald and was dedicated to Saint Peter, the church soon fell into disrepair and was dilapidated by 670 when Saint Wilfrid ascended to the See of York. He repaired and renewed the structure, the attached school and library were established and by the 8th century were some of the most substantial in Northern Europe. In 741 the church was destroyed in a fire and it was rebuilt as a more impressive structure containing thirty altars. The church and the area then passed through the hands of numerous invaders. There was a series of Benedictine archbishops, including Saint Oswald of Worcester, Wulfstan and Ealdred, Ealdred died in 1069 and was buried in the church. The church was damaged in 1069 during William the Conquerors harrying of the North, the Danes destroyed the church in 1075, but it was again rebuilt from 1080. Built in the Norman style, it was 111 m long and rendered in white, the new structure was damaged by fire in 1137 but was soon repaired. The choir and crypt were remodelled in 1154, and a new chapel was built, the Gothic style in cathedrals had arrived in the mid 12th century
26.
Proctor
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Proctor, a variant of procurator, is a persons who takes charge of, or acts for, another. The word proctor is frequently used to someone who oversees an examination or dormitory. The title is used in England in three contexts, In law, a proctor is an attorney or solicitor acting in some courts. In the church, a represents the clergy in Church of England dioceses. In education, a proctor is the name of university officials in certain universities, a proctor was a legal practitioner in the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. Historically, they were licensed by the Archbishop of Canterbury to undertake the duties that were performed in common law courts by attorneys and in the courts of equity by solicitors. Later, the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, which created the Supreme Court of Judicature, the Kings Proctor so acted in all causes concerning the King. The Queens Proctor is the proctor or solicitor representing the Crown in the courts of probate, the office has for many years been combined with that of the Treasury Solicitor, whose formal title is Her Majestys Procurator-General and Treasury Solicitor. Proctor is a term still survives in Western Australia. A representative of the clergy in convocation, in the Convocation of the English Clergy an ecclesiastical proctor represents either the chapter of a cathedral or the beneficed clergy of a diocese. In the Province of Canterbury two proctors represent the clergy of each diocese, in that of York there are two for each archdeaconry, every chapter is represented by one proctor. In British, Canadian, Australian and South African English, persons acting in this latter capacity are referred to as invigilators, the early history of the office at Cambridge is obscure, but it seems that the Proctors have always represented the colleges in University proceedings. At present their functions are twofold, taking part in all university ceremonials, at Cambridge University the Proctors are nominated every May by colleges identified in a predetermined cycle. They then serve for one year from 1 October, assisted by their Deputy Proctors and they must have been a member of the Senate for three years, and must have resided two years at the university. Two additional Pro-Proctors are also elected by the Senate each year, on the nomination of the Vice- Chancellor and Proctors, the Proctors for 2015–16 are David Goode of Wolfson College and Wing Commander Richard Keith Dick Taplin of Gonville & Caius College. The Deputies to the Proctors are Dr David Woodman of Robinson College, the Pro-Proctors are Gordon Chesterman of St Edmunds College and Dr Cristiano Ristuccia of Trinity Hall. The first hundred years of Proctorial records are mostly lost, the Proctors are ex officio members of the Board of Scrutiny, the Board of Examinations, and various other bodies. Their presence is essential at all Congregations of the Regent House, at which the Senior Proctor reads all the Graces, if any Grace is opposed by any member of the Senate saying non placet, the Proctors take the votes of those present and announce the result
27.
Consistory court
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The consistory court is a type of ecclesiastical court, especially within the Church of England. Each diocese in the Church of England has a consistory court, before 1858 consistory courts exercised jurisdiction over matrimonial and probate matters. This jurisdiction was moved to the courts by the Court of Probate Act 1857. Consistory courts also had jurisdiction over the crimes of clerks. Other former areas of jurisdiction included defamation and certain contracts cases, the Ecclesiastical Courts Act 1855 and the Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860 removed the remaining judicial functions of the courts. The Consistory court usually sits on paper without formal hearings, when hearings are required they can be held in any convenient building, either an existing court building or a school or community hall hired for the purpose. Historically consistory courts had a say in the cathedral and many still contain court rooms. Consistory courts dealing with faculty applications may sit in the church affected, each Consistory court is presided over by the Chancellor of the Diocese. The chancellor is appointed by letters patent, the chancellor must be over 30 years of age, a barrister of seven years standing or who has held high judicial office, and a communicant of the Church of England. He takes the oath, the oath of allegiance and makes a declaration of assent. The chancellor may be removed by the if the Upper House of the Convocation of the province so resolves. Chancellors are addressed on the bench as “Worshipful Sir or Sir”, most wear the robes of a QC even if not of that degree, though at least one sits in his academical robes. The court itself is styled this venerable court, there may also be a deputy chancellor, who may hear certain matters. He must be a barrister of seven years standing or have held high judicial office, the registrar of the diocese is also the registrar of the consistory court. He was usually also the secretary to the bishop, and now must be a legal adviser. He must be a solicitor learned in law, and be a communicant of the Church of England. He is appointed by the bishop after consultation with the Bishops Council, each consistory court has a seal, which is in the care of the registrar. There may be a deputy registrar, who acts only in the absence of the registrar, there may be a separate clerk of the court, if there might be a conflict of interest for the registrar to act in this capacity
28.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
29.
Society of Jesus
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
30.
Baptism
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Baptism is a Christian sacrament of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally. The canonical Gospels report that Jesus was baptized—a historical event to which a degree of certainty can be assigned. Baptism has been called a sacrament and an ordinance of Jesus Christ. In some denominations, baptism is also called christening, but for others the word christening is reserved for the baptism of infants, Baptism has also given its name to the Baptist churches and denominations. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the candidate to be immersed, in v.16, Matthew will speak of Jesus coming up out of the water. The traditional depiction in Christian art of John the Baptist pouring water over Jesus head may therefore be based on later Christian practice, other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead, a method called affusion. Martyrdom was identified early in Church history as baptism by blood, later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved. Today, some Christians, particularly Christian Scientists, Quakers, The Salvation Army, and Unitarians, do not see baptism as necessary, among those that do, differences can be found in the manner and mode of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most Christians baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, much more than half of all Christians baptize infants, many others hold that only believers baptism is true baptism. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water, as long as the water flows on the head, is sufficient. The term baptism has also used to refer to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which a person is initiated, purified. The Greek verb baptō, dip, from which the verb baptizo is derived, is in turn hypothetically traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root *gʷabh-, the Greek words are used in a great variety of meanings. John the Baptist, who is considered a forerunner to Christianity, the apostle Paul distinguished between the baptism of John, and baptism in the name of Jesus, and it is questionable whether Christian baptism was in some way linked with that of John. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism, though whether Jesus intended to institute a continuing, the earliest Christian baptisms were probably normally by immersion, complete or partial. Though other modes may have also been used, at the hour in which the cock crows, they shall first pray over the water. When they come to the water, the water shall be pure and flowing, that is, then they shall take off all their clothes. The children shall be baptized first, all of the children who can answer for themselves, let them answer. If there are any children who cannot answer for themselves, let their parents answer for them, after this, the men will be baptized
31.
Scotton, Harrogate
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Scotton is a small village and civil parish in the Harrogate district of North Yorkshire, England with a population 283 in the 2001 census, increasing to 624 at the 2011 Census. It is 4 miles north of Harrogate and less than 2 miles from Knaresborough, the home of Guy Fawkes, Scotton has a Guy Fawkes Night celebration in his honour. The village has a summer fete called the Scotton Feast. Not held in 2005 for the first time in several years, apart from the Guy Fawkes Arms public house, the village has little in the way of public amenities. It has a hall, a cricket team and a boys and girls junior football teams. Scotton Cricket Club play in the Nidderdale Cricket League with the 1st XI in the 2nd division, Scotton is sometimes used as a shortcut by people wishing to travel from the A6055 to the B6165 and vice versa
32.
St Peter's School, York
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St Peters School is a co-educational independent boarding and day school, in the English City of York, with extensive grounds on the banks of the River Ouse. Founded by St Paulinus of York in AD627 and it is the third oldest school in the UK and the fourth oldest in the world. It is part of the York Boarding Schools Group, founded in the English city of York by St Paulinus of York in the year AD627, the school was originally based at York Minster. An early headmaster Alcuin, went on to be Chancellor to the Emperor Charlemagne and it is the third oldest school in the UK and the fourth oldest in the world. For most of its history, the school has been a school and only admitted its first girls into the sixth form in 1976. In 1987 it became fully coeducational, the school has a large campus near to the centre of the city of York, stretching to the banks of the River Ouse. The main front of the faces along Bootham, this is the oldest part of the site and comprises the Memorial Hall, Alcuin Library and Chapel. Behind here is the Scott Block, Old Science Building, New Science Building, Shepherd Rooms, The Grove, the Music School, the Dame Judi Dench Drama Centre, Hope House, and Queens Building are also located along the top of the Campus. Boarding Houses Wentworth and Rise border the campus, while Linton, Dronfield. In the 2000s the school expanded its site under Headmaster Andrew Trotman to include the new campus, formally the site of Queen Annes. The move was not without its challenges, including the distance between the old and new sites and the dissection of a public footpath. In September 2001, St Olaves, the school, moved from the White House, Chilman Building. The pre-prep, Clifton Prep moved from its original 19th-century building on The Avenue to occupy the buildings used by St Olaves. The Lower Campus now contains St Olaves prep school and the senior school Biology, in 2006 St Peters School closed a public footpath running through the school grounds using The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000. This was hotly disputed by local people, St Peters offers a continuity of education from the Clifton Pre-preparatory School, to St Olaves School and through to St Peters School. The school has a history of academic achievement across all age ranges. The curriculum is broad from an age, offering a solid grounding in the sciences as well as in English. Language-learning is also encouraged from an age, so too the teaching of Latin, compulsory for the first four years of study and also offered at GCSE
33.
Blubberhouses
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Blubberhouses is a small village and civil parish located in the Washburn Valley in the borough of Harrogate in North Yorkshire, a county in the north of England. The population as at the 2011 Census was less than 100, details are included in the civil parish of Fewston. It is situated to the south of the Yorkshire Dales national park, the village is on the A59 road from Harrogate to Skipton. The Anglican village church of St Andrews, is part of the parish of Fewston. The village has two teams who play at a ground on the River Washburn. On 6 July 2014, Stage 2 of the 2014 Tour de France from York to Sheffield and it was also the location of the first climb of the stage, the Category 4 Côte de Blubberhouses, at the 47 kilometres point. It was 1.8 kilometres long at a gradient of 6. 1%. The 1 point for the King of the Mountain competition was claimed by Frenchman, several suggestions have been made for the origins of the name Blubberhouses, - From the blueberry, Ely Hargroves History of Knaresborough. From the Blue Boar, a former inn, early spellings include Bluburgh, Bluborrow, Bluburhouse, Bluberhusum. These may come from, - Anglo-Saxon burh = fort, Anglo-Saxon bluberhūs = the house which is/are at the bubbling stream, with a later regularised plural, the -um form came from the Anglo-Saxon dative plural case æt bluberhūsum = at the houses which. Blubberhouses is used as a key setting for local composer Andy Tillisons composition Le Sacre Du Travail, the work is, according to the CD sleeve notes, loosely based around Igor Stravinskys Le Sacre Du Printemps. One section of the movement is named Dawn At Blubberhouses. A short story in the CD sleeve describes the journey of a man travelling to work through the village in the hours of the morning. The CD album was released in 2013 by the German record label Inside Out Music, media related to Blubberhouses at Wikimedia Commons Landslide near Blubberhouses September 2010 British Geological Survey
34.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries
35.
John and Christopher Wright
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Their sister married another plotter, Thomas Percy. Educated at the school in York, the Wrights had early links with Guy Fawkes. As known recusants the brothers were on several occasions arrested for reasons of national security, both were also members of the Earl of Essexs rebellion of 1601. John was one of the first men to join the conspiracy, eventually the group opted to wait for the authorities at Holbeche House, on the border of Staffordshire. On 8 November the Sheriff of Worcester arrived with a group of armed men. John and Christopher Wright were born to Robert Wright and his wife, Ursula Rudston, daughter of Nicholas. John was baptised at Welwick in Yorkshire, on 16 January 1568 and their sister, Martha, married Thomas Percy in 1591. The brothers were pupils at St Peters School in York, along with Guy Fawkes, although outwardly conformist, the schools headmaster John Pulleine came from a notable family of Yorkshire recusants, and his predecessor at St Peters had spent 20 years in prison for his recusancy. Three Catholic priests, Oswald Tesimond, Edward Oldcorn and Robert Middleton, were educated at St Peters. John and Christopher were both married, to Dorothy and Margaret respectively, John had a daughter, born some time in the late 1590s. As a precautionary measure, in 1596 they were arrested during Queen Elizabeth Is illness. They were incarcerated at the White Lyon prison in 1601 for their involvement in the Earl of Essexs rebellion, both were skilled swordsmen, and John was renowned for his courage. The Jesuit priest Oswald Tesimond wrote that he possessed a good physique, rather on the tall side, his features were pleasing. He was somewhat taciturn in manner, but very loyal to his friends, Christophers appearance was slightly different from that of his brother, not like him in face, as being fatter and a lighter coloured hair and taller of person. According to Father John Gerard, Johns involvement with Essex coincided with his conversion to Catholicism, following his conversion John became a man of exemplary life. Catesby proposed to blow up the Parliament House with gunpowder, killing the king and his government, Catesby had not then given up hope on foreign help, and so he sent Wintour to the continent to meet with the Constable of Castille. Wintour also met with Welsh spy Hugh Owen, who introduced him to Guy Fawkes, a fifth conspirator, Thomas Percy, joined them several weeks later. Percy was related to the Wright family by marriage, having wed Johns sister, the group met on 20 May 1604 at the Duck and Drake inn, in the fashionable Strand district of London
36.
Edward Oldcorne
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Blessed Edward Oldcorne or Oldcorn alias Hall was an English Jesuit priest. He is a Roman Catholic martyr, and was beatified in 1929, Oldcorne was born in York in 1561, the son of John Oldcorne, a bricklayer, and his wife Mary. His father was a Protestant, and his mother a Catholic who had spent some time in prison due to her faith and he was educated at St Peters School in York, school friends were John and Christopher Wright and Guy Fawkes. Oldcorne was educated as a doctor, but later decided to enter the priesthood and he went to the English College at Reims, then to Rome where after ordination in 1587, he became a Jesuit in 1588. In late 1588 Oldcorne returned to England, in the company of John Gerard, in early 1589 he went with Henry Garnet to the West Midlands, visiting Coughton, Warwickshire and settling at Baddeley Clinton. He then worked chiefly in Worcestershire for 17 years, Oswald Tesimond assisted him after 1596, Thomas Lister, another Jesuit, also supported Oldcornes mission but found the requirements of the covert life difficult. Oldcorne sometimes stayed with Thomas Abington, whose house at Hindlip Hall was near Baddeley Clinton, there he converted Thomass sister Dorothy. The house was then was adapted by Nicholas Owen to help conceal Catholic priests, on 3 November 1601, Oldcorne went on a pilgrimage to St Winefrides Well at Holywell in north Wales to obtain a cure for a cancer of the throat. The cancer cleared up and in 1605 about thirty people returned with him to give thanks for his recovery, amongst this group were the priests Oswald Tesimond, Ralph Ashley, and Henry Garnet, as well as Nicholas Owen and John Gerard. Also in the group was plotter Everard Digby and his wife, the timing of this second pilgrimage and the people involved later aroused suspicion. The government investigation used this gathering as circumstantial evidence to some of those there in the plot. When the Gunpowder Plot was discovered, Oldcorne was at Hindlip Hall, in December, he was joined there by Nicholas Owen, Henry Garnet and Ralph Ashley who were hiding because they were under suspicion of involvement. Hindlip was searched in January but the four were not discovered, Garnet and their conditions were poor, and after eight days they surrendered. Oldcorne was arrested with Garnet by Sir Henry Bromley and held briefly at the castle at Holt in Worcestershire before being taken to the Tower of London. It has been said that Bromley would have abandoned his much earlier but he had information from Humphrey Littleton that Oldcorne. Oldcorne was tortured, but no evidence was found to connect him to the Gunpowder Plot, Tesimond said that certain people had intended to blow up the parliament house but they had been discovered a few days before it was meant to happen. Some allege that Oldcorne was executed just for his priesthood, at his trial, Humphrey Littleton asked for his forgiveness and it was said that he believed he deserved to die for revealing his friends whereabouts. Two letters of his are at Stonyhurst, the second written from prison, on the day before his execution John Floyd, a fellow Jesuit, was arrested for trying to visit him
37.
Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu
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Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu KG PC was an English peer during the Tudor period. Anthony Browne was the eldest of the six sons of Sir Anthony Browne by his first wife, Alice Gage, Browne was elected a member of parliament for Guildford in 1545, and named standard-bearer jointly with his father in 1546. Before 16 February 1547 he was appointed as an equerry in the royal stables and he was among the forty Knights of the Bath created at the coronation of King Edward VI on 20 February 1547. He inherited from his father an estate worth at least £1177 12s 2d per annum, on reaching the age of majority he was restored to the position of standard-bearer, and had licence to enter on his lands on 4 May 1550. He was Sheriff of Surrey and Sussex from 1552 to 1553, after Queen Marys accession to the throne in July 1553 Browne was appointed to several positions in the royal household. From October 1553 he was Keeper of Guildford Park, in April 1554 he was appointed Master of the Horse to Queen Marys consort, Philip II of Spain, for which he was granted an annuity of £200. From June 1554 he was steward and keeper of the chase at Hampton Court Palace, however, in early September 1554 King Philip replaced the English appointees in his household with Spaniards, and Browne lost his position as Philips Master of Horse. Browne also continued to hold civic offices, in April 1554 he was elected Knight of the Shire for Surrey, and in the same year was a Justice of the Peace for Surrey and Sussex. He took his seat in the House of Lords on 12 November, from 16 February to 24 August 1555 Montague travelled to Rome as one of the English ambassadors sent to treat with Pope Julius III for the restoration of Catholicism in England. He was installed as a Knight of the Garter on 17 October 1555, in 1557 he served under William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, as lieutenant-general of the English forces in Picardy at the siege of St Quentin. On 28 April 1557 he was appointed to the Privy Council and he was one of fifteen executors of Queen Marys will, and one of the chief mourners at her funeral. In 1563 he again spoke against a bill involving the oath of supremacy, despite his opposition to the regimes religious reforms, Montague retained Queen Elizabeths favour through his prudence and loyalty. He was sent on missions to Spain in 1560 and 1565. However, in November both Montague and his son-in-law, Henry Wriothesley, 2nd Earl of Southampton, were implicated in the rebellion, according to Akrigg, Montague and Southampton set sail for Flanders, but were driven back by contrary winds. In the following year Montagues son-in-law was in serious trouble. After Pope Pius Vs excommunication of the Queen, English Catholics were required to choose between loyalty to religion and loyalty to the sovereign. On 15 July he was placed in the custody of Sir William More at Loseley, after doing so, Southampton was released in November. A year later, in September 1571, under questioning concerning the Ridolfi plot, Southampton was arrested at the end of October and confined to the Tower for 18 months
38.
Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu
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Anthony-Maria Browne was an English peer during the Tudor and Stuart period. He was born in 1574, the son of Anthony Browne, eldest son of Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu, and Mary Dormer. He became the Second Viscount Montagu at the age of 18 on the death of his grandfather in 1592, in 1591 Browne married Jane Sackville, daughter of Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset, and by her had issue, Francis Browne. Francis Browne, 3rd Viscount Montague, who married Elizabeth Somerset, Mary Browne, who married firstly, William Paulet, Lord St. Catherine Browne, who married William Tyrwhit. Mary Browne, who married Robert Petre, 3rd Baron Petre, frances Browne, who married John Blomer. Anne Browne, who became a nun, lucy Browne, who became a nun. Anthony-Maria Browne was arrested in connection with the Gunpowder Plot and spent about a year in the Tower of London and he wrote a book on how to manage a noblemans household entitled A Booke of Orders and Rules. He died on 23 October 1629 and is buried in Midhurst Church, catholicism and Community in Early Modern England. Magna Carta Ancestry, A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families, ISBN1449966373 Scott, Sibbald David, ed. A Booke of Orders and Rules of Anthony Viscount Montague in 1595, Anthony Viscount Montagues A Book of Orders and Rules, by Sir Sibbald David Scott, in Sussex Archaeological Collections, vol. vii, London at Google Books
39.
Clifton, York
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Clifton is a suburb of York in the unitary authority of the City of York, in the north of England about 1½ miles from the city centre. The A19, passes out of York through Clifton. The old village area was made a Conservation Area in 1968 and it is the location of Nestle Foods Factory and the Public Schools of St Peters and the former Queen Annes. The origin of the name is derived from the Olde English pre-7th century clif, meaning a slope, or more usually a riverbank, with tun. During Roman times there was a road through Clifton that approached the Roman fortress from the north-west, there was a second road that also left the north-west gate and may eventually have joined the other. The evidence from early timber buildings from the Museum gardens and early burials from Bootham, sporadic 2nd century Roman occupation material and fragments of streets indicate that by that time expansion may have begun in Clifton. This development was not sustained and evidence indicates that from the 3rd century onwards the area beyond St. Marys was given over to cemeteries. There are records that show a windmill existed from the late 14th to the early 19th centuries in Burton Stone Lane and was known as Clifton or Lady Windmill, ownership was recorded between 1374 and 1413 as belonging to John de Roucliff. Other owners recorded were Sir William Ingleby, in the mid 15th century, the last record of the mill still being operational was in 1852, but there is no trace of the building now. Horse racing had begun in York towards the end of the 17th century, following the winter of 1730 racing moved to the recently drained Knavesmire. The York Diocesan Church Building Society, founded in 1861, contributed to the building of the church in Clifton between 1867 and 1869, Clifton is a ward in the Unitary Authority of the City of York. As of 2015, it is represented by Danny Myers and Margaret Wells, the figures below were taken from the Census 2001 Key Statistics for Local Authorities in England and Wales, from the Office for National Statistics on 29 April 2001. The next census is due in 2011, the population in Clifton Ward was 12,017 of which 91. 1% were born in England and 4. 9% from outside the United Kingdom. The largest Age Group within the population,22. 2%, were between 30 and 44 years old, of the total population,94. 6% described their ethnic origin as White-British. The figures show that 67. 8% declared they were Christian, of the population aged between 16 and 74 years old,59. 7% declared they were in some form of employment and 10. 5% said they were retired. Of the 5,337 households, 21% were Semi-Detached and 57. 5% were Terraced, the level of household ownership was 58%. In 2011, the population of Clifton rose to 13,548 in 5,652 Houses Clifton consists of council estates and terraced properties not visible from the main road. Clifton is bounded by the parish of Rawcliffe and Clifton Without to the north, Holgate to the south-west, Heworth to the east and Guildhall Ward to the south-east
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Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
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