1.
HP 35s
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The HP 35s is the latest in Hewlett-Packards long line of non-graphing programmable scientific calculators. Although it is a successor to the HP 33s, it was introduced to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the HP-35, the HP 35s uses either Reverse Polish Notation or algebraic infix notation as input. However, it far more functions, processing power. The physical appearance and keyboard layout of the HP 35s is very different than that of its predecessor, the HP 33s. The primary differences are, The HP 35s allows both label and line number addressing in programs, the HP 33s had only label addressing. With only 26 labels, it was difficult to write programs making use of the entire 30 KB of memory, the memory in the HP 35s is also usable for data storage, in the form of an extra 801 numbered memory registers. Support for vector operations is new in the HP 35s, complex numbers are treated as a single value instead of two separate values. Indirect branching, which allows the contents of a register to be used as the target of a branching instruction is omitted from the HP 35s. No arbitrary limit to length of equations, HP has released a free-of-charge 35s emulator for the Windows operating system. This was previously available to teachers for classroom demonstration purposes. The HP 35s was designed by Hewlett-Packard in conjunction with Kinpo Electronics of Taiwan, according to HP, the calculator has been engineered for heavy-duty professional use, and has been tested under extreme environmental conditions. It is built using 25 screws for rigidity and ease of maintenance, the faceplate is metal, bonded to the plastic case. The key legends are printed, rather than the double-shot moulding used in the vintage models, the calculator is powered by two CR2032 button cells, which it is advised to replace one at a time, to avoid memory loss. The calculator is entirely self-contained, there is no facility for upgrading the firmware, nor for loading/saving programs, particular mention has been made of the traditional HP feel of the keyboard with a big ↵ Enter key back in its traditional place. Shortcomings which have been identified include the lack of any facility for communication with a computer, response to the calculators logic has been mixed. The increase in addressable registers and introduction of program line-number addressing have been seen as a big improvement over the 33s, while welcoming the improved handling of complex numbers compared to the 33s, the incomplete support for them has been criticised. Working with hexadecimal and other non-decimal bases has been criticised as requiring excessive and unintuitive keystrokes, several firmware bugs have also been reported, which are not known to have been fixed as of 2015. The 35ss lack of communication makes it acceptable for use in some professional examinations where more powerful calculators would not be
2.
Calculator
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An electronic calculator is a small, portable electronic device used to perform operations ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics. The first solid state electronic calculator was created in the 1960s, building on the history of tools such as the abacus. It was developed in parallel with the computers of the day. The pocket sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the first microprocessor and they later became used commonly within the petroleum industry. Modern electronic calculators vary, from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers and they became popular in the mid-1970s. By the end of decade, calculator prices had reduced to a point where a basic calculator was affordable to most. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are designed for specific markets. For example, there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations, some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, as of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but the scientific and graphing models tend to cost more. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the worlds general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information, by 2007, this diminished to less than 0. 05%. Modern 2016 electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations, most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button, however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations. Large-sized figures and comma separators are used to improve readability. Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display, fractions such as 1⁄3 are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some fractions can be difficult to recognize in decimal form, as a result, Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into computer memory. Basic types of these only one number at a time. The variables can also be used for constructing formulas, some models have the ability to extend memory capacity to store more numbers, the extended memory address is termed an array index. Power sources of calculators are, batteries, solar cells or mains electricity, some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off. Crank-powered calculators were also common in the computer era
3.
Hewlett-Packard
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The Hewlett-Packard Company or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in a garage in Palo Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett and David Dave Packard. HP was the worlds leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q22013 and it specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.4 billion in 2008, in November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12,2010. On April 28,2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, on September 2,2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6,2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products, the split closed on November 1,2015, and resulted in two publicly traded companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. William Redington Hewlett and David Packard graduated with degrees in engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. In 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with a capital investment of US$538. Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett, HP incorporated on August 18,1947, and went public on November 6,1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was an audio oscillator. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200, the Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. They worked on technology and artillery shell fuses during World War II. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use, instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products, the products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture in 1963 to market HP products in Japan, HP bought Yokogawa Electrics share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. HP spun off a company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse image of the logo dy of the new company
4.
Trigonometric functions
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In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
5.
Exponential function
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In mathematics, an exponential function is a function of the form in which the input variable x occurs as an exponent. A function of the form f = b x + c, as functions of a real variable, exponential functions are uniquely characterized by the fact that the growth rate of such a function is directly proportional to the value of the function. The constant of proportionality of this relationship is the logarithm of the base b. The argument of the function can be any real or complex number or even an entirely different kind of mathematical object. Its ubiquitous occurrence in pure and applied mathematics has led mathematician W. Rudin to opine that the function is the most important function in mathematics. In applied settings, exponential functions model a relationship in which a constant change in the independent variable gives the same change in the dependent variable. The graph of y = e x is upward-sloping, and increases faster as x increases, the graph always lies above the x -axis but can get arbitrarily close to it for negative x, thus, the x -axis is a horizontal asymptote. The slope of the tangent to the graph at each point is equal to its y -coordinate at that point, as implied by its derivative function. Its inverse function is the logarithm, denoted log, ln, or log e, because of this. The exponential function exp, C → C can be characterized in a variety of equivalent ways, the constant e is then defined as e = exp = ∑ k =0 ∞. The exponential function arises whenever a quantity grows or decays at a proportional to its current value. One such situation is continuously compounded interest, and in fact it was this observation that led Jacob Bernoulli in 1683 to the number lim n → ∞ n now known as e, later, in 1697, Johann Bernoulli studied the calculus of the exponential function. If instead interest is compounded daily, this becomes 365, letting the number of time intervals per year grow without bound leads to the limit definition of the exponential function, exp = lim n → ∞ n first given by Euler. This is one of a number of characterizations of the exponential function, from any of these definitions it can be shown that the exponential function obeys the basic exponentiation identity, exp = exp ⋅ exp which is why it can be written as ex. The derivative of the function is the exponential function itself. More generally, a function with a rate of change proportional to the function itself is expressible in terms of the exponential function and this function property leads to exponential growth and exponential decay. The exponential function extends to a function on the complex plane. Eulers formula relates its values at purely imaginary arguments to trigonometric functions, the exponential function also has analogues for which the argument is a matrix, or even an element of a Banach algebra or a Lie algebra
6.
William Redington Hewlett
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William Bill Redington Hewlett was an American engineer and the co-founder, with David Packard, of the Hewlett-Packard Company. Hewlett was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan where his father taught at the University of Michigan Medical School. In 1916 the family moved to San Francisco after his father, Albion Walter Hewlett, took a position at Stanford Medical School. He attended Lowell High School and was accepted at Stanford University as a favor to his father who had died of a brain tumor in 1925. He joined the Kappa Sigma fraternity during his time at Stanford, Hewlett attended undergraduate classes taught by Fred Terman at Stanford and became acquainted with David Packard. Packard and he began discussing forming a company in August 1937, a flip of a coin decided the ordering of their names. Their first big breakthrough came when Disney purchased multiple audio oscillators designed by Hewlett for use in the production of the film Fantasia, the company incorporated in 1947 and tendered an initial public offering in 1957. Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard were very proud of their culture which came to be known as the HP Way. The HP Way is a culture that claimed to be not only centered on making money. Hewlett was president of the Institute of Radio Engineers in 1954 and he was president of HP from 1964 to 1977, and served as CEO from 1968 to 1978, when he was succeeded by John A. Young. He remained chairman of the committee until 1983, and then served as vice chairman of the board until 1987. A young Steve Jobs, then age 12, called Hewlett, Hewlett, impressed with Jobs gumption, offered him a summer job assembling frequency counters. Jobs then considered HP one of the companies that he admired, regarding it among the handful of companies that were built “to last, Hewlett served in the Army during World War II as a Signal Corps Officer. He then led the section of the Development Division, a new part of the War Department Special Staff. After the war he was part of a team that inspected Japanese Industry. Hewlett was a Director for Hexcel Products Incorporated from 1956-1965, Hewlett served as a Director of Chase Manhattan Bank from 1969-1980. Hewlett was also elected to the Board of Directors for Chrysler Corporation in 1966, starting in the 1960s Hewlett committed much of his time and wealth towards numerous philanthropic causes. In 1966, William Hewlett and his wife Flora founded the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, aside from the foundation Hewlett gave millions to universities, schools, museums, non-profits, and other organizations
7.
France Rode
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France Rode is an engineer and inventor best known for his work on the HP-35 pocket calculator. He was one of the four lead engineers at Hewlett-Packard assigned to this project, Rode also invented and created the first workable RFID products, workplace entry cards, for which he holds several patents. France was born in Nožice, Slovenia on November 20,1934 to farmers father Jože and mother Pepca, born Prešeren and his younger sister Agata and brothers Marko and Aleš completed the family. France started elementary education in nearby Homec soon after the German occupation of Slovenia during the Second World War. A few months into the first school year the local partisans burned the school building, due to an accelerated learning program, France completed the fourth grade in Homec in 1947 and in the fall of the same year began attending high school in Kamnik. He skipped the fifth grade by studying and passing exams designed for the fifth grade during the summer months and his academic interests at that time were in mathematics, physics and natural sciences. Whenever he had to study, France was excused from farm work, however, living on the farm allowed him no time for extracurricular activities for which he envied his schoolmates. Only occasionally he managed to join his peers after school and his fondest memories of such activities include participating in the staging of Hamlet, directed by Ciril Gostič, brother of operas singer Joze Gostic, France’s Godfather. His nostalgic memories also include skiing trips to Mala Planina and staying with his ski buddies in “Steletova koča. ”Living on the farm did have some side benefits, France learned hard work habits and discovered his inventive drive. In his uncle’s carpentry shop next door, he built his own toys and he made the slide rule he used during all his academic years in Ljubljana. France planned to study mathematics at Ljubljana University, but altered his interest to electrical engineering after he visited the University’s electrical engineering laboratories and he felt that in this field he would be able to combine his interest in mathematics with some hands-on work. France’s early contact with the world outside Slovenia, were two summer jobs in Germany and a few school excursions and these contacts subsequently led him to visit companies in Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany, which exposed him to advanced technologies of that era. They also triggered in him a desire to more about new places. France earned a degree in bio-medicine at Northwestern University in 1962. In September of the year he joined Hewlett-Packard Company in Palo Alto. During his years at Hewlett-Packard, France was able to participate in the development of new technologies in modern electronics. He was not just witnessing the birth and growth of Silicon Valley, which was then the center of technological progress. When a new measuring instrument needed a unit, France was given the task of designing it
8.
Hewlett-Packard 9100A
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The Hewlett-Packard 9100A is an early computer, first appearing in 1968. HP called it a desktop calculator because, as Bill Hewlett said, If we had called it a computer and we therefore decided to call it a calculator, and all such nonsense disappeared. The unit was descended from a prototype produced by engineer Tom Osborne, an engineering triumph at the time, the logic circuit was produced without any integrated circuits, the assembly of the CPU having been entirely executed in discrete components. With CRT readout, magnetic storage, and printer, the price was around $5,000. The 9100A was the first scientific calculator by the modern definition, hosted at the Computer History Museum. Chapter 20, The HP Model 9100A computing calculator, steven Leibson interview of Tom Osborne
9.
Slide rule
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The slide rule, also known colloquially in the United States as a slipstick, is a mechanical analog computer. The slide rule is used primarily for multiplication and division, and also for functions such as exponents, roots, logarithms and trigonometry, though similar in name and appearance to a standard ruler, the slide rule is not ordinarily used for measuring length or drawing straight lines. Slide rules exist in a range of styles and generally appear in a linear or circular form with a standardized set of markings essential to performing mathematical computations. Slide rules manufactured for specialized fields such as aviation or finance typically feature additional scales that aid in calculations common to those fields, at its simplest, each number to be multiplied is represented by a length on a sliding ruler. As the rulers each have a scale, it is possible to align them to read the sum of the logarithms. The Reverend William Oughtred and others developed the rule in the 17th century based on the emerging work on logarithms by John Napier. Before the advent of the calculator, it was the most commonly used calculation tool in science. In its most basic form, the slide rule uses two logarithmic scales to allow rapid multiplication and division of numbers and these common operations can be time-consuming and error-prone when done on paper. More elaborate slide rules allow other calculations, such as roots, exponentials, logarithms. Scales may be grouped in decades, which are numbers ranging from 1 to 10. Thus single decade scales C and D range from 1 to 10 across the width of the slide rule while double decade scales A and B range from 1 to 100 over the width of the slide rule. Numbers aligned with the marks give the value of the product, quotient. The user determines the location of the point in the result. Scientific notation is used to track the decimal point in more formal calculations, addition and subtraction steps in a calculation are generally done mentally or on paper, not on the slide rule. Most slide rules consist of three strips of the same length, aligned in parallel and interlocked so that the central strip can be moved lengthwise relative to the other two. The outer two strips are fixed so that their relative positions do not change. Some slide rules have scales on both sides of the rule and slide strip, others on one side of the outer strips and both sides of the slide strip, still others on one side only. A sliding cursor with a vertical alignment line is used to find corresponding points on scales that are not adjacent to other or
10.
Reverse Polish notation
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Reverse Polish notation is a mathematical notation in which every operator follows all of its operands, in contrast to Polish notation, which puts the operator before its operands. It is also known as postfix notation and it does not need any parentheses as long as each operator has a fixed number of operands. The description Polish refers to the nationality of logician Jan Łukasiewicz, the algorithms and notation for this scheme were extended by Australian philosopher and computer scientist Charles Hamblin in the mid-1950s. In computer science, postfix notation is used in stack-based. It is also common in dataflow and pipeline-based systems, including Unix pipelines, most of what follows is about binary operators. An example of a unary operator whose standard notation uses postfix is the factorial, in reverse Polish notation the operators follow their operands, for instance, to add 3 and 4, one would write 34 + rather than 3 +4. An advantage of RPN is that it removes the need for parentheses that are required by infix notation, while 3 −4 ×5 can also be written 3 −, that means something quite different from ×5. In postfix, the former could be written 345 × −, which unambiguously means 3 − which reduces to 320 −, the latter could be written 34 −5 ×, which unambiguously means 5 ×. In comparison testing of reverse Polish notation with algebraic notation, reverse Polish has been found to lead to faster calculations, because reverse Polish calculators do not need expressions to be parenthesized, fewer operations need to be entered to perform typical calculations. Additionally, users of reverse Polish calculators made fewer mistakes than for other types of calculator, however, anecdotal evidence suggests that reverse Polish notation is more difficult for users to learn than algebraic notation. The algorithm for evaluating any postfix expression is fairly straightforward, While there are input tokens left Read the next token from input, if the token is a value Push it onto the stack. Otherwise, the token is an operator and it is already known that the operator takes n arguments. If there are fewer than n values on the stack The user has not input sufficient values in the expression, else, Pop the top n values from the stack. Evaluate the operator, with the values as arguments, Push the returned results, if any, back onto the stack. If there is one value in the stack That value is the result of the calculation. Otherwise, there are more values in the stack The user input has too many values,12 +4 ×5 +3 − Edsger Dijkstra invented the shunting-yard algorithm to convert infix expressions to postfix, so named because its operation resembles that of a railroad shunting yard. There are other ways of producing postfix expressions from infix notation, one of the designers of the B5000, Robert S. Designed by Robert Bob Appleby Ragen, Friden introduced RPN to the calculator market with the EC-130 supporting a four-level stack in June 1963
11.
Scientific notation
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Scientific notation is a way of expressing numbers that are too big or too small to be conveniently written in decimal form. It is commonly used by scientists, mathematicians and engineers, in part because it can simplify certain arithmetic operations, on scientific calculators it is known as SCI display mode. In scientific notation all numbers are written in the form m × 10n, where the exponent n is an integer, however, the term mantissa may cause confusion because it is the name of the fractional part of the common logarithm. If the number is then a minus sign precedes m. In normalized notation, the exponent is chosen so that the value of the coefficient is at least one. Decimal floating point is an arithmetic system closely related to scientific notation. Any given integer can be written in the form m×10^n in many ways, in normalized scientific notation, the exponent n is chosen so that the absolute value of m remains at least one but less than ten. Thus 350 is written as 3. 5×102 and this form allows easy comparison of numbers, as the exponent n gives the numbers order of magnitude. In normalized notation, the exponent n is negative for a number with absolute value between 0 and 1, the 10 and exponent are often omitted when the exponent is 0. Normalized scientific form is the form of expression of large numbers in many fields, unless an unnormalized form. Normalized scientific notation is often called exponential notation—although the latter term is general and also applies when m is not restricted to the range 1 to 10. Engineering notation differs from normalized scientific notation in that the exponent n is restricted to multiples of 3, consequently, the absolute value of m is in the range 1 ≤ |m| <1000, rather than 1 ≤ |m| <10. Though similar in concept, engineering notation is rarely called scientific notation, engineering notation allows the numbers to explicitly match their corresponding SI prefixes, which facilitates reading and oral communication. A significant figure is a digit in a number that adds to its precision and this includes all nonzero numbers, zeroes between significant digits, and zeroes indicated to be significant. Leading and trailing zeroes are not significant because they exist only to show the scale of the number. Therefore,1,230,400 usually has five significant figures,1,2,3,0, and 4, when a number is converted into normalized scientific notation, it is scaled down to a number between 1 and 10. All of the significant digits remain, but the place holding zeroes are no longer required, thus 1,230,400 would become 1.2304 ×106. However, there is also the possibility that the number may be known to six or more significant figures, thus, an additional advantage of scientific notation is that the number of significant figures is clearer
12.
Light-emitting diode
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
13.
Exponentiation
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Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as bn, involving two numbers, the base b and the exponent n. The exponent is usually shown as a superscript to the right of the base, Some common exponents have their own names, the exponent 2 is called the square of b or b squared, the exponent 3 is called the cube of b or b cubed. The exponent −1 of b, or 1 / b, is called the reciprocal of b, when n is a positive integer and b is not zero, b−n is naturally defined as 1/bn, preserving the property bn × bm = bn + m. The definition of exponentiation can be extended to any real or complex exponent. Exponentiation by integer exponents can also be defined for a variety of algebraic structures. The term power was used by the Greek mathematician Euclid for the square of a line, archimedes discovered and proved the law of exponents, 10a 10b = 10a+b, necessary to manipulate powers of 10. In the late 16th century, Jost Bürgi used Roman numerals for exponents, early in the 17th century, the first form of our modern exponential notation was introduced by Rene Descartes in his text titled La Géométrie, there, the notation is introduced in Book I. Nicolas Chuquet used a form of notation in the 15th century. The word exponent was coined in 1544 by Michael Stifel, samuel Jeake introduced the term indices in 1696. In the 16th century Robert Recorde used the square, cube, zenzizenzic, sursolid, zenzicube, second sursolid. Biquadrate has been used to refer to the power as well. Some mathematicians used exponents only for greater than two, preferring to represent squares as repeated multiplication. Thus they would write polynomials, for example, as ax + bxx + cx3 + d, another historical synonym, involution, is now rare and should not be confused with its more common meaning. In 1748 Leonhard Euler wrote consider exponentials or powers in which the exponent itself is a variable and it is clear that quantities of this kind are not algebraic functions, since in those the exponents must be constant. With this introduction of transcendental functions, Euler laid the foundation for the introduction of natural logarithm as the inverse function for y = ex. The expression b2 = b ⋅ b is called the square of b because the area of a square with side-length b is b2, the expression b3 = b ⋅ b ⋅ b is called the cube of b because the volume of a cube with side-length b is b3. The exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together, for example,35 =3 ⋅3 ⋅3 ⋅3 ⋅3 =243. The base 3 appears 5 times in the multiplication, because the exponent is 5
14.
Chipset
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In a computer system, a chipset is a set of electronic components in an integrated circuit that manages the data flow between the processor, memory and peripherals. It is usually found on the motherboard, chipsets are usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors. Because it controls communications between the processor and external devices, the plays a crucial role in determining system performance. In computing, the term commonly refers to a set of specialized chips on a computers motherboard or an expansion card. In personal computers, the first chipset for the IBM PC AT of 1984 was the NEAT chipset developed by Chips, in home computers, game consoles and arcade-game hardware of the 1980s and 1990s, the term chipset was used for the custom audio and graphics chips. Examples include the Commodore Amigas Original Chip Set or SEGAs System 16 chipset, the term chipset often refers to a specific pair of chips on the motherboard, the northbridge and the southbridge. The northbridge links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially RAM and graphics controllers, in many modern chipsets, the southbridge contains some on-chip integrated peripherals, such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices. Motherboards and their chipsets often come from different manufacturers, as of 2015, manufacturers of chipsets for x86 motherboards include AMD, Broadcom, Intel, NVIDIA, SiS and VIA Technologies. Apple computers and Unix workstations have traditionally used custom-designed chipsets, some server manufacturers also develop custom chipsets for their products. In the 1980s Chips and Technologies pioneered the manufacturing of chipsets for PC-compatible computers, computer systems produced since then often share commonly used chipsets, even across widely disparate computing specialties. For example, the NCR 53C9x, a low-cost chipset implementing a SCSI interface to devices, could be found in Unix machines such as the MIPS Magnum, embedded devices. Traditionally in x86 computers, the primary connection to the rest of the machine is through the motherboard chipsets northbridge. The northbridge is directly responsible for communications with high-speed devices and conversely any system communication back to the processor and this connection between the processor and northbridge is traditionally known as the front side bus. Requests to resources not directly controlled by the northbridge are offloaded to the southbridge, the southbridge traditionally handles everything else, generally lower-speed peripherals and board functions such as USB, parallel and serial communications. The connection between the northbridge and southbridge does not have a name, but is usually a high-speed interconnect proprietary to the chipset vendor. This made processor performance highly dependent on the chipset, especially the northbridges memory performance. In 2003, however, AMDs introduction of the Athlon 64-bit series of processors changed this, Intel followed suit in 2008 with the release of its Core i series CPUs and the X58 platform. In newer processors integration has increased, primarily through the inclusion of the systems primary PCIe controller
15.
Mostek
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Mostek was an integrated circuit manufacturer, founded in 1969 by L. J. Sevin, Louay E. Sharif, Richard L. Petritz and other ex-employees of Texas Instruments. Initially their products were manufactured in Worcester, Massachusetts, however by 1974 most of its manufacturing was done in the Carrollton, in 1979, soon after its market peak, Mostek was purchased by United Technologies Corporation for $345M. In 1985, after years of red ink and declining market share, UTC sold Mostek for $71M to the French electronics firm Thomson SA. Mosteks first contract was from Burroughs, a contract for circuit design. The first design to be produced in their newly set-up MOS fab in Worcester, was the MK1001 and this was followed by a 1k PMOS aluminum-gate DRAM, the MK4006 that was manufactured in their Carrollton facility. Mostek had been working with Sprague Electric to develop the ion implantation process which provided a tremendous gain in the control of doping profiles, using ion implantation, Mostek became an early leader in MOS manufacturing technology, while their competition was still mostly using the older bipolar technology. The resulting increased speed and lower cost of the MK4006 memory chip made it the favorite to IBM and other mainframe. In 1970 Busicom, a Japanese adding machine manufacturer, approached Intel, Intel responded first, providing them with the Intel 4004, which they used in a line of desktop calculators. Mosteks device took longer to develop but was a single chip calculator solution, Busicom used the Mostek design in a new handheld line, the Busicom LE-120A, which went on the market in 1971 and was the smallest calculator available for some time. Hewlett-Packard also contracted with Mostek for mask development and production of chips for their HP-35, Mostek co-founder Robert Proebsting invented DRAM address multiplexing with the MK40964096 X1 bit DRAM introduced in 1973. Per pin costs are a major cost driver in integrated circuits, plus the multiplexed approach used less silicon area, in 1976 Mostek introduced the silicon-gate MK4027, and the new MK4116 16kb double-poly silicon-gate DRAM. They were designed by Paul Schroeder, who later left Mostek to co-found Inmos, from this point until the late 1970s Mostek was a continual leader in the DRAM field, holding as much as 85% of the world market for DRAM. The MK4027 and MK4116 were reverse-engineered by Mosaid and successfully cloned by many companies, the 64K generation of DRAMs required a transition from 12 volt to 5 volt-only operation, in order to free the +12 and –5 volt pins for use as addresses. Mosteks 256K DRAM was further delayed by a two layer metallization design. When the price for 64K DRAMs collapsed in 1985, Mosteks 256K device was not ready for production. Mosteks DRAM legacy is exemplified in the MK4116, MK4164 and MK41256, each of which were successfully cloned by competitors, Mostek enjoyed many years of mastery of the international market for telecommunications products. Their product line included telephone tone and pulse dialers, touchtone decoders, counters, top-octave generators, CODECs, watch circuits, during the fab shutdown production of the PMOS products was shifted to several external fabs. Several employees played a key role in the Telecommunications and Industrial Products Department, Robert Paluck headed the department, assisted by Michael Callahan, Charles Johnson, William H. Bradley, Robert C
16.
Floating-point arithmetic
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In computing, floating-point arithmetic is arithmetic using formulaic representation of real numbers as an approximation so as to support a trade-off between range and precision. A number is, in general, represented approximately to a number of significant digits and scaled using an exponent in some fixed base. For example,1.2345 =12345 ⏟ significand ×10 ⏟ base −4 ⏞ exponent, the term floating point refers to the fact that a numbers radix point can float, that is, it can be placed anywhere relative to the significant digits of the number. This position is indicated as the exponent component, and thus the floating-point representation can be thought of as a kind of scientific notation. The result of dynamic range is that the numbers that can be represented are not uniformly spaced. Over the years, a variety of floating-point representations have been used in computers, however, since the 1990s, the most commonly encountered representation is that defined by the IEEE754 Standard. A floating-point unit is a part of a computer system designed to carry out operations on floating point numbers. A number representation specifies some way of encoding a number, usually as a string of digits, there are several mechanisms by which strings of digits can represent numbers. In common mathematical notation, the string can be of any length. If the radix point is not specified, then the string implicitly represents an integer, in fixed-point systems, a position in the string is specified for the radix point. So a fixed-point scheme might be to use a string of 8 decimal digits with the point in the middle. The scaling factor, as a power of ten, is then indicated separately at the end of the number, floating-point representation is similar in concept to scientific notation. Logically, a floating-point number consists of, A signed digit string of a length in a given base. This digit string is referred to as the significand, mantissa, the length of the significand determines the precision to which numbers can be represented. The radix point position is assumed always to be somewhere within the significand—often just after or just before the most significant digit and this article generally follows the convention that the radix point is set just after the most significant digit. A signed integer exponent, which modifies the magnitude of the number, using base-10 as an example, the number 7005152853504700000♠152853.5047, which has ten decimal digits of precision, is represented as the significand 1528535047 together with 5 as the exponent. In storing such a number, the base need not be stored, since it will be the same for the range of supported numbers. Symbolically, this value is, s b p −1 × b e, where s is the significand, p is the precision, b is the base
17.
Binary-coded decimal
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In computing and electronic systems, binary-coded decimal is a class of binary encodings of decimal numbers where each decimal digit is represented by a fixed number of bits, usually four or eight. Special bit patterns are used for a sign or for other indications. The precise 4-bit encoding may vary however, for technical reasons, the ten states representing a BCD decimal digit are sometimes called tetrades with those dont care-states unused named pseudo-tetrads or pseudo-decimal digit). BCDs principal drawbacks are an increase in the complexity of the circuits needed to implement basic arithmetics. BCD was used in many early computers, and is implemented in the instruction set of machines such as the IBM System/360 series and its descendants. BCD takes advantage of the fact that any one decimal numeral can be represented by a four bit pattern, the most obvious way of encoding digits is natural BCD, where each decimal digit is represented by its corresponding four-bit binary value, as shown in the following table. This is also called 8421 encoding, other encodings are also used, including so-called 4221 and 7421 — named after the weighting used for the bits — and excess-3. For example, the BCD digit 6, 0110b in 8421 notation, is 1100b in 4221, 0110b in 7421, Packed, Two numerals are encoded into a single byte, with one numeral in the least significant nibble and the other numeral in the most significant nibble. To represent numbers larger than the range of a single byte any number of contiguous bytes may be used, also note how packed BCD is more efficient in storage usage as compared to unpacked BCD, encoding the same number in unpacked format would consume twice the storage. Shifting and masking operations are used to pack or unpack a packed BCD digit, other logical operations are used to convert a numeral to its equivalent bit pattern or reverse the process. BCD is very common in systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic. By employing BCD, the manipulation of data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical seven-segment displays to build a metering circuit. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary. Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in BCD, the same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, for these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities. In Packed BCD, each of the two nibbles of each byte represent a decimal digit, Packed BCD has been in use since at least the 1960s and is implemented in all IBM mainframe hardware since then. Most implementations are big endian, i. e. with the more significant digit in the half of each byte
18.
HP-45
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The HP-45 was the second scientific calculator introduced by Hewlett-Packard, adding to the features of the HP-35. Especially noteworthy was its pioneering addition of a key that gave the other keys alternate functions. The calculator was code-named Wizard, which is the first known use of a name for a calculator. It also contained an Easter egg that allowed users to access a not-especially accurate stopwatch mode, an accurate version of the stopwatch mode was officially featured in the 1975 successor of the HP-45, the HP-55. Several individuals and companies make software emulators of the HP45 series calculators, nonpareil, high-fidelity simulator for calculators Emulates, among other, the HP-45. Licensed under the GNU General Public License, available for a large variety of operating systems. HP-45 Emulator HP-45 Emulator written in Java, HP-45 Windows Phone 7 App An Emulator for Windows Phone 7. HP-45 Emulator in JavaScript The HP-45 Program ROM was translated to JavaScript to have an exact simulation of the calculator for use in web browsers
19.
Stopwatch
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A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece designed to measure the amount of time elapsed from a particular time when it is activated to the time when the piece is deactivated. A large digital version of a designed for viewing at a distance. In manual timing, the clock is started and stopped by a person pressing a button, in fully automatic time, both starting and stopping are triggered automatically, by sensors. The timing functions are controlled by two buttons on the case. Pressing the top button starts the timer running, and pressing the button a second time stops it, a press of the second button then resets the stopwatch to zero. The second button is used to record split times or lap times. Pressing the split button a second time allows the watch to display of total time. Mechanical stopwatches are powered by a mainspring, which must be wound up by turning the knurled knob at the top of the watch. Digital electronic stopwatches are available which, due to their crystal oscillator timing element, are more accurate than mechanical timepieces. Because they contain a microchip, they often include date and time-of-day functions as well, stopwatches that count by 1/100 of a second are commonly mistaken as counting milliseconds, rather than centiseconds. The first digital timer used in organized sports was the Digitimer, developed by Cox Electronic Systems and it utilized a Nixie-tube readout and provided a resolution of 1/1000 second. Its first use was in ski racing, but was used by the World University Games in Moscow, Russia, the U. S. NCAA. The device is used when time periods must be measured precisely, laboratory experiments and sporting events like sprints are good examples. The stopwatch function is present as an additional function of many digital wristwatches, cell phones, portable music players. The popular newsmagazine 60 Minutes uses a ticking stopwatch as a part of its title card, chronograph Samuel Watson who made the first stopwatch
20.
Crystal oscillator
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A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency. Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, more than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers. Quartz crystals are found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators. A crystal oscillator is an oscillator circuit that uses a piezoelectric resonator. Crystal is the term used in electronics for the frequency-determining component. A more accurate term for it is piezoelectric resonator, Crystals are also used in other types of electronic circuits, such as crystal filters. Piezoelectric resonators are sold as components for use in crystal oscillator circuits. An example is shown in the picture and they are also often incorporated in a single package with the crystal oscillator circuit, shown on the righthand side. Piezoelectricity was discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880, paul Langevin first investigated quartz resonators for use in sonar during World War I. Cady built the first quartz oscillator in 1921. Other early innovators in quartz crystal oscillators include G. W. Pierce, Quartz crystal oscillators were developed for high-stability frequency references during the 1920s and 1930s. Prior to crystals, radio stations controlled their frequency with tuned circuits, since broadcast stations were assigned frequencies only 10 kHz apart, interference between adjacent stations due to frequency drift was a common problem. In 1928, Warren Marrison of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed the first quartz-crystal clock, with accuracies of up to 1 second in 30 years, quartz clocks replaced precision pendulum clocks as the worlds most accurate timekeepers until atomic clocks were developed in the 1950s. Using the early work at Bell Labs, AT&T eventually established their Frequency Control Products division, later spun off, a number of firms started producing quartz crystals for electronic use during this time. Using what are now considered primitive methods, about 100,000 crystal units were produced in the United States during 1939, through World War II crystals were made from natural quartz crystal, virtually all from Brazil. By the 1970s virtually all crystals used in electronics were synthetic, although crystal oscillators still most commonly use quartz crystals, devices using other materials are becoming more common, such as ceramic resonators. A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration
21.
HP-65
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The HP-65 is the first magnetic card-programmable handheld calculator. Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1974 at an MSRP of $795, it featured nine storage registers and it also included a magnetic card reader/writer to save and load programs. Like all Hewlett-Packard calculators of the era and most since, the HP-65 used Reverse Polish Notation, bill Hewletts design requirement was that the calculator should fit in his shirt pocket. That is one reason for the depth of the calculator. The magnetic program cards are fed in at the end of the calculator under the LED display. The HP-65 introduced the tall, trapezoid-shaped keys that would become iconic for many generations of HP calculators, each of the keys had up to 4 functions. For example, f followed by 4 would access the sine function, for some mathematical functions, a gold f −1 prefix key would access the inverse of the gold-printed functions, e. g. f −1 followed by 4 would calculate the inverse sine. Functions included square root, inverse, trigonometric, exponentiation, logarithms, the HP-65 was one of the first calculators to include a base conversion function, although it only supported octal conversion. It could also perform conversions between degrees/minutes/seconds and decimal degree values, as well as polar/cartesian coordinate conversion, the HP-65 had a program memory for up to 100 instructions of 6 bits which included subroutine calls and conditional branching based on comparison of x and y registers. Some but not all entered as multiple keystrokes were stored in a single program memory cell. When displaying a program, the key codes were shown without line numbers, a program could be saved to mylar-based magnetically coated cards, which were fed through the reader by a small electric motor through a worm gear and rubber roller at a speed of 6 cm/s. The recording area used only half of the width of the card, cards could be write-protected by diagonally clipping the top left corner of the card. HP also sold a number of collections for scientific and engineering applications on sets of pre-recorded cards. Since the limitation was documented in the manual, it is not strictly speaking a bug, during the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, the HP-65 became the first programmable handheld calculator in outer space. It was carried as a backup in case of a problem with the Apollo Guidance Computer and it was not put into operation, though, as the Apollo computer did not malfunction during that mission.6692. This ratio of convergence is now known as the first Feigenbaum constant, hP-25 HP-35 The HP-65 at an unofficial Hewlett-Packard museum, includes a photograph of the magnetic card. 1975 HP Calculator Christmas Guide HPs Virtual Museum, HP-65 HP-65 page at the unofficial Museum of HP Calculators
22.
HP-55
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The HP-55 was a programmable handheld calculator, a lower-cost alternative to the HP-65. Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1975, it featured twenty storage registers and its outward appearance was identical to the HP-65, except that a few key functions were different and that it did not have a magnetic card reader/writer. Like all Hewlett-Packard calculators of the era and most since, the HP-55 used Reverse Polish Notation, another feature of the HP-55 was that it officially featured a stop-watch function much similar to the hidden stop-watch function of the earlier HP-45 calculator. This stop-watch function could be accessed by setting the mode-slider to the Timer position, a quartz-crystal inside the calculator provided an accurate timebase, and it was advertised that the timer ran with as little as +/-0. 01% error. The data format used by the stop-watch consisted of a combination of units, because of this, data from the stop-watch could easily be used right away in calculations. The HP-55 also featured several other functions to instantly convert data between the Imperial and Metric systems. Bill Hewletts design requirement was that the calculator should fit in his shirt pocket and that is one reason for the tapered depth of the calculator. HP-45 HP-65 The HP-55 at an unofficial Hewlett-Packard museum,1975 HP Calculator Christmas Guide HP-55 page at the unofficial Museum of HP Calculators
23.
HP-67
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The HP-67 was a magnetic card-programmable handheld calculator, introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1976 at an MSRP of $450. A desktop version with built-in thermal printer was sold as the HP-97 at a price of $750, marketed as improved successors to the HP-65, the HP-67/97 were based on the technology of the 20-series of calculators introduced a year earlier. The two models are equivalent, and programs on magnetic cards can be interchanged between them. The HP-67/97 series featured a memory of 224 eight-bit words. The two extra bits per word compared to the HP-65s six allowed the designers to store any program instruction in a memory cell even if it required multiple keystrokes to enter. Programs could include 20 labels, subroutines, four flag registers,8 comparison functions, at 15 digits, the display was wider than those of the predecessor models, although the decimal point was displayed on its own digit position. The HP-67 keys carry up to four each, accessed through f, g and h prefix keys. The model 97 had more keys, therefore only two functions were assigned to each key, when interchanging magnetic cards between the HP-67 and the HP-97, the calculators software took care of converting the key codes, and emulated the 97s print functions through the 67s display. The HP-67 is powered by a pack of three AA-sized nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries, owing to the power requirements of the built-in thermal printer, the HP-97 employs a larger battery pack and more powerful charger. Of the 26-register data memory, the first ten could be accessed directly, ten more as an alternate register set, using the latter, a program could access all 26 registers as a single indexed array. Data memory is not permanent as in models, i. e. register contents. The alternate register set was used by statistical functions. The built-in magnetic card reader/writer could be used to programs and data. The same magnetic card format was used for the HP-41C which offered compatibility to the 67/97 through software in the card reader. HP offered a library of programs supplied on packs of pre-recorded magnetic cards for many applications including surveying, medicine, as well as civil and electrical engineering. In addition to software and support from HP, a user community supported the HP-67/97 as well as the other HP programmables of the era. The group was called PPC and produced the PPC Journal, one of the notable contributions of the group was the development of a Blackbox that allowed pseudo-alphanumeric displays. In 1977, HP introduced a version of the desktop model as the HP-97S which featured an extra parallel I/O port for collecting data from external hardware
24.
HP-25
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The HP-25 was a hand-held programmable scientific/engineering calculator made by Hewlett-Packard between 1975 and 1978. The HP-25 was introduced as an alternative to the ground-breaking HP-65. To reduce cost, the HP-25 omitted the HP-65s magnetic card reader, after switching off, the program was lost and had to be typed in again. The model HP-25C, introduced in 1976, addressed that shortcoming through the first use of battery-backed CMOS memory in a calculator, like all early HP calculators, the 25 used the Reverse Polish Notation for entering calculations, working on a four-level stack. Nearly all buttons had two functions, accessed by a blue and yellow prefix key. A small sliding switch was used to change between run and program mode. g, the HP-25 had memory space for up to 49 program steps. It was the first HP calculator which used fully merged keycodes to save memory space, additionally there were eight storage registers and specialized scientific and statistical functions. The owners manual came with 161 pages in four colors and contained many mathematical, scientific, the HP-25 was about 25% smaller than the HP-65. It used the same trapezoid profiled keys introduced wih the HP-65, the HP-25 was regarded as a competitor to the TI-58 and TI-58C calculators offered by Texas Instruments. Looking strictly at the functionality and capacity, the more equal competitor would be the TI-57 and it lacked a few of the HP-25s functions, but had some other advantages. One notable deficiency of the HP-25/25C was the lack of a capability, at a time when the TI-58. HP would go on to introduce the HP-29C/19C calculators with 99 merged steps, labels, and TI would introduce a TI-58C with continuous memory
25.
HP-41C
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The HP-41C series are programmable, expandable, continuous memory handheld RPN calculators made by Hewlett-Packard from 1979 to 1990. The original model, HP-41C, was the first of its kind to offer alphanumeric display capabilities, later came the HP-41CV and HP-41CX, offering more memory and functionality. The alphanumeric LCD screen of the HP-41C revolutionized the way a pocket calculator could be used, providing user friendliness, earlier calculators needed a key, or key combination, for every available function. The HP-67 had three shift keys, the competing Texas Instruments calculators had two and close to 50 keys, Hewlett-Packard were constrained by their one byte only instruction format. The more flexible storage format for programs in the TI-59 allowed combining more keys into one instruction, the longest instruction required eleven keypresses, re-using the shift keys four times. The TI-59 also made use of the Op key, followed by two digits, to access another 40 different functions, but the user had to remember the codes for them. Clearly, a convenient and flexible method of executing the calculators instructions was urgently needed. The HP-41C had a small keyboard, and only one shift key. Every function that was not assigned to a key could be invoked through the XEQ key and spelled out in full, e. g. XEQ FACT for the factorial function. The calculator had a user mode where the user could assign any function to any key if the default assignments provided by HP were not suited to a specific application. For this mode, the HP-41C came with blank keyboard templates, i. e. plastic covers with holes for the keys, alphanumeric display also greatly eased editing programs, as functions were spelled out in full. Numeric-only calculators displayed programming steps as a list of numbers, each number generally mapped to a key on the keyboard, often via row and column coordinates. Encoding functions to the numeric codes, and vice versa, was left to the user. The busy programmer quickly learned most of the codes, but having to learn the codes intimidated the beginners, in addition to this, the user had to mentally keep function codes separate from numeric constants in the program listing. The HP-41C displayed each character in a block consisting of 14 segments that could be turned on or off, the HP-41C used a liquid-crystal display instead of the ubiquitous LED displays of the era, to reduce power consumption. While this allowed the display of letters, digits. The functions of the calculator could be expanded by adding modules at the top of the machine, four slots were available to add more memory, pre-programmed solution packs containing programs covering engineering, surveying, physics, math, finance, games, etc. As such, an HP-41 could in fact be tailored to the needs of the user
26.
CMOS
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Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor, abbreviated as CMOS /ˈsiːmɒs/, is a technology for constructing integrated circuits. CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as image sensors, data converters, and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication. In 1963, while working for Fairchild Semiconductor, Frank Wanlass patented CMOS, CMOS is also sometimes referred to as complementary-symmetry metal–oxide–semiconductor. Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low power consumption. Since one transistor of the pair is always off, the series combination draws significant power only momentarily during switching between on and off states, CMOS also allows a high density of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily for this reason that CMOS became the most used technology to be implemented in VLSI chips, aluminium was once used but now the material is polysilicon. Other metal gates have made a comeback with the advent of high-k dielectric materials in the CMOS process, as announced by IBM and Intel for the 45 nanometer node and beyond. CMOS refers to both a style of digital circuitry design and the family of processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits. CMOS circuitry dissipates less power than logic families with resistive loads, since this advantage has increased and grown more important, CMOS processes and variants have come to dominate, thus the vast majority of modern integrated circuit manufacturing is on CMOS processes. As of 2010, CPUs with the best performance per watt each year have been CMOS static logic since 1976, CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor to implement logic gates and other digital circuits. CMOS always uses all enhancement-mode MOSFETs, CMOS circuits are constructed in such a way that all PMOS transistors must have either an input from the voltage source or from another PMOS transistor. Similarly, all NMOS transistors must have either an input from ground or from another NMOS transistor, the composition of a PMOS transistor creates low resistance between its source and drain contacts when a low gate voltage is applied and high resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. On the other hand, the composition of an NMOS transistor creates high resistance between source and drain when a low voltage is applied and low resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. CMOS accomplishes current reduction by complementing every nMOSFET with a pMOSFET, a high voltage on the gates will cause the nMOSFET to conduct and the pMOSFET to not conduct, while a low voltage on the gates causes the reverse. This arrangement greatly reduces power consumption and heat generation, however, during the switching time, both MOSFETs conduct briefly as the gate voltage goes from one state to another. This induces a brief spike in consumption and becomes a serious issue at high frequencies. The image on the right shows what happens when an input is connected to both a PMOS transistor and an NMOS transistor, when the voltage of input A is low, the NMOS transistors channel is in a high resistance state. This limits the current that can flow from Q to ground, the PMOS transistors channel is in a low resistance state and much more current can flow from the supply to the output
27.
Random-access memory
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Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed. Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. These include most types of ROM and a type of memory called NOR-Flash. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early 1970s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions. Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in 1947. It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access. The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible. Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away
28.
Read-only memory
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Read-only memory is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM can only be modified slowly, with difficulty, or not at all, strictly, read-only memory refers to memory that is hard-wired, such as diode matrix and the later mask ROM, which cannot be changed after manufacture. Although discrete circuits can be altered in principle, integrated circuits cannot and that such memory can never be changed is a disadvantage in many applications, as bugs and security issues cannot be fixed, and new features cannot be added. More recently, ROM has come to include memory that is read-only in normal operation, the simplest type of solid-state ROM is as old as the semiconductor technology itself. Combinational logic gates can be joined manually to map n-bit address input onto arbitrary values of m-bit data output, with the invention of the integrated circuit came mask ROM. In mask ROM, the data is encoded in the circuit. This leads to a number of disadvantages, It is only economical to buy mask ROM in large quantities. The turnaround time between completing the design for a mask ROM and receiving the finished product is long, for the same reason, mask ROM is impractical for R&D work since designers frequently need to modify the contents of memory as they refine a design. If a product is shipped with faulty mask ROM, the way to fix it is to recall the product. Subsequent developments have addressed these shortcomings, PROM, invented in 1956, allowed users to program its contents exactly once by physically altering its structure with the application of high-voltage pulses. This addressed problems 1 and 2 above, since a company can order a large batch of fresh PROM chips. The 1971 invention of EPROM essentially solved problem 3, since EPROM can be reset to its unprogrammed state by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. All of these technologies improved the flexibility of ROM, but at a significant cost-per-chip, rewriteable technologies were envisioned as replacements for mask ROM. The most recent development is NAND flash, also invented at Toshiba, as of 2007, NAND has partially achieved this goal by offering throughput comparable to hard disks, higher tolerance of physical shock, extreme miniaturization, and much lower power consumption. Every stored-program computer may use a form of storage to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution. Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs some form of memory to record changes in its state as it executes. Forms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most early stored-program computers, consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per-bit than RAM for many years. Most home computers of the 1980s stored a BASIC interpreter or operating system in ROM as other forms of storage such as magnetic disk drives were too costly
29.
HP-IL
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The HP-IL, was a short-range interconnection bus or network introduced by Hewlett-Packard in the early 1980s. As its name implies, the HP-IL cable formed a loop, every device on the bus has a ring-in and a ring-out connector, either on pigtails or built in. HP used a proprietary two-pin connector design with polarizing D-shaped shells, HP-IL cables can be interconnected without further adapters to extend their length. The IL used a form of Token passing protocol for media access control, each device on loop receives a sequentially assigned address automatically, from 1 up to 30. On the bus, devices could act as controllers or slaves, certain controllers like the HP-71 module or the HP82973A ISA interface could act as slaves as well, enabling a small network of calculators to be set up. In the loop, there is one controller, one listener and one device at any time. The talker is the device that is sending information to the loop, the controller is the device that commands devices to talk and listen. In calculator-based systems, the calculator is always the active controller, Hewlett-Packard developed a range of devices to be connected to the HP-IL, mostly peripherals such as printers and storage devices for calculators. Through the 82169A HP-IL/HP-IB Interface, HP-IL controllers could be connected to instruments with an HP-IB interface, there were also plans to make test equipment with IL interfaces, but apart from the somewhat popular 3468A multimeter, only a few devices were introduced before HP-IL itself became obsolete. In addition to the HP-IB interface, HP also sold RS-232, several HP calculators were offered with HP-IL interfaces. In the HP-75C/D it was built in, in such as the HP-71 and HP-41. Popular uses for the HP-IL on the calculators included printing and cassette file storage, for ease of use, the calculators supported automatic I/O address assignment, where printer or mass storage commands are directed to the first available device of the appropriate type. Where multiple devices per type were present, a manual assignment mode could be used, through the 82169A interface converter, even small calculators could be used to control a number of devices on a standard HP-IB bus, an interface in wide use for test and measurement equipment. The converter can operate in either of two modes, Translator or Mailbox, Translator mode is adequate for systems where only one controller is present, while Mailbox mode applies when there are separate controllers present on both buses. Deviating from this scheme requires manual control of addressing, in Mailbox mode, the controllers on either side can place a message into the converters buffer memory, for the other side to retrieve from that memory
30.
IEEE-488
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IEEE488 is a short-range digital communications 8-bit parallel multi-master interface bus specification. IEEE488 was created as HP-IB and is commonly called GPIB and it has been the subject of several standards. Newer standards have largely replaced IEEE488 for computer use, in the late 1960s, Hewlett-Packard manufactured various automated test and measurement instruments, such as digital multimeters and logic analyzers. They developed the HP Interface Bus to enable easier interconnection between instruments and controllers, the bus was relatively easy to implement using the technology at the time, using a simple parallel bus and several individual control lines. For example, the HP59501 Power Supply Programmer and HP 59306A Relay Actuator were both relatively simple HP-IB peripherals implemented only in TTL, using no microprocessor, HP licensed the HP-IB patents for a nominal fee to other manufacturers. It became known as the General Purpose Interface Bus, and became a de facto standard for automated, as GPIB became popular, it was formalized by various standards organizations. In 1975, the IEEE standardized the bus as Standard Digital Interface for Programmable Instrumentation, IEEE488, the standard was revised in 1987, and redesignated as IEEE488.1. These standards formalized the mechanical, electrical, and basic protocol parameters of GPIB, in 1987, IEEE introduced Standard Codes, Formats, Protocols, and Common Commands, IEEE488.2. IEEE488.2 provided for basic syntax and format conventions, as well as device-independent commands, data structures, error protocols, and the like. IEEE488.2 built on IEEE488.1 without superseding it, while IEEE488.1 defined the hardware and IEEE488.2 defined the protocol, there was still no standard for instrument-specific commands. Commands to control the same class of instrument, e. g. multimeters, the United States Air Force, and later Hewlett-Packard, recognized this problem. In 1989, HP developed their TML language which was the forerunner to Standard Commands for Programmable Instrumentation, SCPI was introduced as an industry standard in 1990. SCPI added standard generic commands, and a series of instrument classes with corresponding class-specific commands, SCPI mandated the IEEE488.2 syntax, but allowed other physical transports. The IEC developed their own standards in parallel with the IEEE, with IEC 60625-1 and IEC 60625-2, national Instruments introduced a backward-compatible extension to IEEE488.1, originally known as HS-488. It increased the maximum rate to 8 Mbyte/s, although the rate decreases as more devices are connected to the bus. This was incorporated into the standard in 2003, over HPs objections. 1/IEC 60625-1, IEEE488 is an 8-bit, electrically parallel bus. The bus employs sixteen signal lines — eight used for data transfer. Every device on the bus has a unique 5-bit primary address, the standard allows up to 15 devices to share a single physical bus of up to 20 meters total cable length
31.
HP-28 series
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The HP-28C and HP-28S were two graphing calculators produced by Hewlett-Packard from 1986 to 1992. The HP-28C was the first handheld calculator capable of solving equations symbolically and they were replaced by the HP48 series of calculators, which grew from the menu-driven RPL programming language interface first introduced in these HP-28 series. The HP-28 calculators shared a flip-open case, on the left side of the flip, there is an alphabetic keyboard. On the right was a typical keyboard layout. The display was a 137×32 LCD dot matrix, usually displaying four lines of information, two models were produced, the HP-28C came first in 1987 with two kilobytes of usable RAM, and was the first handheld calculator with a Computer Algebra System. A year later, the more common HP-28S was released with 32 KB of RAM and a system for filing variables, functions. The HP-28C used a Saturn processor running at 640 kHz whereas the HP-28S used a chip containing an improved Saturn processor core codenamed Lewis. The HP-28C was the last HP model introduced with the suffix C in its model designation – a practice which HP had started with the HP-25C back in 1976, the C had distinguished those models as having continuous memory. Among the drawbacks of the HP-28 was the lack of a computer interface and this meant that stored information could only be entered through the keypad and not backed up. Even if the case itself was enough, those notches were under extreme pressure. As the lid edges were made of a metal, the plastic notches in the case were prone to cracking or breaking. Surviving examples of the versions of this calculator frequently have rubber bands around or tape over the cover to hold it in place. This defect was remedied on the HP-19BII, by putting the battery cover underneath the chassis. Archived from the original on 2015-06-08, HP-28S Advanced Scientific Calculator Reference Manual. Archived from the original on 2015-06-08, corvallis, OR, USA, Hewlett Packard, Portable Computer Division. Archived from the original on 2016-08-06, voyage au centre de la HP28c/s. Paris, France, Editions de la Règle à Calcul, archived from the original on 2016-08-06. HP-28 at the HP Calculator Museum HP-28S pictures on MyCalcDB HP-28 from Tonys Taschenrechner-Sammlung Calculator-Collection The HP28 WWW Archive
32.
Texas Instruments
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Texas Instruments Inc. is an American technology company that designs and manufactures semiconductors, which it sells to electronics designers and manufacturers globally. Headquartered in Dallas, Texas, United States, TI is one of the top ten semiconductor companies worldwide, Texas Instrumentss focus is on developing analog chips and embedded processors, which accounts for more than 85% of their revenue. TI also produces TI digital light processing technology and education technology products including calculators, microcontrollers, to date, TI has more than 43,000 patents worldwide. TI produced the worlds first commercial silicon transistor in 1950, Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit in 1958 while working at TIs Central Research Labs. TI also invented the hand-held calculator in 1967, and introduced the first single-chip microcontroller in 1970, in 1987, TI invented the digital light processing device, which serves as the foundation for the companys award-winning DLP technology and DLP Cinema. In 1990, TI came out with the popular TI-81 calculator which made them a leader in the calculator industry. In 1997, its business was sold to Raytheon, which allowed TI to strengthen its focus on digital solutions. Texas Instruments was founded by Cecil H. Green, J. Erik Jonsson, Eugene McDermott, McDermott was one of the original founders of Geophysical Service Inc. in 1930. McDermott, Green, and Jonsson were GSI employees who purchased the company in 1941, in November,1945, Patrick Haggerty was hired as general manager of the Laboratory and Manufacturing division, which focused on electronic equipment. By 1951, the L&M division, with its contracts, was growing faster than GSIs Geophysical division. The company was reorganized and initially renamed General Instruments Inc, because there already existed a firm named General Instrument, the company was renamed Texas Instruments that same year. From 1956 to 1961, Fred Agnich of Dallas, later a Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives, was the Texas Instruments president, Geophysical Service, Inc. became a subsidiary of Texas Instruments. Early in 1988 most of GSI was sold to the Halliburton Company, in 1930, J. Clarence Karcher and Eugene McDermott founded Geophysical Service, an early provider of seismic exploration services to the petroleum industry. In 1939, the company reorganized as Coronado Corp. an oil company with Geophysical Service Inc, on December 6,1941, McDermott along with three other GSI employees, J. Erik Jonsson, Cecil H. Green, and H. B. During World War II, GSI expanded their services to include electronics for the U. S. Army, Signal Corps, in 1951, the company changed its name to Texas Instruments, GSI becoming a wholly owned subsidiary of the new company. Texas Instruments also continued to manufacture equipment for use in the seismic industry, after selling GSI, TI finally sold the company to Halliburton in 1988, at which point GSI ceased to exist as a separate entity. Texas Instruments entered the electronics market in 1942 with submarine detection equipment. During the early 1980s, Texas Instruments instituted a quality program which included Juran training, as well as promoting statistical process control, Taguchi methods and Design for Six Sigma
33.
IPhone
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IPhone is a line of smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc. They run Apples iOS mobile operating system, the first generation iPhone was released on June 29,2007, the most recent iPhone model is the iPhone 7, which was unveiled at a special event on September 7,2016. The user interface is built around the devices multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard, the iPhone has Wi-Fi and can connect to cellular networks. Other functionality, such as games, reference works, and social networking. As of January 2017, Apples App Store contained more than 2.2 million applications available for the iPhone, Apple has released ten generations of iPhone models, each accompanied by one of the ten major releases of the iOS operating system. The iPhone 5 featured a taller, 4-inch display and Apples newly introduced Lightning connector, in 2013, Apple released the 5S with improved hardware and a fingerprint reader, and the lower-cost 5C, a version of the 5 with colored plastic casings instead of metal. They were followed by the larger iPhone 6, with models featuring 4.7 and 5. 5-inch displays.5 mm headphone jack found on previous phones. The iPhones commercial success has been credited with reshaping the smartphone industry, the original iPhone was one of the first phones to use a design featuring a slate format with a touchscreen interface. Almost all modern smartphones have replicated this style of design, in the US, the iPhone holds the largest share of the smartphone market. As of late 2015, the iPhone had a 43. 6% market share, followed by Samsung, LG, Apple CEO Steve Jobs steered the original focus away from a tablet and towards a phone. Apple created the device during a collaboration with Cingular Wireless at the time—at an estimated development cost of US$150 million over thirty months. Apple rejected the design by committee approach that had yielded the Motorola ROKR E1, among other deficiencies, the ROKR E1s firmware limited storage to only 100 iTunes songs to avoid competing with Apples iPod nano. Jobs unveiled the iPhone to the public on January 9,2007, the passionate reaction to the launch of the iPhone resulted in sections of the media dubbing it the Jesus phone. Following this successful release in the US, the first generation iPhone was made available in the UK, France, and Germany in November 2007, on July 11,2008, Apple released the iPhone 3G in twenty-two countries, including the original six. Apple released the iPhone 3G in upwards of eighty countries and territories. Apple announced the iPhone 3GS on June 8,2009, along with plans to release it later in June, July, many would-be users objected to the iPhones cost, and 40% of users had household incomes over US$100,000. The back of the original first generation iPhone was made of aluminum with a black plastic accent, the iPhone 3G and 3GS feature a full plastic back to increase the strength of the GSM signal. The iPhone 3G was available in an 8 GB black model, the iPhone 3GS was available in both colors, regardless of storage capacity
34.
IPad
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IPad is a line of tablet computers designed, developed and marketed by Apple Inc. which run the iOS mobile operating system. The first iPad was released on April 3,2010, the most recent iPad models are the 9. 7-inch iPad Pro released on March 31,2016, the user interface is built around the devices multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard. The iPad includes built-in Wi-Fi and cellular connectivity on select models, as of January 2015, there have been over 250 million iPads sold. IPad tablets are second most popular, by sales, against Android-based ones, since 2013, an iPad can shoot video, take photos, play music, and perform Internet functions such as web-browsing and emailing. Other functions – games, reference, GPS navigation, social networking, as of March 2016, the App Store has more than one million apps for the iPad by Apple and third parties. There have been six versions of the iPad, the first generation established design precedents, such as the 9. 7-inch screen size and button placement, that have persisted through all models. The third generation added a Retina Display, the new Apple A5X processor with a graphics processor, a 5-megapixel camera, HD 1080p video recording, voice dictation. The fourth generation added the Apple A6X processor and replaces the 30-pin connector with an all-digital Lightning connector, the iPad Air added the Apple A7 processor and the Apple M7 motion coprocessor, and reduced the thickness for the first time since the iPad 2. The iPad Air 2 added the Apple A8X processor, the Apple M8 motion coprocessor, an 8-megapixel camera, and the Touch ID fingerprint sensor, there have been four versions of the iPad Mini. The first generation features a screen size of 7.9 inches and features similar internal specifications as the iPad 2 except it uses the Lightning connector. The iPad Mini 2 features the Retina Display, the Apple A7 processor, the iPad Mini 3 features the Touch ID fingerprint sensor. The iPad Mini 4 features the Apple A8 and the Apple M8 motion coprocessor, Apple co-founder Steve Jobs said in a 1983 speech that the companys strategy is really simple. What we want to do is we want to put a great computer in a book that you can carry around with you. And we really want to do it with a link in it so you don’t have to hook up to anything and you’re in communication with all of these larger databases. Apples first tablet computer was the Newton MessagePad 100, introduced in 1993, powered by an ARM6 processor core developed by ARM, Apple also developed a prototype PowerBook Duo based tablet, the PenLite, but decided not to sell it in order to avoid hurting MessagePad sales. Apple released several more Newton-based PDAs, the one, the MessagePad 2100, was discontinued in 1998. Apple re-entered the mobile-computing markets in 2007 with the iPhone, smaller than the iPad, but featuring a camera and mobile phone, it pioneered the multi-touch finger-sensitive touchscreen interface of Apples iOS mobile operating system. By late 2009, the release had been rumored for several years
35.
CORDIC
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CORDIC, also known as Volders algorithm, is a simple and efficient algorithm to calculate hyperbolic and trigonometric functions, typically converging with one digit per iteration. It is therefore also a prominent example of digit-by-digit algorithms, as such, they belong to the class of shift-and-add algorithms. Similar mathematical techniques were published by Henry Briggs as early as 1624 or Robert Flower in 1771, CORDIC was conceived in 1956 by Jack E. Therefore, CORDIC is sometimes referred to as digital resolver. His research led to a technical report proposing the CORDIC algorithm to solve sine and cosine functions. The report also discussed the possibility to compute hyperbolic coordinate rotation, logarithms, utilizing CORDIC for multiplication and division was also conceived at this time. Based on the CORDIC principle, Dan H. Daggett, a colleague of Volder at Convair, in 1958, Convair finally started to build a demonstration system to solve radar fix-taking problems named CORDIC I, completed in 1960 without Volder, who had left the company already. More universal CORDIC II models A and B were built and tested by Daggett, Volder teamed up with Malcolm MacMillan to build Athena, a fixed-point desktop calculator utilizing his binary CORDIC algorithm. The design was introduced to Hewlett-Packard in June 1965, but not accepted, meggitts method was also suggesting the use of base 10 rather than base 2, as used by Volders CORDIC so far. This project resulted in the demonstration of Hewlett-Packards first desktop calculator with scientific functions. The CORDIC subroutines for trigonometric and hyperbolic functions could share most of their code and this development resulted in the first scientific handheld calculator, the HP-35 in 1972. Decimal CORDIC became widely used in calculators, most of which operate in binary-coded decimal rather than binary. This change in the input and output format did not alter CORDICs core calculation algorithms, CORDIC is particularly well-suited for handheld calculators, in which low cost – and thus low chip gate count – is much more important than speed. CORDIC is generally faster than other approaches when a hardware multiplier is not available, on the other hand, when a hardware multiplier is available, table-lookup methods and power series are generally faster than CORDIC. In recent years, the CORDIC algorithm has been used extensively for various biomedical applications, many older systems with integer-only CPUs have implemented CORDIC to varying extents as part of their IEEE floating-point libraries. Only microcontroller or special safety and time-constrained software applications would need to consider using CORDIC, CORDIC can be used to calculate a number of different functions. This explanation shows how to use CORDIC in rotation mode to calculate the sine and cosine of an angle, to determine the sine or cosine for an angle β, the y or x coordinate of a point on the unit circle corresponding to the desired angle must be found. Using CORDIC, one would start with the vector v 0, v 0 = In the first iteration, successive iterations rotate the vector in one or the other direction by size-decreasing steps, until the desired angle has been achieved. Step i size is arctan for i =0,1,2 and this correction could also be made in advance, by scaling v 0 and hence saving a multiplication
36.
HP calculators
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HP calculators are various calculators manufactured by the Hewlett-Packard company over the years. Their desktop models included the HP9800 series, while their handheld models started with the HP-35 and their focus has been on high-end scientific, engineering and complex financial uses. With this in mind, HP built the HP9100 desktop scientific calculator and this new calculator was well received by the customer base, but William Hewlett saw additional opportunities if the desktop calculator could be made small enough to fit into his shirt pocket. He charged his engineers with this goal using the size of his shirt pocket as a guide. The result was the HP-35 calculator and this calculator provided functionality that was revolutionary for a pocket calculator at that time. Through the years, HP released several calculators that varied in their capabilities, programmability. Some of them could be used to control the instruments other Hewlett Packard divisions produced, HP calculators are well known for their use of Reverse Polish Notation. Programmable HP calculators allow users to create their own programs
37.
HP 38G
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The HP 38G is a programmable graphing calculator by Hewlett Packard. It was introduced in 1995 with a retail price of 80 USD. HP credits a committee of eight high school, community college, the calculator is derived from and the hardware is based on the more powerful science/engineering oriented HP48 series of machines. The HP 38G, unlike most of HPs other calculators, uses infix notation rather than Reverse Polish Notation, given the calculators intended user-base of high school maths and science teachers and students, this is not surprising. The calculator is programmable, supporting small, interactive applications called aplets, after a HP 38G+ prototype was cancelled in 1998, the 38G was replaced in 2000 by the HP 39G and HP 40G. The two models were differentiated by the inclusion of a Computer Algebra System in the HP 40G. An unofficial method of operating the 40Gs CAS on the 39G was addressed in the next follow-up device, further successors have included the HP 39gs and HP 40gs introduced in 2006, and the HP 39gII in 2011. Comparison of HP graphing calculators List of HP calculators RPL character set HP Virtual Museum, Hewlett-Packard student graphic calculator hpcalc. org HP 38G pictures on MyCalcDB
38.
HP 39/40 series
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HP 39/40 series are graphing calculators from Hewlett-Packard, the successors of HP 38G. The series consists of six calculators, which all have algebraic entry modes, all calculators in this series are aimed at high school level students and are characterized by their ability to download APLETs or E-lessons. These are programs of varying complexity which are intended to be used in the classroom to enhance the learning of mathematics by the graphical and/or numerical exploration of concepts. The HP 39G was released in 2000, basic characteristics, CPU,4 MHz Yorke Communication, Proprietary infrared, Serial RS-232. Memory,256 KB Screen resolution, 131×64 pixels Includes a hard cover Limited symbolic equation functionality, HP 40G was released in 2000 in parallel with the HP 39G. The HP 40Gs operating system is identical to the HP 39G, differences detected in hardware during start-up trigger the differences in software functionality. The hardware is identical to the HP 49G/39G series, in contrast to the 39G, it integrates the same computer algebra system also found in the HP 49G, HP CAS. Unlike its bigger brothers, the HP 40G has no flags to set/mis-set resulting in a better behaved calculator for straightforward math analysis, additionally the HP 40G does not have infrared connectivity, and is limited to 27 variables. A list-based solver, and other handicaps make this simple-to-use calculator less adapted to end use. The HP 40G is not allowed for use in many standardized tests including the ACT, basic characteristics, Identical to HP 39G except, Communication, No infrared communication, Serial RS-232. Software, Includes an equation writer and advanced CAS, the hp 39g+ was released in September,2003. Basic characteristics, CPU,75 MHz Samsung S3C2410X Communication, USB port, memory,256 KB Power, 3×AAA as main power, CR2032 for memory backup Screen resolution, 131×64 pixels Does not come with a hard cover Limited symbolic equation functionality. The CAS component of the HP 40Gs operating system appears to have been totally removed, the HP 39gs was released in June 2006. Basic characteristics, CPU,75 MHz Samsung S3C2410A Communication, USB port, IrDA, Power, 4×AAA as main power, CR2032 for memory backup Screen resolution, 131×64 pixels Includes a hard cover Limited symbolic equation functionality. Flash memory to allow potential future upgrades/bug fixes, the HP 40gs was released in mid-2006. Basic characteristics, CPU,75 MHz Samsung S3C2410A Identical to HP 39gs except, Communication, software, Includes an equation writer and advanced CAS. This is necessary to accommodate the CAS software, the HP 39gII was released in October 2011. It is built around an 80 MHz Freescale STMP3770 processor with ARM926EJ-S core, the high-resolution monochrome gray-scale LCD provides 256x128 pixels
39.
HP-42S
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The HP-42S is a programmable RPN Scientific hand held calculator introduced by Hewlett Packard in 1988. It has advanced functions suitable for applications in mathematics, linear algebra, statistical analysis, computer science, perhaps the HP-42S was to be released as a replacement for the aging HP-41 series as it is designed to be compatible with all programs written for the HP-41. Since it lacked expandability, and lacked any real I/O ability, additionally, it features a two-line dot matrix display, which made stack manipulation easier to understand. Production of the 42S ended in 1995, yet, this calculator is regarded amongst the best ever made in terms of quality, key stroke feel, ease of programming, and daily usability for engineers. The HP-42S uses a superset of the HP-41CX FOCAL language, the HP-42S supports indirect addressing with which it is possible to implement a Universal Turing machine and therefore the programming model of the HP-42S can be considered Turing-complete. This is a program which computes the factorial of an input integer number. An Alternative HP-42S/Free42 Manual Hosoda, Takayuki
40.
HP 48 series
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The HP48 is a series of graphing calculators using Reverse Polish Notation and the RPL programming language, produced by Hewlett-Packard from 1990 until 2003. The series include the HP 48S, HP 48SX, HP 48G, HP 48GX, and HP 48G+, the models with an X suffix are expandable via special RAM and ROM cards. In particular, the GX models have more onboard memory than the G models, the G+ models have more onboard memory only. The SX and S models have the amount of onboard memory. Note that the similarly named hp 48gII is not really a member of the series, likewise, the hardware and software design of the HP48 calculators are themselves strongly influenced by other calculators in the HP line, most of all by the HP-18C and the HP-28 series. The HP 48SX was introduced on 1990-03-06, the main registers A, B, C, D, along with temp registers R0, R1, R2, R3, and R4 are a full 64-bits wide, but the data registers D0 & D1 are only 20-bit. External logical data fetches are transparently converted to 8-bit physical fetches, the processor has a 20-bit address bus available to code but due to the presence of the high/low nibble selection bit, only 19 bits are available externally. In both the HP 48S/SX and G/GX series, the Saturn CPU core is integrated as part of a complex integrated circuit package. These packages have codenames inspired by the members of the Lewis, the codename of the IC is Clarke in the S/SX, after William Clark, and Yorke in the G/GX, after Clarks manservant. Eventually the yields improved and the CPUs which clocked closer to 4 MHz were installed in the units as well. The effects of temperatures are almost negligible, RPL comes in two flavors, User RPL and System RPL. User RPL is the language that a user can program directly on the calculator, System RPL requires an external compiler, this may be done on the calculator with a third-party utility, or on another machine. The two languages mainly in the number of low-level operations available to them. User RPL does not expose any commands that do not check their arguments and it is also possible to program the HP48 directly in machine language. In the 2015 movie the Fantastic Four, an HP48 series calculator can be seen at about 28 minutes into the film, comparison of HP graphing calculators List of HP calculators RPL character set HP 48G Series – Users Guide. Archived from the original on 2016-08-06, HP 48G Series – Advanced Users Reference Manual. Archived from the original on 2016-08-06, the HP 48SX Scientific Expandable Calculator, Innovation and Evolution. Archived from the original on 2016-04-24, HP48 Machine Language - A Journey to the Center of the HP 48s/sx
41.
HP 49/50 series
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The HP 49/50 series are Hewlett-Packard manufactured graphing calculators. They are the successors of the popular HP48 series, there are five calculators in the 49/50 series of HP graphing calculators. Released in August 1999, the HP 49G calculator was the first HP unit to break from the more subdued coloration. In addition to having a blue color, the keyboard material was rubber. In addition, it lacked a large ↵ Enter key which was seen by many as the characteristic of an HP calculator. These changes were disliked by many traditional HP calculator users, the 49G was the first HP calculator to use flash memory and have an upgradable firmware. In addition, it had a hard sliding case as opposed to the soft pouches supplied with the HP48 series, almost the same hardware is also used by the HP 39G and HP 40G. The last officially supported firmware update for the 49G calculator was 1.18, the final firmware version was 1. 19-6. Several firmware versions for the successor hp 49g+ and HP 50g calculators have also released in builds intended for PC emulation software that lacked full utilization of the successors ARM CPU. Until at least firmware version 2.09, those emulator builds could be installed on the original HP 49G, in 2003, the CAS source code of the 49G firmware was released under the LGPL. In addition, this included an interactive geometry program and some commands to allow compatibility with certain programs written for the newer 49g+ calculator. Due to licensing restrictions, the recompiled firmware cannot be redistributed, in August 2003, Hewlett-Packard released the hp 49g+. This unit had metallic gold coloration and was compatible with the HP 49G. It was designed and manufactured by Kinpo Electronics for HP, the calculator system did not run directly on the new ARM processor, but rather on an emulation layer for the older Saturn processors found in previous HP calculators. Despite the emulation, the 49g+ was still faster than any older model of HP calculator. The speed increase over the HP 49G is around 3-7 times depending on the task and it is even possible to run programs written for the ARM processor thus bypassing the emulation layer completely. A port of the GNU C compiler is also available, the hp 48gII, which was announced on 2003-10-20, was not a replacement for the HP48 series as its name suggested. Rather it was a 49g+, also with an ARM processor, but with reduced memory, no expansion via an SD memory card, lower speed, a smaller screen
42.
HP Prime
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The HP Prime is a graphing calculator manufactured by Hewlett-Packard. It contains features common in smartphones, with a touchscreen and apps available to put onto it, there are two sides to the calculator, a numeric home screen and a computer algebra system homescreen. The calculator can quickly switch between the two, unlike its competitors, which either have a CAS model or a non-CAS model. The CAS is based on the free and open-source Xcas/Giac 1.1.2 engine by Bernard Parisse, the calculator has a 1500 mAh battery, which is expected to last up to 15 hours on a single charge. Prime emulator PC software is available as well and it has also, for now, taken the title for the worlds smallest CAS calculator at 18. 23×8.58 cm and is also the thinnest CAS calculator available currently, with a thickness of only 1.39 cm. The HP Prime has a feature called Exam Mode and this enables various features of the calculator to be selectively disabled for a specific time, from 15 minutes to 8 hours. This can be done manually within the menus, or by using a computer with HPs connectivity software. LEDs on the top of the calculator blink to let the instructor see that the calculator is in this mode, despite this feature, the Prime is still prohibited in many examinations, such as the USs ACT college-entry test. It is however starting to be accepted in other examinations, like those run by the Dutch CvTE, the HP Primes non-CAS home-screen supports textbook, algebraic and 128-level RPN entry logic. The calculator supports programming in a new, Pascal-like programming language now named HP PPL that also supports creating apps and this is based on a language introduced on the HP 38G and built on in subsequent models. The first production model in 2013 reports its hardware revision as A and this model does not support wireless connectivity, unit-to-unit USB communication, or data streaming. The second production model reports its hardware revision as C and it was introduced in May 2014. This model supports features lacking in the first production model, namely wireless connectivity, unit-to-unit USB communication, the wireless kit includes a base station connected to a PC and wireless modules to connect to up to 30 HP Prime calculators for use in a classroom. The third production model, which was introduced in August 2016, has a color scheme with darker blue. It still carries the model number G8X92AA and reports a hardware revision of C, but the package shows a 2016 copyright. org Reverse engineering the HP Prime USB protocol
43.
HP Xpander
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The HP Xpander was to be Hewlett-Packards newest graphing calculator in 2001, but the project was cancelled months before it was scheduled to go into production. It had both a keyboard and an interface, measured 162.6 mm by 88.9 mm by 22.9 mm, with a large grayscale screen. It had a semi-translucent green cover on a case and an expansion slot. The underlying operating system was Windows CE3.0 and it had 8 MB RAM,16 MB ROM, a geometry application, a 240×320 display, a Hitachi SH3 processor, and e-lessons. One of the omissions in the Xpander was the lack of a computer algebra system. After discontinuing the Xpander, HP decided to release the Xpander software, named the Math Xpander and it was hosted by Saltire Software, who had been involved in its design
44.
Hewlett-Packard Voyager series
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The Hewlett-Packard Voyager series of calculators were introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1981. All members of series are programmable, use Reverse Polish Notation. Nearly identical in appearance, each model provided different capabilities and was aimed at different user markets, the HP calculators Voyager series consisted of five models, some of which were manufactured in several variants, HP-10C – basic scientific calculator. The HP-10C is the last and lowest-featured calculator in this line, the 10C was a basic scientific programmable. While a useful general purpose RPN calculator, the HP-11C offered twice as much for only an increase in price. Designed to be an introductory calculator, it was still costly compared to the competition, poor sales led to a very short market life, making it one of the most difficult of the series to find today. The HP-11C is a scientific programmable calculator. The HP-12C is a financial calculator. It was such a model that Hewlett-Packard redesigned it from scratch, added several new functions. Over the course of years, several editions of the calculator were produced as well. The HP-12C is HPs longest and best-selling product, in production since its introduction in 1981. The HP-15C is a scientific programmable with a root-solver and numerical integration. It is also able to handle complex numbers and matrix operations, although long being discontinued its continued popularity among users triggered Hewlett-Packard to offer a HP 15c Limited Edition remake of the calculator in 2011. The HP-16C is a programmers calculator, designed to assist in debugging. It can display numbers in hexadecimal, decimal, octal and binary, a number of specialized functions are provided to assist the programmer, including left- and right-shifting, masking, and bitwise logical operations. HP has never made another programmers calculator, but has incorporated the 16Cs functions in later calculator models and he also wrote parts of the manuals. The HP Voyager series calculator are keystroke programmable, meaning that it can remember and later execute sequences of keystrokes to solve problems of interest to the user. The available programming features differentiate between the various HP Voyager series calculator systems, the HP-12C and its derivatives remains in widespread use today and is still available from Hewlett-Packard
