1.
Somerville, Massachusetts
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Somerville is a city located directly to the northwest of Boston, in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. As of 2010, the United States Census has the city with a population of 75,754 people. As of 2010, it was the 16th most densely populated incorporated municipality in the country, Somerville was established as a town in 1842, when it was separated from Charlestown. In 2006, the town was named the city in Massachusetts by the Boston Globe. In 1972, in 2009, and again in 2015, the city received the All-America City Award, the territory now comprising the city of Somerville was first settled in 1629 as part of Charlestown. In 1629, English surveyor Thomas Graves led a party of 100 Puritans from the settlement of Salem to prepare the site for the Great Migration of Puritans from England. Graves was attracted to the narrow Mishawum Peninsula between the Charles River and the Mystic River, linked to the mainland at the present-day Sullivan Square. The first European settler in Somerville of whom there is any record was John Woolrich, an Indian trader who came from the Charlestown Peninsula in 1630, others soon followed Woolrich, locating in the vicinity of present-day Union Square. The population continued to increase, and by 1775 there were about 500 inhabitants scattered across the area. Otherwise, the area was used as grazing and farmland. It was once known as the Stinted Pasture or Cow Commons, John Winthrop, the first colonial governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, was granted 600 acres of land in the area in 1631. Named for the ten small knolls located on the property, Ten Hills Farm extended from the Craddock Bridge in present-day Medford Center to Convent Hill in East Somerville, Winthrop lived, planted, and raised cattle on the farm. It is also where he launched the first ship in Massachusetts, built for trading purposes in the early 1630s, it was soon armed for use as a patrol boat for the New England coast. It is seen as a precursor to the United States Navy, the neighborhood Ten Hills, located in the northeastern part of the city, has retained the name for over 300 years. New research has found less than a decade after John Winthrop moved to the farm in 1631. Each successive owner of Ten Hills Farm would depend upon slaverys profits until the 1780s, in a short time, the settlers began laying out roads in all directions in search of more land for planting and trade with various Native American tribes in the area. Laid out as early as the mid-1630s, the earliest highway in Somerville was probably what is now Washington Street, in its earliest days, Washington Street was known as the Road to Newtowne. Laid out in 1636, Broadway was likely the second built in the area
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Milton, Massachusetts
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Milton is a town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States and an affluent suburb of Boston. The population was 27,003 at the 2010 census, Milton is the birthplace of former U. S. President George H. W. Bush and architect Buckminster Fuller. In 2007,2009, and 2011, Money Magazine listed Milton 7th, 5th, Milton is located between the Neponset River and the Blue Hills. A powder mill established in 1674 may be the earliest in the colonies, laying of streetcar lines fueled the rapid expansion of residential development. Between 1870 and 1915, Milton grew into the community it is now, by 1929, many of the big estates were broken into subdivisions as the towns residential growth continued. The Suffolk Resolves were signed in Milton in 1774, and were used as a model by the drafters of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The Suffolk Resolves House, where the Resolves were passed, still stands, the house was moved to a new location at 1370 Canton Avenue in West Milton in order to save it from demolition at its previous location in Milton Village at Lower Mills. They were the Suffolk Resolves because Milton was part of Suffolk County until 1793, two royal governors of Massachusetts, Jonathan Belcher and Thomas Hutchinson, had houses in Milton. The Governor Belcher House dates from 1777, replacing the earlier home destroyed in fire in 1776, both Governor Belchers house and Governor Hutchinsons field are on the National Register of Historic Places. The town was home to Americas first piano factory, revolutionary Milton is the setting of the opening of the 1940 bestselling historical novel Oliver Wiswell by Kenneth Roberts. The Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory is located in the town, home of the nations oldest continuously kept meteorological records, the Granite Railway passed from Quincy to the Neponset River in Milton, beginning in 1826. It is often called the first commercial railroad in the United States, the frog had been displayed at the Chicago Worlds Fair in 1893. East Milton Square developed as a result of the Granite Railway. Four sheds there were used to dress the granite stone prior to it being brought by rail to the wharf for transfer to boats. East Milton Square was originally termed the Railway Village and a station was located there after 1871 when the Granite Railway became a passenger line of the Old Colony Railroad. The Blue Bell Tavern, which was also a hotel, served as the headquarters of the Granite Railway and it was located on the site of the current United States Post Office in East Milton Square. In 1801 Josiah Bent began an operation in Milton, selling water crackers or biscuits made of flour. The crackling sound occurred during baking, hence the name and this is where the American term cracker originated
3.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
4.
Hard science fiction
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Hard science fiction is a category of science fiction characterized by an emphasis on scientific accuracy. The term was first used in print in 1957 by P. Schuyler Miller in a review of John W. Campbell, the complementary term soft science fiction, formed by analogy to hard science fiction, first appeared in the late 1970s. The term is formed by analogy to the distinction between the hard and soft sciences. The heart of the hard SF designation is the relationship of the content and attitude to the rest of the narrative. Later discoveries do not necessarily invalidate the label of hard SF, as evidenced by P. Schuyler Miller, there is a degree of flexibility in how far from real science a story can stray before it leaves the realm of hard SF. Readers of hard SF often try to find inaccuracies in stories, the same book famously featured a devastating inaccuracy, the eponymous Ringworld is not a stable orbit and would crash into the sun without active stabilization. Niven fixed these errors in his sequel The Ringworld Engineers, films set in outer space which aspire to the hard SF label try to minimize the artistic liberties taken for the sake of practicality of effect. Factors include, How the film accounts for weightlessness in space, how the film depicts sound despite the vacuum of space. Whether telecommunications are instant or are limited by the speed of light, cosmic Engineers, A Study of Hard Science Fiction. Hard Science Fiction Exclusive Interviews Kheper Realism scale Science Fiction Stories with Good Astronomy & Physics, the Ten Best Hard Science Fiction Books of all Time, selected by the editors of MITs Technology Review,2011 Low-Level Science fiction, Sci-fi with hard science and a literary slant
5.
Mission of Gravity
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Mission of Gravity is a science fiction novel by Hal Clement. The novel was serialized in Astounding Science Fiction magazine in April–July 1953 and its first hardcover book publication was in 1954, and it was first published as a paperback book in 1958. Along with the novel itself, many editions of the also include Whirligig World. Clement published three sequels to Mission of Gravity, a 1970 novel called Star Light, a 1973 short story called Lecture Demonstration, Mission of Gravity was nominated for a Retro Hugo Award for the year 1954. The story is set on an oblate planet named Mesklin. The story is told from the points of view of one of the intelligent life forms. The locals are centipede-like, in order to withstand the enormous gravity, the native protagonist, Barlennan, captain of the Bree, is on a trading expedition to the equator, where the gravity is a tiny fraction of what his culture is used to. Communication is achieved through an audio-visual radio built to function in a high-gravity environment and they are captured by various lifeforms similar to themselves, but who live in the lower-gravity areas and have developed projectile weapons and gliders. Gradually, with help, they gain an understanding of these. Mission was the runner-up for the 1955 International Fantasy Award for fiction, boucher and McComas found Mission compact and unified, with a good deal of adventurous excitement and characterized it as a splendid specimen of science fiction in the grandest of grand manners. Wayne Barlowe illustrated the Mesklinites in his Barlowes Guide to Extraterrestrials, a significant theme of the novel is the universality of physical law, regardless of the exotic nature of the location, the underlying rules of the universe are constant. A secondary theme deals with the method, and the necessity of proceeding one step at a time. It is most often praised for the thoroughness and care with which Clement designed and described Mesklin — even today, it is considered one of the definitive examples of worldbuilding
6.
Americans
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Americans are citizens of the United States of America. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, Americans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Americans, non-citizen residents, dual citizens, and expatriates may also claim an American identity. See Names for United States citizens. S, virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. It also includes influences of African-American culture, westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements, immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics, in addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, the United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Some other race is also an option in the census and other surveys, people of European descent, or White Americans, constitute the majority of the 308 million people living in the United States, with 72. 4% of the population in the 2010 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the peoples of Europe, the Middle East. Of those reporting to be White American,7,487,133 reported to be Multiracial, with largest combination being white, additionally, there are 29,184,290 White Hispanics or Latinos. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states, there are four minority-majority states, California, Texas, New Mexico, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia has a non-white majority, the state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. The largest continental ancestral group of Americans are that of Europeans who have origins in any of the peoples of Europe. This includes people via African, North American, Caribbean, Central American or South American and Oceanian nations that have a large European diaspora, the Spanish were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the United States. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the Thirteen Colonies to English parents. 8% of the total population, Hispanic or Latino Americans constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group after non-Hispanic Whites in the United States, hispanic/Latino Americans are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category, rather than a race
7.
Museum of Pop Culture
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The Museum of Pop Culture, or MoPOP is a nonprofit museum, dedicated to contemporary popular culture. It was founded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen in 2000 as the Experience Music Project, since that time MoPOP has organized dozens of exhibits,17 of which have toured across the US and internationally. An annual 21 and under battle-of-the-bands that supports the all-ages scene, and Pop Conference, a gathering of academics, critics, musicians. MoPOP, in collaboration with the Seattle International Film Festival presents the Science Fiction and Fantasy Short Film Festival, MoPOP is home to exhibits, interactive activity stations, sound sculpture, and various educational resources. Exhibits that cover pop culture, from the art of fantasy, horror cinema, IF VI WAS IX, a guitar sculpture consisting of more than 500 musical instruments and 30 computers conceived by UK exhibit designer Neal Potter and developed by sound sculptor Trimpin. Public programs such as MoPOP’s Science Fiction + Fantasy Short Film Festival, Pop Conference, the Youth Advisory Board, the Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame was founded by Paul Allen and Jody Patton and opened to the public on June 18,2004. It incorporated the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame which had established in 1996. The museum was divided into galleries with common themes such as Homeworld, Fantastic Voyages, Brave New Worlds. Each gallery displayed related memorabilia in large display cases, posters, from robots to jet packs to space suits and ray guns, its all here. Members of the advisory board included Steven Spielberg, Ray Bradbury, James Cameron. The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame was founded in 1996 by the Kansas City Science Fiction and Fantasy Society, the chairmen were Keith Stokes and Robin Wayne Bailey. Only writers and editors were eligible for recognition and four were inducted annually, each class of four was announced at Kansas Citys annual science fiction convention, ConQuesT, and inducted at the Campbell Conference hosted by CSSF. The Hall of Fame stopped inducting fantasy writers after 2004, when it became part of the Science Fiction Museum affiliated with MoPOP, having inducted 36 writers in nine years, in 2005 it began to recognize non-literary media. It retained the quota of four new members and thus reduced the number of writers. The 2005 and 2006 press releases placed new members in Literature, Art, and Film, Television and Media, in 2007 and 2008 the fourth inductee was placed in one of the three substantial categories. MoPOP de-installed the Science Fiction Museum in March 2011, when the exhibition Icons of Science Fiction opened in June 2012, a new Hall of Fame display was unveiled and the class of 2012 inducted. Nominations are submitted by the public but the selections are made by award-winning science fiction authors, artists, editors, publishers, MoPOP restored the original name online during June 2013 and announced five new members, one daily, beginning June 17. The first four were cited largely or wholly for science fiction, tolkien, hailed as the father of modern fantasy literature
8.
Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America
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Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, or SFWA is a nonprofit 5013 organization of professional science fiction and fantasy writers. While SFWA is based in the United States, its membership is open to writers worldwide, the organization was founded in 1965 by Damon Knight under the name Science Fiction Writers of America, Inc. The president of SFWA as of 2015 is Cat Rambo, SFWA has about 1,900 professionally published writer members worldwide. SFWA members vote for the Nebula Awards, one of the principal English-language science fiction awards, SFWA informs, supports, promotes, defends and advocates for its members. Science Fiction Writers of America, Inc. was founded in 1965 by a group of associated with the Milford Conference. According to Todd McCaffrey, the organization immediately acquired great status in its efforts to help J. R. R, tolkien get fair recompense in America for pirated sales of The Lord of the Rings. Later, the name of the organization was changed to Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America and her withdrawal was sent after voting had been completed. When informed she had won, she contacted SFWA and told them she refused to accept it and she was told that her reasons for doing so would be announced. Her publisher accepted the award in her place, apparently with no knowledge of her withdrawal, in September 2009, SFWA joined the Open Book Alliance to oppose the Google Book Settlement. As a party to the class action suit, SFWA had recently explained its reservations about the settlement, in 2013, the SFWA Bulletin was the subject of a controversy about sexism. This led to a hiatus, followed by a reboot of the magazine in a modern. In 2014, the original Massachusetts corporation was dissolved and SFWA reincorporated as a California nonprofit 5013 organization with new bylaws, SFWA holds a semi-annual business meeting at the World Science Fiction Convention when its held in North America, and at the North American Science Fiction Convention otherwise. Other Nebula Awards Weekend events include a semi-annual SFWA business meeting and a mass autographing session for member authors, Nebula Awards Weekend is held in a different location every two years. Over the years, the reception has gone by names, including Authors and Editors, Mill and Swill. The SFWA Reading Series, A series of free events during which SFWA authors read or discuss their fiction with members of local communities. Currently held in Seattle, WA and Portland, OR, SFWA sponsors Writer Beware, whose mission is to track, expose, and raise awareness of the prevalence of fraud and other questionable activities in and around the publishing industry. Writer Beware receives additional support from the Mystery Writers of America, Writer Beware staff assist law enforcement agencies with investigations of literary fraud, and have been instrumental in the convictions of several literary scammers. Greifcom, or the Grievance Committee, is formed of volunteers who undertake to mediate writer disputes and grievances between member writers and their publishers
9.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
10.
Astronomy
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Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets, while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, more generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earths atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole, Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, during the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can play an active role, especially in the discovery. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, Astronomy means law of the stars. Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. Generally, either the term astronomy or astrophysics may be used to refer to this subject, however, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Few fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics, some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field includeThe Astronomical Journal, The Astrophysical Journal and Astronomy and Astrophysics. In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye, in some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical purpose. Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye, most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon, the Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a cycle known as a saros
11.
Analog Science Fiction and Fact
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Analog Science Fiction and Fact is an American science-fiction magazine published under various titles since 1930. The first issue, titled Astounding Stories of Super-Science, was dated January 1930, published by William Clayton, Clayton went bankrupt in 1933 and the magazine was sold to Street & Smith. At the end of 1937, Campbell took over editorial duties under Tremaines supervision, the period beginning with Campbells editorship is often referred to as the Golden Age of Science Fiction. By 1950, new competition had appeared from Galaxy Science Fiction, in 1960, Campbell changed the title of the magazine to Analog Science Fiction & Fact, he had long wanted to get rid of the word Astounding in the title, which he felt was too sensational. At about the same time Street & Smith sold the magazine to Condé Nast, Campbell remained as editor until his death in 1971. Ben Bova took over from 1972 to 1978, and the character of the magazine changed noticeably, Bova won five consecutive Hugo Awards for his editing of Analog. The title was sold to Davis Publications in 1980, then to Dell Magazines in 1992, Crosstown Publications acquired Dell in 1996 and remains the publisher. Schmidt continued to edit the magazine until 2012, when he was replaced by Trevor Quachri, in 1926, Hugo Gernsback launched Amazing Stories, the first science-fiction magazine. Amazing was very successful, quickly reaching a circulation over 100,000, Clayton was unconvinced, but the following year decided to launch a new magazine, mainly because the sheet on which the color covers of his magazines were printed had a space for one more cover. He suggested to Harry Bates, a newly hired editor, that start a magazine of historical adventure stories. Bates proposed instead a science-fiction pulp, to be titled Astounding Stories of Super Science, Astounding was initially published by Publishers Fiscal Corporation, a subsidiary of Clayton Magazines. The first issue appeared in January 1930, with Bates as editor, Bates aimed for straightforward action-adventure stories, with scientific elements only present to provide minimal plausibility. In February 1931, the original name Astounding Stories of Super-Science was shortened to Astounding Stories, the magazine was profitable, but the Depression caused Clayton problems. Normally a publisher would pay a printer three months in arrears, but when a credit squeeze began in May 1931, it led to pressure to reduce this delay. The financial difficulties led Clayton to start alternating the publication of his magazines, some printers bought the magazines which were indebted to them, Clayton decided to buy his printer to prevent this from happening. As it turned out, enough stories were in inventory, and enough paper was available, to one further issue. In April, Clayton went bankrupt, and sold his titles to T. R. Foley for $100, Foley resold them in August to Street & Smith. Science fiction was not entirely a departure for Street & Smith, the first Street & Smith issue was dated October 1933, until the third issue, in December 1933, the editorial team was not named on the masthead
12.
John W. Campbell
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John Wood Campbell Jr. was an American science fiction writer and editor. As editor of Astounding Science Fiction from late 1937 until his death, isaac Asimov called Campbell the most powerful force in science fiction ever, and for the first ten years of his editorship he dominated the field completely. As a writer, Campbell published super-science space opera under his own name and moody stories under his primary and most famous pseudonym, Campbell also wrote under the pen names Karl Van Kampen and Arthur McCann. He stopped writing fiction after he became editor of Astounding and his novella Who Goes There. was adapted as the films The Thing from Another World, The Thing, and The Thing. Campbell was born in Newark, New Jersey in 1910 and his father was a cold, impersonal, and unaffectionate electrical engineer. His mother, Dorothy was warm but changeable of character and had a twin who visited them often. John was unable to tell apart and was frequently coldly rebuffed by the person he took to be his mother. Campbell attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he was befriended by the eminent mathematician Norbert Wiener and he began writing science fiction at age 18 and sold his first stories quickly. From January 1930 to June 1931, Amazing published six of his stories, one novel. Thus he was a pulp writer at 21 – but he had failed German. After one year at Duke University, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science in physics in 1932, Campbell and Dona Stewart married in 1931. They divorced in 1949 and he married Margaret Winter in 1950 and he spent most of his life in New Jersey and died at home of heart failure. Editor T. OConor Sloane lost Campbells first manuscript that he accepted for Amazing Stories, when the Atoms Failed appeared in January 1930, followed by five more during 1930 in that monthly and in Amazing Stories Quarterly, also edited by Sloane. Three were part of an opera series featuring the characters Arcot, Morey, and Wade. The early work for Amazing established Campbells reputation as a writer of space adventure, when in 1934 he began to publish stories with a different tone he wrote as Don A. Stuart, a pseudonym derived from his wifes maiden name. From 1930 until the part of that decade, Campbell was prolific. Three significant stories published under the pseudonym are Twilight, Night and it was published in Astounding almost a year after Campbell became its editor and it was his last significant piece of fiction, at age 28. Campbell held the radio call sign W2ZGU, and wrote many articles on electronics
13.
Boston University
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Boston University is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. The university is nonsectarian, and is affiliated with the United Methodist Church. The university has more than 3,900 faculty members and nearly 33,000 students and it offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctorates, and medical, dental, business, and law degrees through 17 schools and colleges on two urban campuses. The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, BU is categorized as an R1, Doctoral University in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. BU is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education, the University was ranked 39th among undergraduate programs at national universities, and 32nd among global universities by U. S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings. In 1876, BU professor Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in a BU lab, American Civil Rights Movement leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. received his PhD in Theology from BU in 1955. The Boston University Terriers compete in the NCAAs Division I, BU athletic teams compete in the Patriot League, and Hockey East conferences, and their mascot is Rhett the Boston Terrier. Boston University is well known for hockey, in which it has won five national championships. The University organized formal Centennial observances both in 1939 and 1969, on April 24–25,1839 a group of Methodist ministers and laymen at the Old Bromfield Street Church in Boston elected to establish a Methodist theological school. Set up in Newbury, Vermont, the school was named the Newbury Biblical Institute, in 1847, the Congregational Society in Concord, New Hampshire, invited the Institute to relocate to Concord and offered a disused Congregational church building with a capacity of 1200 people. Other citizens of Concord covered the remodeling costs, one stipulation of the invitation was that the Institute remain in Concord for at least 20 years. The charter issued by New Hampshire designated the school the Methodist General Biblical Institute, with the agreed twenty years coming to a close, the Trustees of the Concord Biblical Institute purchased 30 acres on Aspinwall Hill in Brookline, Massachusetts, as a possible relocation site. The institute moved in 1867 to 23 Pinkney Street in Boston, in 1869, three Trustees of the Boston Theological Institute obtained from the Massachusetts Legislature a charter for a university by name of Boston University. These three were successful Boston businessmen and Methodist laymen, with a history of involvement in educational enterprises and they were Isaac Rich, Lee Claflin, and Jacob Sleeper, for whom Boston Universitys three West Campus dormitories are named. Lee Claflins son, William, was then Governor of Massachusetts, on account of the religious opinions he may entertain, provided, nonetheless, that this section shall not apply to the theological department of said University. Every department of the new university was open to all on an equal footing regardless of sex, race. The Boston Theological Institute was absorbed into Boston University in 1871 as the BU School of Theology, in January 1872 Isaac Rich died, leaving the vast bulk of his estate to a trust that would go to Boston University after ten years of growth while the University was organized. Most of this bequest consisted of real estate throughout the core of the city of Boston and was appraised at more than $1.5 million, Kilgore describes this as the largest single donation to an American college or university to that time
14.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
15.
Simmons College
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Simmons College, established in 1899, is a private women focused undergraduate college and private co-educational graduate school in Boston, in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Simmons was founded in 1899 with a bequest by John Simmons, Simmons founded the college based on the belief that women ought to live independently by offering a Liberal Arts education for undergraduate women to integrate into professional work experience. Simmons absorbed Garland Junior College in 1976, Simmons graduated its first African American student in 1914. Furthermore, Simmons was one of the few private colleges not to impose quotas on Jewish students for the first half of the 1900s. The undergraduate program is women-centered, with approximately 1800 students enrolled in the 2012-2013 academic year, the graduate schools are coed, and have about 3,000 students. The schools MBA program is the first in the world designed specifically for women, government documentation of gender is not required. Graduate programs are co-educational, so gender identity is not of concern, the original site of the Simmons College Graduate School of Social Work is featured on the Boston Womens Heritage Trail. Simmons College currently consists of two campuses located near the Back Bay Fens in Boston, The Academic Campus is located at 300 The Fenway in the Longwood Medical Area. It is immediately adjacent to the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum and the Boston Latin School and it is near the Landmark Center and the Fenway and Longwood MBTA stations. The residence campus is separated from the campus by Emmanuel College. The mascots are the Sharks and the colors are blue and yellow, Simmons has made several significant sustainability efforts. Former President Susan Scrimshaw signed the American College and University Presidents Climate Commitment as a commitment to eliminate campus greenhouse gas emissions over time. Furthermore, the School of Management is addressing sustainability in its curriculum as well as in building, Simmons environmental efforts earned the school a C on the College Sustainability Report Card 2010, published in Fall 2009 by the Sustainable Endowments Institute. Nancy Bond, winner of a Newbery Honor, taught at the Simmons College Center for the Study of Childrens Literature from 1979 to 2001, gregory Maguire, author, professor and co-director at the Simmons College Center for the Study of Childrens Literature from 1979-1985. Isadore Gilbert Mudge, librarian, part-time lecturer Simmons College Center for the Study of Childrens Literature Simmons College official website Simmons College official athletics website
16.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
17.
Consolidated B-24 Liberator
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The Consolidated B-24 Liberator is an American heavy bomber, designed by Consolidated Aircraft of San Diego, California. It was known within the company as the Model 32, and some models were laid down as export models designated as various LB-30s. At its inception, the B-24 was a design featuring a highly efficient shoulder-mounted. The wing gave the Liberator a high speed, long range. Early RAF Liberators were the first aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean as a matter of routine, however, the type was difficult to fly and had poor low speed performance. It also had a ceiling and was less robust than the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. While aircrews tended to prefer the B-17, General Staff favored the B-24, the B-24 was used extensively in World War II. It served in every branch of the American armed forces, as well as several Allied air forces and navies, along with the B-17, the B-24 was the mainstay of the US strategic bombing campaign in the Western European theater. Due to its range, it proved useful in bombing operations in the Pacific, long range anti-submarine Liberators played an instrumental role in closing the Mid-Atlantic Gap in the Battle of the Atlantic. The C-87 transport derivative served as a range, higher capacity counterpart to the Douglas C-47 Skytrain. The B-24 was produced in large numbers. At the end of World War II, the Liberator had been surpassed by more modern types such as the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, the type was rapidly phased out of US service, although the PB4Y-2 Privateer derivative carried on in service with the US Navy in the Korean War. Two B-24s, one LB-30B and one Liberator V representing a B-24H, are airworthy as of 2016, the Liberator originated from a United States Army Air Corps request in 1938 for Consolidated to produce the B-17 under license. After company executives including President Reuben Fleet visited the Boeing factory in Seattle, Washington and this new fuselage was intentionally designed around twin bomb bays, each one being the same size and capacity of the B-17 bomb bays. In January 1939, the USAAC, under Specification C-212, formally invited Consolidated to submit a design study for a bomber with longer range, higher speed, the specification was written such that the Model 32 would automatically be the winning design. The program was run under the group, Project A. Although the B-24 did not meet Project A goals, it was a step in that direction, Project A led to the development of the Boeing B-29 and Consolidateds own B-32 and B-36. The B-24 had a shoulder mounted high aspect ratio Davis wing and this wing was highly efficient allowing a relatively high airspeed and long range
18.
44th Fighter Group
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The 44th Fighter Group is an Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to the Tenth Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, stationed at Tyndall Air Force Base, the 44 FG is an associate unit of the 325th Fighter Wing, Air Combat Command and if mobilized the wing is gained by ACC. Otherwise, the 44 FG operates as a unit of AFRCs 301st Fighter Wing at NAS JRB Fort Worth. During World War II, its unit, the 44th Bombardment Group was the first VIII Bomber Command B-24 Liberator heavy bombardment group stationed in England. It was initially stationed at RAF Cheddington on 11 September 1942, johnson, while commander of the 44th Bombardment Group, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Polesti Raid on 1 August 1943. In the postwar era, the 44th Bombardment Group was one of the original ten USAAF bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command on 21 March 1946. Administratively, the 44 FG is a component of the AFRC 301st Fighter Wing, based at Naval Air Station Fort Worth Joint Reserve Base, in April 2010, the 44th Fighter Group, Detachment 2 was activated at Holloman Air Force Base. On 1 October 2012, it was transferred to the 325th Wing, forming an association with the 325th Wing while it was under Air Education. Detachment 2 helped lead the transition of the F-22 Raptor combat-coded mission from Holloman Air Force Base to Tyndall, the 44th Group supports operations, flying training and maintenance. The group also supported Northrop T-38 Talon operations at Holloman in which played the role of adversary aircraft in F-22 training exercises. Due to U. S. congressional action, this transfer was delayed until January 2014. 301st Fighter Squadron,9 April 2010 – present For additional history and lineage, received first B-24, and later B-24C. Moved Barksdale Field, La. on 16 February 1942 and acted as training unit for 98th, 93rd, during same period took part in anti-submarine patrols over the Gulf of Mexico and was credited with the destruction of one U-boat. On 26 July 1942 they moved to Will Rogers Field in Oklahoma, ground echelon left by Queen Mary on 4 September 1942 for Grenier Field in NH, and remained there until the first aircraft left for the United Kingdom late in September 1942. The 404 Bomb Squadron originally part of the Group was reassigned while in the United States, in England, the group was assigned to the VIII Bomber Command 14th Combat Bombardment Wing, and the group tail code was a Circle-A. Initially stationed at RAF Cheddington, the group was moved ot RAF Shipdham in October 1942, the 44th Bomb Groups operations consisted primarily of assaults against strategic targets in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Romania, Austria, Poland, and Sicily. Among the targets attacked were submarine installations, industrial establishments, airfields, harbors, shipyards, late in June 1943 a large detachment moved to North Africa to help facilitate the Allied invasion of Sicily by bombing airfields and marshalling yards in Italy. The detachment also participated in the famous raid on the Ploesti oil fields on 1 August 1943
19.
Eighth Air Force
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The Eighth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command. It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, the command serves as Air Forces Strategic – Global Strike, one of the air components of United States Strategic Command. The Eighth Air Force includes the heart of Americas heavy bomber force, the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber, the B-1 Lancer supersonic bomber, and it was the largest of the deployed combat Army Air Forces in numbers of personnel, aircraft, and equipment. Elements of 8 AF engaged in operations during the Korean War, Vietnam War. Eighth Air Force is one of two active duty numbered air forces in Air Force Global Strike Command, Eighth Air Force, with headquarters at Barksdale AFB, in the Bossier City – Shreveport, Louisiana, metro area, supports U. S. Joint Forces Command, and is designated as U. S. Strategic Commands Task Force 204, providing on-alert, the mission of The Mighty Eighth is to safeguard Americas interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is Peace Through Strength and this air power includes the heart of Americas heavy bomber force, the B-2 Spirit and the B-52 Stratofortress. The B-2 force consists of 20 bombers assigned to the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman AFB, for additional history and lineage, see United States Air Forces in Europe The history of Eighth Air Force begins on 2 January 1942 with its activation at Savannah Air Base, Georgia. In quick order, on 5 January, Major General Carl Spaatz assumed command of HQ Eighth Air Force at Bolling Field, Washington, on 8 January the order activating the U. S. Air Forces in the British Isles was announced. On 12 May, the first contingent of USAAF personnel arrived in England to join the Eighth Air Force, on 15 June, Spaatz arrived in England to establish the Headquarters of Eighth Air Force at Bushy Park,15 miles WSW of London. Eighth Air Force was the command and control organization over its operational components, VIII Bomber Command Strategic bombardment using heavy, VIII Fighter Command Provide fighter escort of heavy bombers VIII Air Support Command Provide reconnaissance, troop transport, and tactical bombardment using twin-engine medium bombers. VIII Air Service Command Service and logistical support, VIII Bomber Command was activated at Langley Field, Virginia, It was reassigned to Savannah Air Base, Georgia on 10 February 1942. The first combat group of VIII Bomber Command to arrive in the United Kingdom was the ground echelon of the 97th Bombardment Group, during World War II, the offensive air forces of the United States Army Air Forces came to be classified as strategic or tactical. In Europe, Eighth Air Force was the first USAAF strategic air force, Eighth Air Force carried out strategic daytime strategic bombing operations in Western Europe from airfields in eastern England. On 4 January 1944, the B-24s and B-17s based in England flew their last mission as a part of VIII Bomber Command. On 22 February 1944, a reorganization of American airpower took place in Europe. VIII Bomber Command was redesignated as Eighth Air Force, with VIII Fighter and this is from where the present-day Eighth Air Forces history, lineage and honors derive
20.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
21.
Air Force Reserve Command
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The Air Force Reserve Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, with its headquarters at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It is the federally controlled Air Reserve Component of the U. S. Air Force, consisting of duly appointed commissioned officers, AFRC supports the Air Force mission to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of air and space by supporting Global Engagement. AFRC also plays an role in the day-to-day Air Force mission and is not strictly a force held in reserve for possible war or contingency operations. The inventory, both AFRC-controlled and active duty Regular Air Force-controlled, includes the latest, most capable models of aircraft that are assigned to the U. S. Air Force. On any given day,99 percent of AFRCs aircraft are mission-ready, in addition to flying units, AFRC has numerous ground organizations ranging from medical units to civil engineers, intelligence and space operations, and security forces, just to name a few. In combination with the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve comprises half of what is known as the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force, AFRC forces are under the administrative control of the Commander, Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve also contains other specialized capabilities not found in active duty Air Force units. A third unique mission set in the Air Force Reserve, Aerial Firefighting, is conducted in tandem with the Air National Guard, there are several categories of service for personnel in the Air Force Reserve. However, many Air Force Reservists, especially those in a flying status, serve well in excess of this minimum duty requirement. A smaller but equally important category of TR is the Individual Mobilization Augmentee and their job is to bring Air Force Reserve expertise to the planning and decision-making processes at senior levels within the Air Force, other services, and the Unified Combatant Commands. Like the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve Command also requires two categories of personnel to perform functions that require full-time manning. These full-time positions are filled via the two programs as employed by the Air National Guard, the Active Guard and Reserve program. Air Force Reservists who become members of the Active Guard and Reserve receive full active duty pay, the majority of AGRs are former TRs and they serve four-year controlled tours of special duty that can be renewed. S. Air Force, on the staffs of Unified Combatant Commands, on the Joint Staff, AFRC Recruiting is another field that employs AGR personnel. AGRs also have the option with good performance to serve 20 or more years on duty and receive a retirement after 20 or more years. Another category of Air Force Reservists serving full-time are those in the Air Reserve Technician Program, ARTs are accessed from either the active duty Regular Air Force, the AGR program, Traditional Guardsmen in the Air National Guard, or TRs in the Air Force Reserve. This category also includes all full-time ART personnel and they are predominantly assigned to the Unit Program or as IMAs. Standby Reserve Includes Reservists whose civilian jobs are considered key to defense or who have temporary disability or personal hardship
22.
Milton Academy
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Milton Academy is a coeducational, independent preparatory, boarding and day school in Milton, Massachusetts consisting of a grade 9–12 Upper School and a grade K–8 Lower School. Boarding is offered starting in 9th grade, Milton is a member of the Independent School League. Miltons historic athletic rival is Noble and Greenough, up until 1980, the school was split into boys and girls schools. The school was established in 1798, as shown below the book in the school crest, however, the number given in Roman numerals along the outside of the crest reads 1898, marking the schools centennial. There are 670 Upper School students at Milton, half of live on campus. There are 127 faculty members in the Upper School, 78% of whom have postgraduate degrees and it has an average class size of 14, and a female-to-male ratio of 50–50. There are 305 students in the Lower School, the Middle School and Lower School have 25 and 28 faculty members respectively. Tuition is $39,000 per year for day students and $47,000 for boarding students, according to http, //boarding-schools. startclass. com/l/142310/Milton-Academy Milton offers several off-campus programs. Some students take a year abroad in France, Italy, Spain, or China, others go on semester programs such as Chewonki Semester School, The Mountain School. There are over 10 different publications on campus, including news, Milton Academy is also home to a jazz program, focused on small combos, that tours South Africa every other year. Beatnik Café, an independently run exhibition of student performances, occurs three times a year, theatrical productions provide about ten plays each year. Two student choreographed Dance Concerts are put up each year, the one occurring in the winter. Milton Academy has a number of student activity clubs, cultural clubs at Milton include GASP, Onyx, the Asian Society, Latino Association, JSU, Christian Fellowship, Caribbean Student Association, and Multiracial Experience Club. Students at the academy can start their own if they have a faculty sponsor. The Tibet Club - formerly the Milton Academy chapter of the Students for a Free Tibet - currently sponsors two Tibetan refugee children as part of a five-year commitment, another club, Invisible Hand, is Miltons Capitalist Club. In addition to sponsoring weekly discussions pertaining to Capitalism and Economics, Miltons Investment Club manages a $30,000 portion of the Academys endowment. The Entrepreneurship Club brings in guest speakers to help facilitate discussions that teach students about creating, growing and managing non-for-profit and for-profit businesses, the Robotics Club, participates in Vex Robotics competitions in the fall and winter. Milton Academy has an Outdoor Program, select students hold a weekly meeting and plan weekend trips for the student body
23.
Needle (novel)
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Needle is a 1950 novel written by Hal Clement, originally published the previous year in Astounding Science Fiction magazine. The book was notable in that it broke new ground in the science fiction field by postulating an alien lifeform, not hostile, also published as From Outer Space, the book would, in 1978, spark the sequel Through the Eye of a Needle. The Hunter, an alien lifeform with the ability to live in symbiosis with, both crash their ships into Earth, in the Pacific Ocean, and both survive the crashes. The Hunter makes its way to shore and takes up residence in the nearest human being it can find without letting the human being know, as it happens, Bob is simply returning to a New England boarding school from his home on an industrial island in the Western Pacific. Once Bob arrives at school, the Hunter sees no alternative to communicating with his host, after initial attempts produce panic in the boy, the Hunter eventually finds a way to convince Bob of his presence. Bob is very accepting of his guest, perhaps beyond what would be expected of a boy who learns another entity is inside him. The two plot a way to return home, the puzzle distracts Bob from his studies, leading to a decline in grades that the school authorities ascribe to homesickness, and he is sent home for the remainder of the term. Upon arrival, the two begin to seek out their quarry, Bob is injured by an accident. The Hunter is able to hold the wound together, but he cant stop Bob from limping and they see no alternative to confiding in the doctor and the doctor becomes an ally in their search. Which of the humans on the island is the host to their quarry. It is worse than a needle in a haystack because a needle at least looks like a needle, the Hunter is able to solve the riddle by observing the behavior of the island people. Bobs father, known for his attention to detail and safety, has been taking amazing risks and he is at least unconsciously aware that an accident will have no ill consequences. The Hunter confirms this, and Bob and the alien have a new puzzle—how to get the out of Mr. Kinnairds body without harming the man. This time, Bob comes up with the solution, the fugitive alien, fearful of being killed in the explosion, knocks out his host and removes himself from Mr. Kinnairds unconscious body. As soon as the alien is a few feet away from Bobs father, the boy grabs the one full oil can, races over to the alien, pours oil over it and he then brings his father to the doctor. Bob wishes to know the Hunters plans now that his job is done, the Hunter knows the chances of returning home are minuscule, and hopes to stay with Bob. The novel ends without revealing whether this gambit is successful, L. Sprague de Camp praised Needle for its very original idea and its well written story. Despite faulting the plotting as thin and having the antagonist act improbably stupid, the novel was reprinted in Volume 1 of NESFAs three-volume collection of Clements works, The Essential Hal Clement
24.
Iceworld
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Iceworld is a science fiction novel by author Hal Clement. It was published in 1953 by Gnome Press in an edition of 4,000 copies, the novel was originally serialized in the magazine Astounding in 1951. The novel concerns an interplanetary narcotics agent who is forced to work on a cold world — so cold that the atmosphere he breathes is a yellow solid. The planet is in fact Earth, and he teams up with natives of the planet in his attempt to stop the smuggling of a dangerous drug to Sirius. Although the story involves both aliens and humans, it is primarily from an alien perspective. Galaxy reviewer Groff Conklin characterized Iceworld as believable, exciting, so absorbingly created and described that you may well put up with an unfair amount of novelistic tedium. P. Schuyler Miller reported that As an intellectual puzzle, its top-rank stuff, the Science-Fantasy Publishers, A Bibliographic History, 1923-1998. Westminster, MD and Baltimore, Mirage Press, Ltd. p.302, the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy. Iceworld title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
25.
Super-Jupiter
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A super-Jupiter is an astronomical object that is more massive than the planet Jupiter. For example, companions at the planet–brown dwarf borderline have been called super-Jupiters, by 2011 there were 180 known super-Jupiters, some hot, some cold. Even though they are more massive than Jupiter, they remain about the size as Jupiter up to 80 Jupiter masses. This means that their surface gravity and density goes up proportionally with their mass, the increased mass compresses the planet due to gravity, thus keeping it from being larger. In comparison, somewhat lighter planets than Jupiter can be larger, an example of this may be the exoplanet HAT-P-1b with about half the mass of Jupiter but about 1.38 times larger diameter. Corot-3b, with a mass around 22 Jupiter masses, is predicted to have a density of 26.4 g/cm3, greater than osmium. Extreme compression of matter inside it causes the density, because it is likely composed mainly of hydrogen. The surface gravity is high, over 50 times that of Earth. In 2012, the super-Jupiter Kappa Andromedae b was imaged around the star Kappa Andromedae, ice giant Super-Earth Extrasolar planet Red dwarf List of planet types Brown dwarfs, Failed stars, super Jupiters
26.
Centipede
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Centipedes are arthropods belonging to the class Chilopoda of the subphylum Myriapoda. They are elongated metameric creatures with one pair of legs per body segment, Centipedes are known to be highly venomous, and often inject paralyzing venom. Despite the name, centipedes can have a number of legs. Centipedes always have an odd number of pairs of legs, therefore, no centipede has exactly 100 legs. A key trait uniting this group is a pair of claws or forcipules formed from a modified first appendage. Their size can range from a few millimetres in the smaller lithobiomorphs and geophilomorphs to about 30 cm in the largest scolopendromorphs, Centipedes can be found in a wide variety of environments. They normally have a drab coloration combining shades of brown and red, cavernicolous and subterranean species may lack pigmentation, and many tropical scolopendromorphs have bright aposematic colours. Worldwide, an estimated 8,000 species of centipedes are thought to exist, Centipedes have a wide geographical range, where they even reach beyond the Arctic Circle. They are found in an array of habitats from tropical rainforests to deserts. Within these habitats, centipedes require a moist microhabitat because they lack the waxy cuticle of insects and arachnids, accordingly, they are found in soil and leaf litter, under stones and dead wood, and inside logs. Centipedes are among the largest terrestrial predators, and often contribute significantly to the invertebrate predatory biomass in terrestrial ecosystems. Only one species, Scolopendra cataracta, is known to be amphibious and is believed to hunt aquatic or amphibious invertebrates, Centipedes have a rounded or flattened head, bearing a pair of antennae at the forward margin. They have a pair of elongated mandibles, and two pairs of maxillae, the first pair of maxillae form the lower lip, and bear short palps. The first pair of limbs stretch forward from the body to cover the remainder of the mouth and these limbs, or maxillipeds, end in sharp claws and include venom glands that help the animal to kill or paralyze its prey. Many species of centipedes lack eyes, but some possess a number of ocelli. However, these eyes are capable of discerning light and dark. In some species, the first pair of legs at the end of the centipede acts as sense organs similar to antennae. Unusual sense organs found in groups are the organs of Tömösváry
27.
G-force
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The g-force is a measurement of the type of acceleration that causes a perception of weight. Despite the name, it is incorrect to consider g-force a fundamental force, since g-force accelerations indirectly produce weight, any g-force can be described as a weight per unit mass. The types of forces involved are transmitted through objects by interior mechanical stresses, the g-force acceleration is the cause of an objects acceleration in relation to free-fall. The g-force acceleration experienced by an object is due to the sum of all non-gravitational. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects, such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive, gravitation acting alone does not produce a g-force, even though g-forces are expressed in multiples of the acceleration of a standard gravity. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at the Earths surface produces g-force only indirectly. These mechanical forces actually produce the g-force acceleration on a mass, for example, the 1 g force on an object sitting on the Earths surface is caused by mechanical force exerted in the upward direction by the ground, keeping the object from going into free-fall. The upward contact-force from the ground ensures that an object at rest on the Earths surface is accelerating relative to the free-fall condition, stress inside the object is ensured from the fact that the ground contact forces are transmitted only from the point of contact with the ground. Objects allowed to free-fall in an inertial trajectory under the influence of only, feel no g-force acceleration. This is demonstrated by the conditions inside a freely falling elevator falling toward the Earths center. These are examples of coordinate acceleration without a sensation of weight, the experience of no g-force, however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness. An example here is a rocket in space, in which simple changes in velocity are produced by the engines. The unit of measure of acceleration in the International System of Units is m/s2, however, to distinguish acceleration relative to free-fall from simple acceleration, the unit g is often used. One g is the due to gravity at the Earths surface and is the standard gravity, defined as 9.80665 metres per second squared. Note that the definition does not vary with location—the g-force when standing on the moon is about 0.181 g. The unit g is not one of the SI units, which uses g for gram, also g should not be confused with G, which is the standard symbol for the gravitational constant. For example, it is said an F-16 fighter jet is able to sustain up to 9 Gs for a limited time
28.
Frederik Pohl
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From about 1959 until 1969, Pohl edited Galaxy and its sister magazine If, the latter won three successive annual Hugo Awards as the years best professional magazine. He won the Campbell Memorial Award again for the 1984 collection of novellas Years of the City, for his 1979 novel Jem, Pohl won a U. S. National Book Award in the one-year category Science Fiction. It was a finalist for three other years best novel awards and he won four Hugo and three Nebula Awards. Pohl won the Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer in 2010, for his blog, Pohl was the son of Frederik George Pohl and Anna Jane Mason. Pohl Sr. held various jobs, and the Pohls lived in such locations as Texas, California, New Mexico. The family settled in Brooklyn when Pohl was around seven and he attended Brooklyn Technical High School, and dropped out at 17. In 2009, he was awarded a diploma from Brooklyn Tech. While a teenager, he co-founded the New York–based Futurians fan group, and began lifelong friendships with Donald Wollheim, Isaac Asimov and others who would become important writers and editors. Pohl later said that other friends came and went and were gone, many of the ones I met through fandom were friends all their lives – Isaac, Damon Knight, Cyril Kornbluth, Dirk Wylie, Dick Wilson. In fact, there are one or two – Jack Robins, Dave Kyle – whom I still count as friends, seventy-odd years later and he published a science fiction fanzine called Mind of Man. During 1936, Pohl joined the Young Communist League because of its positions for unions and against racial prejudice, Adolf Hitler and he became president of the local Flatbush III Branch of the YCL in Brooklyn. Pohl has said that after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, the party changed and he could no longer support it. Pohl served in the United States Army from April 1943 until November 1945, after training in Illinois, Oklahoma, and Colorado, he was mainly stationed in Italy with the 456th Bombardment Group. His first wife, Leslie Perri, was another Futurian, they were married in August 1940 and he then married Dorothy LesTina in Paris in August 1945 while both were serving in the military in Europe, the marriage ended in 1947. During 1948, he married Judith Merril, they had a daughter, Pohl and Merril divorced in 1952. In 1953, he married Carol M. Ulf Stanton, with whom he had three children and collaborated on books, they separated in 1977 and were divorced in 1983. From 1984 until his death, Pohl was married to science fiction expert and he fathered four children – Ann, Frederik III, Frederik IV and Kathy. Grandchildren include Canadian writer Emily Pohl-Weary and chef Tobias Pohl-Weary, from 1984 on, he lived in Palatine, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago
29.
Retro Hugo Award
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The Hugo Awards are a set of awards given annually for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year. The awards are named after Hugo Gernsback, the founder of the science fiction magazine Amazing Stories. Organized and overseen by the World Science Fiction Society, the awards are given each year at the annual World Science Fiction Convention as the focus of the event. They were first given in 1953, at the 11th World Science Fiction Convention, the Hugo Awards have been termed as among the highest honors bestowed in science fiction and fantasy writing. Works that have won have been published in collections. The 2016 awards were presented at the 74th Worldcon, MidAmeriCon II, in Kansas City, United States, the 2017 Hugos will be presented at the 75th Worldcon, Worldcon 75, in Helsinki, Finland, on August 12,2017. For lists of winners and nominees for each category, see the list of categories below. The World Science Fiction Society gives out the Hugo Awards each year for the best science fiction or fantasy works, the award is named after Hugo Gernsback, who founded the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories and who is considered one of the fathers of the science fiction genre. Works are eligible for an award if they were published in English in the calendar year. There are no rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy. Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending members of the annual World Science Fiction Convention, or Worldcon, the selection process is defined in the WSFS constitution as instant-runoff voting with five nominees per category, except in the case of a tie. The awards are split over more than a dozen categories, for each category of Hugo, the voter may rank No Award as one of their choices. Voters are instructed that they should do so if they feel that none of the nominees are worthy of the award, or if they feel the category should be abolished entirely. A vote for No Award other than as ones first choice signifies that the voter believes the nominee ranked higher than No Award are worthy of a Hugo in that category, while those ranked lower are not. The five works on the ballot for each category are the most-nominated by members that year, from 1953 to 1958 the awards did not include any recognition of runner-up novels, but since 1959 all of the candidates have been recorded. Worldcons are generally held near the start of September, and take place in a different city around the world each year, the idea of giving out awards at Worldcons was proposed by Harold Lynch for the 1953 convention. The idea was based on the Academy Awards, with the name Hugo being given by Robert A. Madle, the award trophy was created by Jack McKnight and Ben Jason in 1953, based on the design of hood ornaments of 1950s cars. It consisted of a rocket ship on a wooden base
30.
Barlowe's Guide to Extraterrestrials
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Barlowes Guide to Extraterrestrials is a 1979 science fiction book by artist Wayne Barlowe, with Ian Summers and Beth Meacham. It was nominated for the 1980 Hugo Award for Best Related Work and it was reprinted in 1987, with a new foreword by Robert Silverberg. After the success of the work, in 1996 Barlowe and Neil Duskis wrote a second book, the Thing - John W. Campbells Who Goes There
31.
Isaac Asimov
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Isaac Asimov was an American writer and professor of biochemistry at Boston University. He was known for his works of fiction and popular science. Asimov was a writer, and wrote or edited more than 500 books. His books have published in 9 of the 10 major categories of the Dewey Decimal Classification. Asimov wrote hard science fiction and, along with Robert A. Heinlein, Clarke, he was considered one of the Big Three science fiction writers during his lifetime. Asimovs most famous work is the Foundation Series, his major series are the Galactic Empire series. The Galactic Empire novels are set in earlier history of the same fictional universe as the Foundation series. He wrote hundreds of stories, including the social science fiction Nightfall. Asimov wrote the Lucky Starr series of juvenile science-fiction novels using the pen name Paul French, Asimov also wrote mysteries and fantasy, as well as much nonfiction. Most of his science books explain scientific concepts in a historical way. He often provides nationalities, birth dates, and death dates for the scientists he mentions, as well as etymologies, Asimov was a long-time member and vice president of Mensa International, albeit reluctantly, he described some members of that organization as brain-proud and aggressive about their IQs. He took more joy in being president of the American Humanist Association, the asteroid 5020 Asimov, a crater on the planet Mars, a Brooklyn elementary school, and a literary award are named in his honor. His exact date of birth within that range is unknown, the family name derives from a word for winter crops, in which his great-grandfather dealt. This word is spelled озимые in Russian, and азімыя in Belarusian, phonetically, both words are almost identical because in Russian О in the first unstressed syllable is always pronounced as А. Accordingly, his name originally was Исаак Озимов in Russian, however, he was known in Russia as Ayzek Azimov. Asimov had two siblings, a sister, Marcia, and a brother, Stanley, who was vice-president of New York Newsday. His family emigrated to the United States when he was three years old, since his parents always spoke Yiddish and English with him, he never learned Russian, but he remained fluent in Yiddish as well as English. Growing up in Brooklyn, New York, Asimov taught himself to read at the age of five, after becoming established in the U. S. his parents owned a succession of candy stores, in which everyone in the family was expected to work
32.
Poul Anderson
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Poul William Anderson was an American science fiction author who began his career during the Golden Age of the genre and continued to write and remain popular into the 21st century. Anderson also authored works of fantasy, historical novels. He received numerous awards for his writing, including seven Hugo Awards, Poul Anderson was born on November 25,1926, in Bristol, Pennsylvania, of Scandinavian parents. Shortly after his birth, his father, Anton Anderson, an engineer, moved the family to Texas, following Anton Andersons death, his widow took her children to Denmark. The family returned to the United States after the outbreak of World War II, the frame story of his later novel Three Hearts and Three Lions, before the fantasy part begins, is partly set in the Denmark which the young Anderson personally experienced. Anderson married Karen Kruse in 1953 and moved with her to the San Francisco Bay area and their daughter Astrid was born in 1954. They made their home in Orinda, California, over the years Poul gave many readings at The Other Change of Hobbit bookstore in Berkeley, and his wife later donated his typewriter and desk to the store. He died of cancer on July 31,2001, after a month in the hospital, a few of his novels were first published posthumously. Anderson was a member of the Society for Creative Anachronism in 1966 and of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers Guild of America. The latter was a group of Heroic Fantasy authors led by Lin Carter, originally eight in number. He was the sixth President of Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, robert A. Heinlein dedicated his 1985 novel The Cat Who Walks Through Walls to Anderson and eight of the other members of the Citizens Advisory Council on National Space Policy. Anderson is probably best known for stories in which larger-than-life characters succeed gleefully or fail heroically. His characters were nonetheless thoughtful, often introspective, and well developed and his plot lines frequently involved the application of social and political issues in a speculative manner appropriate to the science fiction genre. He also wrote some works, generally of shorter length. Much of his fiction is thoroughly grounded in science. A specialty was imagining scientifically plausible non-Earthlike planets, in many stories, Anderson commented on society and politics. This is graphically expressed in the short story Welcome. By the end of the story, rebels have established themselves at another stellar system—where their descendants, while horrified by the prospect of the Soviets winning complete rule over the Earth, Anderson was not enthusiastic about having Americans in that role either
33.
Blue giant
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In astronomy, a blue giant is a hot star with a luminosity class of III or II. In the standard Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, these stars lie above and to the right of the main sequence and they are much rarer than red giants, because they only develop from more massive and less common stars, and because they have short lives in the blue giant stage. The name blue giant is often misapplied to other high-mass luminous stars, such as stars, simply because they are large. Blue giant is not a defined term and it is applied to a wide variety of different types of stars. They have temperatures from around 10,000 K upwards, ZAMS masses greater than twice the Sun. These stars are only 5–10 times the radius of the Sun, depending on mass and chemical composition these stars gradually move bluewards until they exhaust the helium in their cores and then they return redwards to the asymptotic giant branch. The RR Lyrae variable stars, usually with spectral types of A, horizontal-branch stars hotter than the RR Lyrae gap are generally considered to be blue giants, and sometimes the RR Lyrae stars themselves are called blue giants despite some of them being F class. The hottest stars, blue horizontal branch stars, are called extreme horizontal branch stars and can be hotter than main-sequence stars of the same luminosity. A good example is Plasketts star, a binary consisting of two O type giants both over 50 M☉, temperatures over 30,000 K, and more than 100,000 times the luminosity of the Sun. Astronomers still differ over whether to classify at least one of the stars as a supergiant, stars found in the blue giant region of the HR diagram can be in very different stages of their lives, but all are evolved stars that have largely exhausted their core hydrogen supplies. In the simplest case, a hot luminous star begins to expand as its core hydrogen is exhausted, intermediate-mass stars will continue to expand and cool until they become red giants. Massive stars also continue to expand as hydrogen shell burning progresses, in this way they can quickly pass through blue giant, bright blue giant, blue supergiant, and yellow supergiant classes, until they become red supergiants. Because they are stars with short lives, many blue giants are found in O-B associations. BHB stars are evolved and have helium burning cores, although they still have an extensive hydrogen envelope. They also have moderate masses around 0. 5–1.0 M☉ so they are much older than more massive blue giants. These stars also evolve through the core helium burning stage at constant luminosity, however, at the blue end of the horizontal branch, it forms a blue tail of stars with lower luminosity, and occasionally a blue hook of even hotter stars. A purely theoretical group of stars could be formed when red dwarfs finally exhaust their core hydrogen trillions of years into the future, although these stars can become hotter than the Sun they will never become more luminous, so are hardly blue giants as we see them today. The name blue dwarf has been coined although that name could easily be confusing, blue supergiant Red giant Giant star
34.
Fossil (novel)
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Fossil is a science fiction book written by Hal Clement and first printed in November,1993. Copyright was reserved to him under his name, Harry C. Stubbs and the company he associated himself with, Tomorrow, Inc, the planet rotates so slowly that the part that is half ice and half ocean, is constantly beset with troubling weather conditions ranging from blizzards to unanticipated ice melts and earthquakes. It takes centuries if not thousands of years for the wobbling of the planet on the ecliptic to melt certain parts of the planet, even still, it is possible for the planet to have become locked in orbit, so the farthest side never melts. The tidal locking of the planet may have occurred hundreds of millions of years ago, far from being an uninteresting planet, the ecliptic along which the planet travels is also tilted. Most of the colonies are located along the coast - the place in a murky half-shadow of constant night and they have dug so deep that it is generally considered dangerous to dig any deeper. On some of the worlds around the galaxy, mysterious relics are found from a civilization that no longer exists. In Isaacs universe, there are highly intelligent species of aliens, all of whom are capable of learning from each other. When two human researchers obtain permission to come on board the surface, and personally oversee the Safety Committee. Matters get even worse when the humans are observed skiing and leaping off the ski jumps they have built there, the humans assure the other species that there is nothing hazardous because there is so little gravity on this planet. Most of the species think having the humans on board, the human researchers dont seem to realize they arent being taken seriously, and are only there because of the political pressure applied on their governments at home. At least some of the aliens think it would be just fine if the humans were rubbed out, or at least relocated to a safer part of the planet. It is the goal of the researchers to find out if some of the fossils have been fabricated and planted there. To help determine whether the fossils are fraudulent, samples are sent off for DNA analysis, however, the results are very troubling, as some of the fossils are apparently authentic. List of science fiction novels Isaac Asimov Isaacs Universe
35.
Ocean planet
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An ocean planet, aquaplanet or water world is a hypothetical type of exoplanet wherein the surface is completely covered by water, and a substantial portion of its mass is water. Planetary objects that form in the outer Solar System begin as a mixture of roughly half water. Simulations of Solar System formation and of extra-solar system formation have shown that planets are likely to migrate inward as they form, outward migration may also occur under particular conditions. Inward migration presents the possibility that icy planets could move to orbits where their ice melts into liquid form and this possibility was first discussed in the professional astronomical literature by Marc Kuchner and Alain Léger in 2003. Although 70. 8% of all Earths surface is covered in water, water accounts for just some 0. 05% of Earth’s mass, there are worlds where more than 10% of the mass may be water. This may be the case, for example, for all the six innermost planets orbiting the star Kepler-11 and these planets may have oceans hundreds of kilometres deep. Their abyssal depths would be so deep and dense that even at high temperatures the pressure would turn the water into ice, the immense pressures in the lower regions of these oceans could lead to the formation of a mantle of exotic forms of ice. This ice would not necessarily be as cold as conventional ice, if the planet is close enough to its star that the water reaches its boiling point, the water will become supercritical and lack a well-defined surface. Even on cooler water-dominated planets, the atmosphere can be thicker than that of Earth. Smaller ocean planets would have less dense atmospheres and lower gravity, thus, theoretically, such planets could have higher waves than their more massive counterparts due to their lower gravity. The extrasolar planet GJ1214 b is the most likely candidate for an ocean planet. Many more such objects are expected to be discovered by Kepler, chazelas, P. Borde, M. Ollivier, et al. Could we identify hot Ocean-Planets with CoRoT, Kepler and Doppler velocimetry
36.
Gravity of Earth
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The gravity of Earth, which is denoted by g, refers to the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within the Earth. In SI units this acceleration is measured in metres per second squared or equivalently in newtons per kilogram and this quantity is sometimes referred to informally as little g. The precise strength of Earths gravity varies depending on location, the nominal average value at the Earths surface, known as standard gravity is, by definition,9.80665 m/s2. This quantity is denoted variously as gn, ge, g0, gee, the weight of an object on the Earths surface is the downwards force on that object, given by Newtons second law of motion, or F = ma. Gravitational acceleration contributes to the acceleration, but other factors, such as the rotation of the Earth, also contribute. The Earth is not spherically symmetric, but is slightly flatter at the poles while bulging at the Equator, there are consequently slight deviations in both the magnitude and direction of gravity across its surface. The net force as measured by a scale and plumb bob is called effective gravity or apparent gravity, effective gravity includes other factors that affect the net force. These factors vary and include such as centrifugal force at the surface from the Earths rotation. Effective gravity on the Earths surface varies by around 0. 7%, in large cities, it ranges from 9.766 in Kuala Lumpur, Mexico City, and Singapore to 9.825 in Oslo and Helsinki. The surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not a frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the centrifugal force produced by Earths rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earths gravity to a small degree – up to a maximum of 0. 3% at the Equator –, the same two factors influence the direction of the effective gravity. Gravity decreases with altitude as one rises above the Earths surface because greater altitude means greater distance from the Earths centre, all other things being equal, an increase in altitude from sea level to 9,000 metres causes a weight decrease of about 0. 29%. It is a misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to escape the Earths gravity. In fact, at an altitude of 400 kilometres, equivalent to an orbit of the Space Shuttle. Weightlessness actually occurs because orbiting objects are in free-fall, the effect of ground elevation depends on the density of the ground. A person flying at 30000 ft above sea level over mountains will feel more gravity than someone at the same elevation, however, a person standing on the earths surface feels less gravity when the elevation is higher. The following formula approximates the Earths gravity variation with altitude, g h = g 02 Where gh is the acceleration at height h above sea level
37.
Critical point (thermodynamics)
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In thermodynamics, a critical point is the end point of a phase equilibrium curve. The most prominent example is the critical point, the end point of the pressure-temperature curve that designates conditions under which a liquid. At the critical point, defined by a critical temperature Tc, other examples include the liquid–liquid critical points in mixtures. For simplicity and clarity, the notion of critical point is best introduced by discussing a specific example. This was the first critical point to be discovered, and it is still the best known, the figure to the right shows the schematic PT diagram of a pure substance. The commonly known phases solid, liquid and vapor are separated by phase boundaries, at the triple point, all three phases can coexist. However, the liquid-vapor boundary terminates in an endpoint at some critical temperature Tc, in water, the critical point occurs at around 647 K and 22.064 MPa. In the vicinity of the point, the physical properties of the liquid. For instance, liquid water under normal conditions is nearly incompressible, has a low thermal expansion coefficient, has a dielectric constant. At the critical point, only one phase exists, the heat of vaporization is zero. There is a point in the constant-temperature line on a PV diagram. This means that at the point, T = T =0 Above the critical point there exists a state of matter that is continuously connected with both the liquid and the gaseous state. The existence of a point was first discovered by Charles Cagniard de la Tour in 1822 and named by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1860. Cagniard showed that CO2 could be liquefied at 31 °C at a pressure of 73 atm, but not at a slightly higher temperature, even under pressures as high as 3,000 atm. Solving the above condition T =0 for the van der Waals equation, however, the van der Waals equation, based on a mean field theory, does not hold near the critical point. In particular, it predicts wrong scaling laws, the principle of corresponding states indicates that substances at equal reduced pressures and temperatures have equal reduced volumes. This relationship is true for many substances, but becomes increasingly inaccurate for large values of pr. The liquid–liquid critical point of a solution, which occurs at the solution temperature
38.
Close to Critical
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Close to Critical is a science fiction novel by Hal Clement. The novel was first serialized in three parts and published in Astounding Science Fiction magazine in 1958 and its first hardcover book publication was in July 1964. Revolving on an orbit about the star Altair, Tenebra provides the reader with an excellent example of one of Hal Clements well-crafted hellworlds. 27 times the mass of Earth, Tenebra is three times Earths diameter and has three times Earths gravity at its surface, which gives Tenebra an escape velocity of 33.558 kilometers per second. Clement also describes the planet as rotating on its axis in a less than four Earth days. Tenebra has an atmosphere consisting of water laced with oxygen. The naively expected density of the surface atmosphere stands at about 322 kilograms per cubic meter, but the raindrops descend slowly, even in Tenebras stiff gravity. That latter statement necessitates, as Clement states in the story, at 800 atmospheres of pressure the surface atmosphere, with its load of dissolved oxygen and sulphur oxides, is compressed to a density a little less than the density of liquid water. But life is possible on Tenebra, although Clement doesnt say so explicitly, Tenebras plants do not use photosynthesis. The optical depth of the atmosphere is too great for enough of Altairs light to reach the ground, instead, Tenebras plants use chemosynthesis based on the transformation of sulphur oxides. The process is much like that used by plants growing around the hydrothermal vents known as black smokers on the bottom of Earths oceans, Altairs abundant ultraviolet radiation, striking the top of Tenebras atmosphere, restores the balance among the various sulphur oxides. Because Tenebras atmosphere contains large quantities of sulphur, the planets lakes, throughout the day-night cycle the lakes and oceans rise and fall like tides in the Bay of Fundy, due to the heavy nightly rainfall and the easy evaporation of the liquid water. The constant ebb and flow of hot, pressurized sulphuric acid weakens the planets crust, resulting in frequent earthquakes and minor rearrangements of the landscape. For two decades humans have been observing this world from the space station Vindemiatrix, which revolves about Tenebra on a synchronous orbit and it began with human researchers sending a semi-autonomous robot to the surface of Tenebra. The robot descended on rocket boosters until atmospheric pressure exceeded the pressure in the combustion chambers. Instead of generating thrust, the rockets began to overheat and melt themselves, so the controllers jettisoned the engines, after acclimatizing itself to the dark world under Tenebras thick clouds, the robot set out to explore. After months of mapping the territory and observing the plants and animals, a set of spines jutting from the top of the creature served as lensless eyes, making maximum use of the thin flow of photons seeping from the sky. Sixteen years later Nick Chopper is on the run, trying to elude the people he is certain are tracking him, he returns to the little hilltop village of huts that he shares with his nine siblings and the robot, now called Fagin
