1.
Batman
–
Batman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, originally named the Bat-Man, the character is also referred to by such epithets as the Caped Crusader, the Dark Knight, and the Worlds Greatest Detective. Batmans secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American playboy, philanthropist, after witnessing the murder of his parents Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne as a child, he swore vengeance against criminals, an oath tempered by a sense of justice. Wayne trains himself physically and intellectually and crafts a bat-inspired persona to fight crime, Batman operates in the fictional Gotham City, with assistance from various supporting characters, including his butler Alfred, police commissioner Gordon, and vigilante allies such as Robin. A large assortment of villains make up Batmans rogues gallery, including his archenemy, Batman became popular soon after his introduction in 1939 and gained his own comic book title, Batman, the following year. As the decades went on, differing interpretations of the character emerged, the late 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with the character for years after the show ended. Various creators worked to return the character to his dark roots, the success of Warner Bros. live-action Batman feature films have helped maintain the publics interest in the character. The character has also intrigued psychiatrists, with trying to understand the characters psyche. In 2015, FanSided ranked Batman as number one on their list of 50 Greatest Super Heroes In Comic Book History. Kevin Conroy, Bruce Greenwood, Peter Weller, Anthony Ruivivar, Jason OMara, Batman has been portrayed in both film and television by Lewis Wilson, Robert Lowery, Adam West, Michael Keaton, Val Kilmer, George Clooney, Christian Bale, and Ben Affleck. In early 1939, the success of Superman in Action Comics prompted editors at National Comics Publications to request more superheroes for its titles, in response, Bob Kane created the Bat-Man. Collaborator Bill Finger recalled that Kane had an idea for a character called Batman, I went over to Kanes, and he had drawn a character who looked very much like Superman with kind of. Reddish tights, I believe, with boots, with a small domino mask, swinging on a rope. He had two wings that were sticking out, looking like bat wings. And under it was a big sign, the bat-wing-like cape was suggested by Bob Kane, inspired by Leonardo Da Vincis sketch of an ornithopter flying device as a child. Finger suggested giving the character a cowl instead of a domino mask, a cape instead of wings. Finger said he devised the name Bruce Wayne for the secret identity, Bruce Waynes first name came from Robert Bruce. Wayne, being a playboy, was a man of gentry, I searched for a name that would suggest colonialism
Batman
–
First image of Batman in Action Comics #12, announcing the character's debut in the forthcoming Detective Comics #27
Batman
–
Promotional art for
Batman #608 (Oct. 2002) Pencils by
Jim Lee and inks by
Scott Williams
Batman
–
Batman made his debut in
Detective Comics #27 (May 1939). Cover art by
Bob Kane.
Batman
–
The first issue of
The Dark Knight Returns redefined Batman in the 1980s. Cover art by
Frank Miller.
2.
Robin (comics)
–
Robin is the name of several fictional superheroes appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by Bob Kane, Bill Finger. The team of Batman and Robin is commonly referred to as the Dynamic Duo or the Caped Crusaders, the characters first incarnation, Dick Grayson, debuted in Detective Comics #38. Conceived as a vehicle to attract young readership, Robin garnered overwhelmingly positive critical reception, the early adventures of Robin included Star Spangled Comics #65–130, which was the characters first solo feature. The characters second incarnation Jason Todd debuted in Batman #357 and this Robin made regular appearances in Batman related comic books until 1988, when the character was murdered by the Joker in the storyline A Death in the Family. Jason would later find himself alive after a reality changing incident, the premiere Robin limited series was published in 1991 which featured the characters third incarnation Tim Drake training to earn the role of Batmans vigilante partner. Following two successful sequels, the monthly Robin ongoing series began in 1993 and ended in early 2009, in 2004 storylines, established DC Comics character Stephanie Brown became the fourth Robin for a short duration before the role reverted to Tim Drake. Damian Wayne succeeds Drake as Robin in the 2009 story arc Battle for the Cowl, Dick Grayson resumed his role as Nightwing and Stephanie Brown was introduced anew as Spoiler once again in the pages of Batman Eternal. The 2016 DC Rebirth continuity relaunch starts off with Damian Wayne as Robin, Tim Drake as Red Robin, Jason Todd as Red Hood, Robins have also been featured throughout stories set in parallel worlds, owing to DC Comics longstanding Multiverse concept. For example, in the original Earth-Two, Dick Grayson never adopted the name Nightwing, in the New 52s Earth-2 continuity, Robin is Helena Wayne, daughter of Batman and Catwoman, who was stranded on the Earth of the main continuity and takes the name Huntress. About a year after Batmans debut, Batman creators Bob Kane, the name Robin the Boy Wonder and the medieval look of the original costume were inspired by The Adventures of Robin Hood. Robinson noted he came up with Robin Hood because The Adventures of Robin Hood were boyhood favorites of mine, I had been given a Robin Hood book illustrated by N. C. Wyeth. and thats what I quickly sketched out when I suggested the name Robin Hood, which seemed to like. And if you look at it, its Wyeths costume, from my memory, because I didnt have the book to look at. In Batman stories the character of Robin was intended to be the Batmans Watson, Bill Finger, writer for many early Batman adventures, wrote, as I said, Batman was a combination of Douglas Fairbanks and Sherlock Holmes. The thing that bothered me was that Batman didnt have anyone to talk to, I found that as I went along Batman needed a Watson to talk to. Thats how Robin came to be, Bob called me over and said he was going to put a boy in the strip to identify with Batman. I thought it was a great idea, Batman investigated the crime and, as his alter ego billionaire Bruce Wayne, had Dick put under his custody as a legal ward
Robin (comics)
–
Batman and
Dick Grayson as Robin reinterpreted by painter
Alex Ross. Based on the cover to Batman #9 by Jack Burnley.
Robin (comics)
–
Robin (vol. 2) #0 (October 1994). Featuring the Tim Drake version of the character. Art by
Tom Grummett and Ray Kryssing.
Robin (comics)
–
Cover to Batman #369 (December 1983). Pencils by
Dick Giordano.
Robin (comics)
–
Portion of the cover of Batman vol. 1 #465 (July, 1991). Art by
Norm Breyfogle and is based on the cover to Batman #9 by Jack Burnley.
3.
Costume
–
Costume is the distinctive style of dress of an individual or group that reflects their class, gender, profession, ethnicity, nationality, activity or epoch. The term also was used to describe typical appropriate clothing for certain activities, such as riding costume, swimming costume, dance costume. Appropriate and acceptable costume is subject to changes in fashion and local cultural norms, before the advent of ready-to-wear apparel, clothing was made by hand. Costume comes from the same Italian word, inherited via French, National costume or regional costume expresses local identity and emphasizes a cultures unique attributes. They are often a source of national pride, examples include the Scottish kilt or Japanese kimono. In Bhutan there is a national dress prescribed for men and women. These have been in vogue for thousands of years and have developed into a dress style. The dress worn by men is known as Gho which is a robe worn up to knee-length and is fastened at the waist by a called the Kera. The front part of the dress which is formed like a pouch, in olden days was used to hold baskets of food and short dagger, but now it is used to keep cell phone, purse and the betel nut called Doma. The dress worn by women consist of three known as Kira, Tego and Wonju. The long dress which extends up to the ankle is Kira, the jacket worn above this is Tego which is provided with Wonju, the inner jacket. However, while visiting the Dzong or monastery a long scarf or stoll, called Kabney is worn by men across the shoulder, women also wear scarfs or stolls called Rachus, made of raw silk with embroidery, over their shoulder but not indicative of their rank. Some stylized theatrical costumes, such as Harlequin and Pantaloon in the Commedia dellarte, exaggerate an aspect of a character, the wearing of costumes is an important part of holidays developed from religious festivals such as Mardi Gras, and Halloween. Christmas costumes typically portray characters such as Santa Claus, in Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States the American version of a Santa suit and beard is popular, in the Netherlands, the costume of Zwarte Piet is customary. Easter costumes are associated with the Easter Bunny or other animal costumes, in Judaism, a common practice is to dress up on Purim. During this holiday, Jews celebrate the change of their destiny and they were delivered from being the victims of an evil decree against them and were instead allowed by the King to destroy their enemies. A quote from the Book of Esther, which says, On the contrary is the reason that wearing a costume has become customary for this holiday. Buddhist religious festivals in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia and Lhasa and Sikkim in India perform the Cham dance, parades and processions provide opportunities for people to dress up in historical or imaginative costumes
Costume
–
Costumes of All Nations - Franks A.D. 800 (1882) Examples of a range of costumes suitable for specific individuals at a particular epoch. In later periods, once authentic costume may be revived or copied for theatrical purposes.
Costume
–
Actors in
samurai costume at the
Kyoto Eigamura film set
Costume
–
King of Bhutan in traditional dress and Bhutanese Women in traditional dress
Costume
4.
Halloween
–
It begins the three-day observance of Allhallowtide, the time in the liturgical year dedicated to remembering the dead, including saints, martyrs, and all the faithful departed. Some academics, however, support the view that Halloween began independently as a solely Christian holiday. Some Christians historically abstained from meat on All Hallows Eve, a reflected in the eating of certain foods on this vigil day, including apples, potato pancakes. The word Halloween or Halloween dates to about 1745 and is of Christian origin, the word Halloween means hallowed evening or holy evening. It comes from a Scottish term for All Hallows Eve, in Scots, the word eve is even, and this is contracted to een or een. Over time, Hallow Een evolved into Halloween, although the phrase All Hallows is found in Old English All Hallows Eve is itself not seen until 1556. Todays Halloween customs are thought to have influenced by folk customs and beliefs from the Celtic-speaking countries. Samhain was the first and most important of the four days in the medieval Gaelic calendar and was celebrated on 31 October–1 November in Ireland, Scotland. A kindred festival was held at the time of year by the Brittonic Celts, called Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Kalan Gwav in Cornwall and Kalan Goañv in Brittany. For the Celts, the day ended and began at sunset, Samhain and Calan Gaeaf are mentioned in some of the earliest Irish and Welsh literature. The names have been used by historians to refer to Celtic Halloween customs up until the 19th century, samhain/Calan Gaeaf marked the end of the harvest season and beginning of winter or the darker half of the year. Like Beltane/Calan Mai, it was seen as a liminal time and this meant the Aos Sí, the spirits or fairies, could more easily come into our world and were particularly active. Most scholars see the Aos Sí as degraded versions of ancient gods whose power remained active in the minds even after they had been officially replaced by later religious beliefs. The Aos Sí were both respected and feared, with individuals often invoking the protection of God when approaching their dwellings, at Samhain, it was believed that the Aos Sí needed to be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter. Offerings of food and drink, or portions of the crops, were left outside for the Aos Sí, the souls of the dead were also said to revisit their homes seeking hospitality. Places were set at the table and by the fire to welcome them. The belief that the souls of the return home on one night of the year. In 19th century Ireland, candles would be lit and prayers offered for the souls of the dead
Halloween
–
A
jack-o'-lantern, one of the symbols of Halloween
Halloween
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An early 20th-century Irish Hallowe'en mask displayed at the
Museum of Country Life.
Halloween
–
A traditional Irish Halloween turnip (rutabaga) lantern on display in the
Museum of Country Life, Ireland
5.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
Scotland
–
Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.
Scotland
–
Flag
Scotland
–
The class I
Pictish stone at
Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.
Scotland
–
The
Wallace Monument commemorates
William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero.
6.
Celtic nations
–
The Celtic nations are territories in western Europe where Celtic languages or cultural traits have survived. The term nation is used in its original sense to mean a people who share a common identity, the six territories widely considered Celtic nations are Brittany, Cornwall, Wales, Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Man, commonly referred to as the Celtic fringe. In each of the six nations a Celtic language is spoken, before the expansions of Ancient Rome and the Germanic and Slavic tribes, a significant part of Europe was dominated by Celts, leaving behind a legacy of Celtic cultural traits. Unlike the others, however, no Celtic language has been there in modern times. Each of the six nations has its own Celtic language, in the latter two regions, however, language revitalization movements have led to the adoption of these languages by adults and produced a number of native speakers. Generally these communities are in the west of their countries and in isolated upland or island areas. The term Gàidhealtachd historically distinguished the Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland from the Lowland Scots areas, more recently, this term has also been adopted as the Gaelic name of the Highland council area, which includes non-Gaelic speaking areas. Hence, more terms such as sgìre Ghàidhlig are now used. In Wales, the Welsh language is a curriculum subject. Additionally, 20% of school children in Wales go to Welsh medium schools, parts of the northern Iberian Peninsula, namely Galicia, Cantabria, Asturias and Northern Portugal, also lay claim to this heritage. Notably, the music features extensive use of bagpipes, an instrument common in Celtic music. Musicians from Galicia and Asturias have participated in Celtic music festivals, such as the Breton Festival Interceltique de Lorient, Northern Portugal, part of ancient Gallaecia, also has traditions quite similar to Galicia. However, no Celtic language has been spoken in northern Iberia since probably the Early Middle Ages, Irish was once widely spoken on the island of Newfoundland before largely disappearing there by the early 20th century. Vestiges remain in some words found in Newfoundland English, such as scrob for scratch, knowledge seems to be largely restricted to memorized passages, such as traditional tales and songs. Canadian Gaelic dialects of Scottish Gaelic are still spoken by Gaels in other parts of Atlantic Canada, primarily on Cape Breton Island and adjacent areas of Nova Scotia. In 2011, there were 1,275 Gaelic speakers in Nova Scotia, patagonian Welsh is spoken principally in Y Wladfa in the Chubut Province of Patagonia with sporadic speakers throughout Argentina by Welsh Argentines. Estimates of the number of Welsh speakers range from 1,500 to 5,000, the chart below shows the population of each Celtic nation and the number of people in each nation who can speak Celtic languages. The total number of residing in the Celtic nations is 19,596,000 people and, of these
Celtic nations
–
Pipers at the
Festival Interceltique de Lorient
Celtic nations
–
Ireland
Celtic nations
–
Principal sites in Roman Britain, with indication of the Celtic tribes.
7.
Ireland
–
Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
Ireland
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Satellite image of Ireland on 11 October 2010
Ireland
–
The
Gowran Ogham Stone,
Christianised c.6th Century. On display in
St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran.
Ireland
–
The Uragh Stone Circle a
Neolithic stone circle in Gleninchaquin Park,
County Kerry
8.
Isle of Man
–
The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government, the island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century and the Manx language, in 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, magnus III, King of Norway, was also known as King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103. In 1266, the became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the short form often used in English, Mann, is derived from the Manx Mannin, though sometimes the name is written as Man. The earliest recorded Manx form of the name is Manu or Mana, the Old Irish form of the name is Manau or Mano. Old Welsh records named it as Manaw, also reflected in Manaw Gododdin, the name for an ancient district in north Britain along the lower Firth of Forth. The oldest known reference to the calls it Mona, in Latin, in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder records it as Monapia or Monabia. Later Latin references have Mevania or Mænavia, and Eubonia or Eumonia by Irish writers and it is found in the Sagas of Icelanders as Mön. The name is cognate with the Welsh name of the island of Anglesey, Ynys Môn, usually derived from a Celtic word for mountain. The name was at least secondarily associated with that of Manannán mac Lir in Irish mythology, later, a Manannán is recorded as the first king of Mann in a Manx poem. The island was cut off from the islands around 8000 BC. The first residents were hunter gatherers and fishermen, examples of their tools are kept at the Manx Museum. There were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures, during the Bronze Age, burial mounds became smaller. Bodies were put in stone-lined graves with ornamental containers, the Bronze Age burial mounds created long-lasting markers around the countryside. The ancient Romans knew of the island and called it Insula Manavia although it is whether they conquered the island
Isle of Man
–
The Braaid in central Isle of Man, with remnants of a Celtic-Norse
roundhouse and two
longhouses, c. 650–950 AD
Isle of Man
–
Flag
Isle of Man
–
The
Calf of Man seen from
Cregneash
Isle of Man
–
A composite satellite image of the Isle of Man
9.
Wales
–
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
Wales
–
Bryn Celli Ddu, a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey
Wales
–
Flag
Wales
–
This article is about the country. For other uses, see
Wales (disambiguation).
Wales
–
Coin of
Magnus Maximus
10.
Samhain
–
Samhain is a Gaelic festival marking the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter or the darker half of the year. Traditionally, it is celebrated from 31 October to 1 November, as the Celtic day began and this is about halfway between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice. It is one of the four Gaelic seasonal festivals, along with Imbolc, Bealtaine, historically, it was widely observed throughout Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Similar festivals are held at the time of year in other Celtic lands, for example the Brythonic Calan Gaeaf, Kalan Gwav. Samhain is believed to have Celtic pagan origins and there is evidence it has been an important date since ancient times, the Mound of the Hostages, a Neolithic passage tomb at the Hill of Tara, is aligned with the Samhain sunrise. It is mentioned in some of the earliest Irish literature and many important events in Irish mythology happen or begin on Samhain and it was the time when cattle were brought back down from the summer pastures and when livestock were slaughtered for the winter. As at Bealtaine, special bonfires were lit and these were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers and there were rituals involving them. Like Bealtaine, Samhain was seen as a time, when the boundary between this world and the Otherworld could more easily be crossed. This meant the Aos Sí, the spirits or fairies, could easily come into our world. Most scholars see the Aos Sí as remnants of the pagan gods, at Samhain, it was believed that the Aos Sí needed to be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter. Offerings of food and drink were left outside for them, the souls of the dead were also thought to revisit their homes seeking hospitality. Feasts were had, at which the souls of dead kin were beckoned to attend, mumming and guising were part of the festival, and involved people going door-to-door in costume, often reciting verses in exchange for food. The costumes may have been a way of imitating, and disguising oneself from, divination rituals and games were also a big part of the festival and often involved nuts and apples. In the late 19th century, Sir John Rhys and Sir James Frazer suggested that it was the Celtic New Year, in the 9th century AD, Western Christianity shifted the date of All Saints Day to 1 November, while 2 November later became All Souls Day. Over time, Samhain and All Saints/All Souls merged to create the modern Halloween, historians have used the name Samhain to refer to Gaelic Halloween customs up until the 19th century. Since the later 20th century, Celtic neopagans and Wiccans have observed Samhain, or something based on it, Neopagans in the Southern Hemisphere often celebrate Samhain at the other end of the year. In Modern Irish the name is Samhain, in Scottish Gaelic Samhainn/Samhuinn and these are also the names of November in each language, shortened from Mí na Samhna, Mì na Samhna and Mee Houney. The night of 31 October is Oíche Shamhna, Oidhche Shamhna and Oie Houney,1 November, or the whole festival, may be called Lá Samhna, Là Samhna and Laa Houney, all meaning Samhain day
Samhain
–
Samonios on the
Coligny calendar
Samhain
–
Cú Chulainn going into battle in the Táin Bó Cúailnge, which was said to have begun at Samhain.
Samhain
–
Oweynagat ('cave of the cats'), one of the many 'gateways to the Otherword' from whence beings and spirits were said to have emerged on Samhain.
Samhain
–
Bonfires were a big part of the festival in many areas (pictured is a Beltane bonfire in Scotland)
11.
Calan Gaeaf
–
Calan Gaeaf is the name of the first day of winter in Wales, observed on 1 November. The night before is Nos Galan Gaeaf, an Ysbrydnos when spirits are abroad, people avoid churchyards, stiles, and crossroads, since spirits are thought to gather there. Children and women would dance around a fire and, during this process, everyone would write their names on rocks and place them in. When the fire started to die out they would all run home- whereas if they stayed, Yr Hwch Ddu Gwta would devour their souls. One particular rhyme shows how the last child out on Nos Calan Gaeaf was at risk of being eaten by the fearsome beast, Adre, adre, am y cynta, the following morning, all the stones containing villagers names would be checked. If, however, a stone was missing, the person who wrote their name on the stone would die one year. Coelcerth, Families build a fire and place stones with their names on it, for prophetic dreams a boy should cut ten ivy leaves, throw away one and put the rest under his head before he sleeps. They supposedly possessed the power to ‘bewitch’ anybody if they wished Twco Fala/fale, Ducking apples Samhain Halloween Day of the Dead Allantide Davies, John, Jenkins, the Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales
Calan Gaeaf
–
Mari Lwyd
12.
Soul cake
–
A soul cake is a small round cake which is traditionally made for All Hallows Eve, All Saints Day and All Souls Day to commemorate the dead in the Christian tradition. The practice in England dates to the period, and was continued there until the 1930s. The practice of giving and eating soul cakes continues in some today, such as Portugal. In Lancashire and in the North-east of England they are known as Harcakes. The tradition of giving soul cakes was celebrated in Britain or Ireland during the Middle Ages, in 1891, Rev. M. P. Holme of Tattenhall, Cheshire, collected the song traditionally sung during souling, from a little girl at the local school. Two years later, the text and tune were published by folklorist Lucy Broadwood, further recordings of the traditional soul-cake song were collected in various parts of England until the 1950s. Versions collected later may have influenced by folk revival recordings of the song by such groups as The Watersons. The musical arrangement is different from the published 1893 version and was copyrighted by members of the group. American Halloween composer Kristen Lawrence found two tunes associated with soul cakes as she was researching souling songs for her 2009 A Broom With A View album. It seemed plausible that the Cheshire tune could be a corruption of the chant as children. The song Soul Cake from British rock musician Stings 2009 album If on a Winters Night. Seems to be an adaptation of the Peter, Paul, and Mary version, but the 1893 version of the song already shares lines from similar Christmas carols, Here We Come A-Wassailing and Christmas is A-Coming. A
Soul cake
–
Butter cakes
Soul cake
–
Souling was a Christian practice carried out in many English towns on
Halloween and
Christmas.
13.
Allhallowtide
–
Allhallowtide is a time to remember the dead, including martyrs, saints, and all faithful departed Christians. The present date of Hallowmas and thus also of its vigil was established for Rome perhaps by Pope Gregory III and was made of obligation throughout the Frankish Empire by Louis the Pious in 835. Elsewhere, other dates were observed even later, with the date in Ireland being 20 April. In the early 11th century, the date of All Souls Day was popularized, after Abbot Odilo established it as a day for the monks of Cluny. The word Allhallowtide was first used in 1471, and is derived from two words, the Old English word halig, meaning saint, and the word tide, the latter part of the word Hallowmas is derived from the word Mass. The words hallow and saint are synonyms, the Christian attitude towards the death of martyrs is first exemplified in the New Testament, which records that after the beheading of St. John the Baptist, his disciples respectfully buried him. Stephen was likewise given a Christian burial by his fellow-Christians after he had been stoned to death by a mob. D, Odilo of Cluny popularized the day to pray for All Souls, forming the third day of the triduum of Allhallowtide. The octave of Allhallowtide, lasting eight days was established by Pope Sixtus IV in 1430 for the whole Western Church, the octave, however was eliminated in the 1955 reforms of the Catholic Church, although it continues to be observed by many Anglicans. The faithful may obtain a Plenary Indulgence by visiting a cemetery. In the United Kingdom, the Church of England, mother church of the Anglican Communion, All Hallows Eve, often contracted as Halloween, is the eve of All Hallows, and the first day of the Allhallowtide. On All Hallows Eve, Christians traditionally believed that the veil between the world and the afterlife thinned. In order to prevent recognition by a soul, people would don masks or costumes to disguise their identities, in North America, the Christian Church traditionally observed Halloween through a vigil when worshippers would prepare themselves with prayers and fasting prior to the feast day itself. This church service is known as the Vigil of All Hallows or the Vigil of All Saints, an initiative known as Night of Light seeks to further spread the Vigil of All Hallows throughout Christendom. After the service, suitable festivities and entertainments often follow, as well as a visit to the graveyard or cemetery, the second day of Allhallowtide is known as All Saints Day, All Hallows, or Hallowmas. Occurring on November 1, it is a principal feast of the church year, in some Christian denominations, All Saints Day may be celebrated on the Sunday following November 1. All Saints Day is a day to honour all the saints and martyrs. All Hallows is a universal Christian holy day, but it has an importance in the Anglican Church, Catholic Church. The liturgical colour of All Saints Day is white, which is symbolic of victory, while honouring the Church Triumphant, All Hallows seeks to especially honour the blessed who have not been canonized and who have no special feast day
Allhallowtide
–
The Church Militant and the Church Triumphant, fresco by
Andrea da Firenze in
Santa Maria Novella, c. A.D. 1365
Allhallowtide
–
Many of the remains of the
martyrs of the
ancient Church lie in the
catacombs
Allhallowtide
–
Hallowe'en decorations in Eifeler Hof,
Germany.
Allhallowtide
–
A cemetery outside a
Lutheran church in
Röke, Sweden on the feast of All Hallows. Flowers and lighted candles are placed by relatives on the graves of their deceased loved ones.
14.
Mummers Play
–
Mummers Plays are folk plays performed by troupes of amateur actors, traditionally all male, known as mummers or guisers. It refers particularly to a play in which a number of characters are called on stage and this play is sometimes found associated with a sword dance though both also exist in Britain independently. Mumming spread from the British Isles to a number of former British colonies and it is sometimes performed in the street but more usually during visits to houses and pubs. Although the term mummers has been in use since the ages no scripts or details survive from that era. The earliest evidence of mummers plays as they are today is from the mid to late 18th century. Mummers plays should not be confused with the mystery plays. There are a few surviving traditional teams of mummers in England and Ireland and these performances are comparable in some respects with others throughout Europe. Broadly comic performances, the most common features a doctor who has a magic potion able to resuscitate the vanquished character. The characters may be introduced in a series of speeches or they may introduce themselves in the course of the plays action. Other characters include, Old Father Christmas, who introduces some plays, in Ynysmeudwy near Swansea groups of four boys dressed as Crwmpyn John, Indian Dark, Robin Hood and Doctor Brown took the play from house to house on Bonfire Night and were rewarded with money. Despite the frequent presence of Saint George, the Dragon rarely appears although it is often mentioned, a dragon seems to have appeared in the Revesby Ploughboys Play in 1779, along with a wild worm, but it had no words. In the few instances where the dragon appears and speaks its words can be traced back to a Cornish script published by William Sandys in 1833, mumming groups often wear face-obscuring hats or other kinds of headgear and masks, some mummers faces are blackened or painted. In 1418 a law was passed forbidding mumming, plays, interludes or any other disguisings with any feigned beards, painted visors, deformed or coloured visages in any wise, many mummers and guisers, however, have no facial disguise at all. Mumming was a way of raising money and the play was taken round the big houses, most Southern English versions end with the entrance of Little Johnny Jack his wife and family on his back. Johnny, traditionally played by the youngest mummer in the group, first asks for food, Johnny Jacks wife and family were either dolls in a model house or sometimes a picture. Mummers and guisers can be traced back at least to 1296, according to German and Austrian sources dating from the 16th century, during carnival persons wearing masks used to make house-to-house visits offering a mumschanz, a game of dice. This custom was practised by commoners as well as nobility, on Shrove Tuesday of 1557 Albert V, Duke of Bavaria went to visit the archbishop of Salzburg and played a game of dice with him. Other than this there is no clear evidence linking these late medieval
Mummers Play
–
Mummers performing in front of Exeter Cathedral, Devon in 1994
Mummers Play
–
The doctor revives a knight — Weston Mummers, Packhorse Inn,
Southstoke on
Boxing Day 2007
Mummers Play
–
Midwinter Mummers at the
Whittlesea Straw Bear 2009
15.
Christmas
–
In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar and this is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse, the date is exactly nine months following Annunciation, when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, the economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world. Christmas is a form of Christs mass. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, crīst is from Greek Khrīstos, a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ, Messiah, meaning anointed, and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal, it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. In addition to Christmas, the holiday has been known by other names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as midwinter, or, more rarely, Nativity, meaning birth, is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola referred to the corresponding to December and January. Noel entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis, the canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census and it says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels, the first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, the feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day
Christmas
–
A
depiction of the
Nativity of Jesus with a
Christmas tree backdrop
Christmas
–
Adoration of the Shepherds by Gerard van Honthorst depicts the nativity of
Jesus
Christmas
–
Eastern Orthodox icon of the birth of Christ by
St. Andrei Rublev, 15th century
Christmas
–
Nativity of Christ – medieval illustration from the
Hortus deliciarum of
Herrad of Landsberg (12th century)
16.
Museum of Country Life
–
The Museum of Country Life is located in Turlough Village,8 km northeast of Castlebar, County Mayo in Ireland. Established in 2001, the museum is part of the National Museum of Ireland and is the national museum outside of Dublin. The museum exhibits the way of life of rural Irish people between 1850 and 1950, and it is in the grounds of Turlough Park House, there are displays about the home, the natural environment, trades and crafts, communities, and working on the land and water. Turlough House was designed by Thomas Newenham Deane, who designed the Kildare Street branch of the National Museum of Ireland. It was built from 1863–1867, and was owned by the Fitzgerald family of Turlough, in 1991, the house and 36 acres were purchased by the Mayo County Council. The house was renovated and an adjacent museum building was constructed, the upstairs of the house is used as offices by the museum staff, and the downstairs is on show to the public. The National Museum of Ireland and Museum of Country Life has undergone a decrease in funding from €19m in 2008 to less than €12m in 2014. Although there were plans to close some of the museum branches or initiate an entrance fee, as of 2014. The museum has permanent and temporary exhibitions, including, Michael Davitt Exhibition, an exhibition to commemorate the life of Michael Davitt. The Cross of Cong, a 12th-century processional cross that purportedly contains a piece of the True Cross, the cross was kept at Cong Abbey in County Mayo until 1839 when it was given to the Royal Irish Academy and then the National Museum of Ireland, Dublin. In 2010, the cross was returned to County Mayo to be displayed at the Museum of Country Life for one year, power and Privilege, Photographs of the Big House in Ireland 1858-1922, an exhibit showing the lives of the gentry and their servants. The Coggalbeg hoard, a bronze-age, gold collar and discs that were dug up in a bog near Strokestown in 1945, the hoard had been stored in a Pharmacy safe until the safe was stolen in 2009. The contents of the safe, including the objects which were presumably overlooked, were found in a dumpster
Museum of Country Life
–
Landlord’s old house next to museum
17.
Celts
–
The history of pre-Celtic Europe remains very uncertain. According to one theory, the root of the Celtic languages, the Proto-Celtic language, arose in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of Central Europe. Thus this area is called the Celtic homeland. The earliest undisputed examples of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions beginning in the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names, Insular Celtic languages are attested beginning around the 4th century in Ogham inscriptions, although it was clearly being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century, coherent texts of Early Irish literature, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge, survive in 12th century recensions. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a cohesive cultural entity. They had a linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from the culture of the surrounding polities. By the 6th century, however, the Continental Celtic languages were no longer in wide use, Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels and the Celtic Britons of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Great Britain, Ireland, today, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton are still spoken in parts of their historical territories, and Cornish and Manx are undergoing a revival. The first recorded use of the name of Celts – as Κελτοί – to refer to a group was by Hecataeus of Miletus, the Greek geographer, in 517 BC. In the fifth century BC Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the head of the Danube, the etymology of the term Keltoi is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European *kʲel ‘to hide’, IE *kʲel ‘to heat’ or *kel ‘to impel’, several authors have supposed it to be Celtic in origin, while others view it as a name coined by Greeks. Linguist Patrizia De Bernardo Stempel falls in the group. Yet he reports Celtic peoples in Iberia, and also uses the ethnic names Celtiberi and Celtici for peoples there, as distinct from Lusitani, pliny the Elder cited the use of Celtici in Lusitania as a tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. Latin Gallus might stem from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name originally and its root may be the Proto-Celtic *galno, meaning “power, strength”, hence Old Irish gal “boldness, ferocity” and Welsh gallu “to be able, power”. The tribal names of Gallaeci and the Greek Γαλάται most probably have the same origin, the suffix -atai might be an Ancient Greek inflection. Proto-Germanic *walha is derived ultimately from the name of the Volcae and this means that English Gaul, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin Gallia, though it does refer to the same ancient region
Celts
–
Celtic
stele from
Galicia, 2nd century AD: “APANA·AMBO / LLI· F(ilia)·CELTICA /
SUPERTAM(arica) · / (j) MIOBRI· / AN(norum)· XXV·H(ic)·S(ita)·E(st)· / APANUS·FR(ater)· F(aciendum)·C(uravit)”
Celts
–
Core
Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BC
Celts
–
Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in Altburg near
Bundenbach (1st century BC).
Celts
–
Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in
Havranok, Slovakia (2nd–1st century BC).
18.
Cornwall
–
Cornwall is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, Cornwall has a population of 551,700 and covers an area of 3,563 km2. Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and this area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, there is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. In the mid-19th century, however, the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline, subsequently, china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s. Traditionally, fishing and agriculture were the important sectors of the economy. Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century, however, the area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its long and varied coastline, its attractive villages, its many place-names derived from the Cornish language, and its very mild climate. Extensive stretches of Cornwalls coastline, and Bodmin Moor, are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The modern English name Cornwall derives from the concatenation of two ancient demonyms from different linguistic traditions, Corn- records the native Brythonic tribe, the Cornovii. The Celtic word kernou is cognate with the English word horn. -wall derives from the Old English exonym walh, the Ravenna Cosmography first mentions a city named Purocoronavis in the locality. This is thought to be a rendering of Duro-cornov-ium, meaning fort of the Cornovii. The exact location of Durocornovium is disputed, with Tintagel and Carn Brea suggested as possible sites, in later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as West Wales to distinguish it from North Wales. The name appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum, in the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c.1198 as Cornwal. Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as Cornubia, the present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and it continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age people. The Common Brittonic spoken at the time developed into several distinct tongues
Cornwall
–
"Cornweallas" shown on an early 19th-century map of "Saxon England" (and Wales) based on the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
Cornwall
–
Flag
Cornwall
–
Mên-an-Tol.
Cornwall
–
St German's Priory Church (Norman)
19.
Brittany
–
Brittany is a cultural region in the north-west of France. Brittany has also referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain. It is bordered by the English Channel to the north, the Celtic Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and its land area is 34,023 km². Since reorganisation in 1956, the administrative region of Brittany comprises only four of the five Breton departments. The remaining area of old Brittany, the Loire-Atlantique department around Nantes, at the 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. Of these, 71% lived in the region of Brittany, while 29% lived in the Loire-Atlantique department, in 2012, the largest metropolitan areas were Nantes, Rennes, and Brest. Brittany is the homeland of the Breton people and is recognised by the Celtic League as one of the six Celtic nations. A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the French Republic, the word Brittany, along with its French, Breton and Gallo equivalents Bretagne, Breizh and Bertaèyn, derive from the Latin Britannia, which means Britons land. This word had been used by the Romans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain and this word derives from a Greek word, Πρεττανικη or Βρεττανίαι, used by Pytheas, an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Islands around 320 BC. This term probably comes from a Gallic word, aremorica, which close to the sea. Another name, Letauia, was used until the 12th century and it possibly means wide and flat or to expand and it gave the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw. Later, authors like Geoffrey of Monmouth used the terms Britannia minor, breton-speaking people may pronounce the word Breizh in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two dialects, the KLT and the dialect of Vannes. KLT speakers pronounce it and would write it Breiz, while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it, the official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with a z and an h together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-called Breton zh, on its side, Gallo language has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be written Bertaèyn in ELG script, or Bertègn in MOGA, Brittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic. This population was scarce and very similar to the other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe and their only original feature was a distinct culture, called Colombanian. One of the oldest hearths in the world has found in Plouhinec
Brittany
–
The
Carnac stones.
Brittany
Brittany
–
The five Gallic tribes of Brittany.
Brittany
–
The temple of Mars in
Corseul.
20.
Christianization of Ireland
–
The period notably includes the Hiberno-Scottish mission of Christianized Ireland to regions of pagan Britain and the spread of Irish cultural influence to Continental Europe. At the start of the period, Ireland had emerged from a decline that archaeological evidence suggests had hit population levels. 100-300 CE, called the Irish Dark Age by Thomas Charles-Edwards, the population was entirely rural and dispersed, with small ringforts the largest centres of human occupation. Souterrains, underground passages and chambers for hiding in or escaping through, are common and it is likely that raiding Great Britain for slaves and other loot gave an important boost to an otherwise almost entirely agricultural economy. The lakeside enclosures called crannogs continued to be used and seem especially associated with crafts, cattle were greatly prized, and cattle-raiding constituted a large part of warfare, so that cattle needed the constant presence of a herdsman in daylight hours and were put in an enclosure at night. By the end of the period the largest herds were probably those of monasteries, generally mild Irish winters seem to have meant they were never put in roofed shelters in winter, although young calves might spend a period in the house. Otherwise kings lived in larger than the norm, but generally similar. Recorded Irish history begins with the introduction of Christianity and Latin literacy, when compared to neighbouring Insular societies, early Christian Ireland is well documented, at least for later periods, but these sources are not easy to interpret. Many questions remain unanswered and the study of early Christian Ireland continues to produce new theories, New fields, such as paleobotany, have contributed to the debate, while the volume of archaeological evidence has increased. Prosper says in his Contra Collatorem that by this act Celestine made the barbarian island Christian, although it is clear the Christianization of the island was a longer and more gradual process. It is likely that Palladius activities were in the south of Ireland, perhaps associated with Cashel, while Patricks were later, in the north, and associated with Armagh. By the early 6th century the church had developed separate dioceses, with bishops as the most senior ecclesiastical figures, the High Kings of Ireland continued pagan practices until the reign of Diarmait mac Cerbaill ca. 558, traditionally the first Christian High King, the monastic movement, headed by abbots, took hold in the mid 6th century, and by 700 Ireland was at least nominally a Christian country, with the church fully part of Irish society. The status of ecclesiastics was regulated by law, and many leading ecclesiastics came from aristocratic Irish families. Monasteries in the 8th century even went to war with each other, from the 7th century on, Irish churchmen such as Columbanus and Columba were active in Gaul, in Scotland and in Anglo-Saxon England. The mixing of Irish, Pictish and Anglo-Saxon styles created the Insular style of art, represented by the Lindisfarne Gospels, Irelands reputation for scholarship was such that many scholars travelled from Britain and the European mainland to study in Irish schools. However, by the dawn of history this pentarchy no longer existed, the rise of new dynasties, notably the Uí Néill in the north and midlands and the Eóganachta in the south-west, changed the political landscape. Dynastic propaganda claimed this was a traditional division dating back to the 2nd century, gaelic Ireland Flechner, Roy, and Sven Meeder
Christianization of Ireland
–
Gallarus Oratory, one of the earliest churches built in Ireland
21.
Fairy
–
A fairy is a type of mythical being or legendary creature in European folklore, a form of spirit, often described as metaphysical, supernatural, or preternatural. According to Thomas Keightley, the word derives from the Latin fata. Other forms are the Italian fata, and the Provençal fada, in old French romance, fee was a woman skilled in magic, and who knew the power and virtue of words, of stones, and of herbs. Faierie became fairy, but with that now almost exclusively referring to one of the legendary people. The word fairy was used to represent an illusion, or enchantment, to the word faie was added the suffix -erie, used to express either a place where something is found or a trade or typical activity engaged in. In later usage it applied to any kind of quality or activity associated with a particular type of person. In the sense land where fairies dwell, the distinctive and archaic spellings Faery, the latinate fay is not to be confused with the unrelated fey, meaning fated to die. Various folkloristic traditions refer to them euphemistically, by such as wee folk, good folk, people of peace, fair folk. Sometimes the term fairy is used to any magical creature, including goblins or gnomes, at other times. Fairies have their origin in the conflation of Celtic traditions in the Middle French medieval romances. Fairie was in origin used adjectivally, meaning enchanted, but was used as a name for enchanted creatures from as early as the Late Middle English period. In English literature of the Elizabethan era, elves became conflated with the fairies of Romance culture, the Victorian and Edwardian eras saw an increase in interest in fairies. The Celtic Revival viewed them as part of Irelands cultural heritage, carole Silvers and others suggest that the fascination of English antiquarians arose from a reaction to greater industrialization, and loss of folkways. Fairies are generally described as human in appearance and having magical powers, even with these small fairies, however, their small size may be magically assumed rather than constant. Some fairies though normally quite small were able to dilate their figures to imitate humans, on Orkney they were described as short in stature, dressed in dark grey, and sometimes seen in armour. Wings, while common in Victorian and later artwork of fairies, are rare in the folklore, even very small fairies flew with magic. Nowadays, fairies are depicted with ordinary insect wings or butterfly wings. In some folklore, fairies have green eyes, some depictions of fairies either have them wearing some sort of footwear and other depictions of fairies are always barefoot
Fairy
–
A portrait of a fairy, by
Sophie Gengembre Anderson (1869). The title of the painting is Take the Fair Face of Woman, and Gently Suspending, With Butterflies, Flowers, and Jewels Attending, Thus Your Fairy is Made of Most Beautiful Things - purportedly from a poem by Charles Ede.
Fairy
–
1896 illustration of a fairy from
Ernest Vincent Wright 's The Wonderful Fairies of the Sun
Fairy
–
Classic representation of a small fairy with butterfly wings commonly used in modern times.
Luis Ricardo Falero, 1888.
Fairy
–
A resin statue of a fairy
22.
Guising
–
Trick-or-treating is a Halloween custom for children in many countries. Children in costumes travel from house to house asking for such as candy with the phrase Trick or treat. The trick is a threat to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given to them and it typically happens during the evening of October 31. Some homeowners signal that they are willing to hand out treats, others might simply leave treats on their porch. In North America, trick-or-treating has been a Halloween tradition since the late 1920s, in Britain and Ireland the tradition of going house-to-house collecting food at Halloween goes back at least as far as the 16th century, as had the tradition of people wearing costumes at Halloween. The Scottish Halloween custom of guising – children disguised in costume going from house to house for food or money – is first recorded in North America in 1911. While going house-to-house in costume has remained popular among Scots and Irish, the activity is prevalent in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Puerto Rico, and northwestern and central Mexico. In the latter, this practice is called calaverita, and instead of trick or treat, where a calaverita is a small skull made of sugar or chocolate. Since the Middle Ages there has been a tradition of mumming on a certain holiday and it involved going door-to-door in costume, performing short scenes or parts of plays in exchange for food or drink. The custom of trick-or-treating when it is Halloween may come from the belief that supernatural beings, or the souls of the dead, roamed the earth at this time and needed to be appeased. It may otherwise have originated in a Celtic festival, held on 31 October–1 November and it was Samhain in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, and Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. The festival is believed to have pre-Christian roots, in the 9th century, the Catholic Church made 1 November All Saints Day. Among Celtic-speaking peoples, it was seen as a time, when the spirits or fairies. Similar beliefs and customs were found in parts of Europe. It is suggested that trick-or-treating evolved from a tradition whereby people impersonated the spirits, or the souls of the dead, peddle suggests they personify the old spirits of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune. Impersonating these spirits or souls was also believed to protect oneself from them, at least as far back as the 15th century, among Catholics, there had been a custom of sharing soul cakes at Allhallowtide. People would visit houses and take soul cakes, either as representatives of the dead, or in return for praying for their souls. Later, people went from parish to parish at Halloween, begging soul-cakes by singing under the windows some such verse as this, Soul, souls, for a soul-cake, Pray you good mistress and they typically asked for mercy on all Christian souls for a soul cake
Guising
–
A child trick-or-treating
Guising
–
Magazine advertisement in 1962
Guising
–
Two children trick-or-treating on Halloween in
Arkansas, United States
Guising
–
Trunk-or-treating event held at St. John Lutheran Church & Early Learning Center in
Darien, IL
23.
White horse (mythology)
–
White horses have a special significance in the mythologies of cultures around the world. They are often associated with the sun chariot, with warrior-heroes, with fertility, or with an end-of-time saviour, both truly white horses and the more common grey horses, with completely white hair coats, were identified as white by various religious and cultural traditions. From earliest times, white horses have been mythologised as possessing exceptional properties, transcending the world by having wings. As part of its dimension, the white horse in myth may be depicted with seven heads or eight feet. There are also white horses which are divinatory, who prophesy or warn of danger, as a rare or distinguished symbol, a white horse typically bears the hero- or god-figure in ceremonial roles or in triumph over negative forces. Herodotus reported that white horses were held as sacred animals in the Achaemenid court of Xerxes the Great, though some mythologies are stories from earliest beliefs, other tales, though visionary or metaphorical, are found in liturgical sources as part of preserved, on-going traditions. In Celtic mythology, Rhiannon, a figure in the Mabinogion collection of legends. Because of this, she has been linked to the Romano-Celtic fertility horse goddess Epona, White horses are the most common type of hill figure in England. Though many are modern, the Uffington White Horse at least dates back to the Bronze Age. In Scottish folklore, the kelpie or each uisge, a supernatural water demon in the shape of a horse, is sometimes described as white. In Greek mythology, the winged horse Pegasus was the son of Poseidon. Poseidon was also the creator of horses, creating them out of the waves when challenged to make a beautiful land animal. In Norse mythology, Odins eight-legged horse Sleipnir, the best horse among gods, Sleipnir is also the ancestor of another grey horse, Grani, who is owned by the hero Sigurd. One of the titles of God in Hungarian mythology was Hadúr, the Hungarian name for God was, and remains Isten and they followed Steppe Tengriism. The ancient Magyars sacrificed white stallions to him before a battle, additionally, there is a story that the Magyars paid a white horse to Moravian chieftain Svatopluk I for a part of the land that later became the Kingdom of Hungary. Actual historical background of the story is dubious because Svatopluk I was already dead when the first Hungarian tribes arrived, on the other hand, even Herodotus mentions in his Histories an Eastern custom, where sending a white horse as payment in exchange for land means casus belli. This custom roots in the ancient Eastern belief that land would lose its fertility. In Zoroastrianism, one of the three representations of Tishtrya, the hypostasis of the star Sirius, is that of a white stallion
White horse (mythology)
–
The
3,000-year-old Uffington White Horse hill figure in England.
White horse (mythology)
–
Bellerophon riding Pegasus
White horse (mythology)
–
The
Tjängvide image stone is thought to show Odin entering
Valhalla riding on
Sleipnir.
White horse (mythology)
–
Uchchaihshravas
24.
Danse Macabre
–
Dance of Death, also called Danse Macabre, is an artistic genre of late-medieval allegory on the universality of death, no matter ones station in life, the Dance of Death unites all. The Danse Macabre consists of the dead or personified Death summoning representatives from all walks of life to dance along to the grave, typically with a pope, emperor, king, child, and labourer. They were produced as mementos mori, to people of the fragility of their lives. Its origins are postulated from illustrated sermon texts, the earliest recorded visual scheme was a now-lost mural in the Saints Innocents Cemetery in Paris dating from 1424 to 1425, the earliest recorded visual example is from the cemetery of the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris. Marija na Škrilinama in the Istrian town of Beram, painted by Vincent of Kastav, there was also a Dance of Death painted in the 1540s on the walls of the cloister of St Pauls Cathedral, London with texts by John Lydgate, which was destroyed in 1549. The deathly horrors of the 14th century—such as recurring famines, the Hundred Years War in France, and, most of all, the Black Death—were culturally assimilated throughout Europe. Short verse dialogues between Death and each of its victims, which could have performed as plays, can be found in the direct aftermath of the Black Death in Germany. The French term danse macabre may derive from the Latin Chorea Machabæorum, in 2 Maccabees, a deuterocanonical book of the Bible, the grim martyrdom of a mother and her seven sons is described, and was a well-known mediaeval subject. An alternative explanation is that the term entered France via Spain, both the dialogues and the evolving paintings were ostensive penitential lessons that even illiterate people could understand. Numerous mural versions of that legend from the 13th century onwards have survived, since they showed pictorial sequences of men and corpses covered with shrouds, those paintings are sometimes regarded as cultural precursors of the new genre. A danse macabre painting may show a round dance headed by Death or a chain of alternating dead, from the highest ranks of the mediaeval hierarchy descending to its lowest, each mortals hand is taken by a skeleton or an extremely decayed body. The apparent class distinction in almost all of these paintings is completely neutralized by Death as the ultimate equalizer, the Totentanz of Metnitz, for example, shows how a pope crowned with his mitre is being led into Hell by the dancing Death. Usually, a dialogue is attached to each victim, in which Death is summoning him to dance. Who the beggar or the Emperor, ob arm, ob reich, im Tode gleich. Whether rich or poor, equal in death, the famous designs by Hans Holbein the Younger for his Dance of Death series were drawn in 1526 while he was in Basel. They were cut in wood by the accomplished Formschneider Hans Lützelburger and these woodcuts soon appeared in proofs with titles in German. The first book edition, containing forty-one woodcuts, was published at Lyons by the Treschsel brothers in 1538, ten further designs were added in later editions. The Dance of Death refashions the late-medieval allegory of the danse macabre as a reformist satire, most importantly, it was The pictures and the Bible quotations above them were the main attractions
Danse Macabre
–
Pieter Brueghel the Elder,
The Triumph of Death (c. 1562) in the
Museo del Prado,
Madrid. Brueghel was strongly influenced by the style of
Hieronymus Bosch.
Danse Macabre
–
The Dance of Death (1493) by
Michael Wolgemut, from the
Liber chronicarum by
Hartmann Schedel.
Danse Macabre
–
La Danse macabre (
Abbot and
Bailiff). Paris,
Guy Marchant, 1486.
Danse Macabre
–
Danse macabre in St Maria in
Bienno.
25.
Christian
–
A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
Christian
–
Set of pictures for a number of famous Christians from various fields.
Christian
–
The
Church of St Peter near
Antakya, Turkey, in
Antioch the disciples were called Christians.
Christian
–
Nazareth the city is described as the childhood home of
Jesus, in many languages employ the word Nazarene as a general designation for those of the Christian faith.
Christian
–
Japanese Christians ("Kurisuchan") in Portuguese costume, 16–17th century.
26.
Shakespeare
–
William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
Shakespeare
–
The
Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed.
National Portrait Gallery, London.
Shakespeare
–
John Shakespeare's house, believed to be
Shakespeare's birthplace, in
Stratford-upon-Avon.
Shakespeare
–
Shakespeare's coat of arms, as it appears on the rough draft of the application to grant a coat-of-arms to John Shakespeare. It features a spear as a
pun on the family name.
Shakespeare
–
Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon.
27.
The Two Gentlemen of Verona
–
The Two Gentlemen of Verona is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1589 and 1593. The play deals with the themes of friendship and infidelity, the conflict between friendship and love, and the behaviour of people in love. The highlight of the play is considered by some to be Launce, the servant of Proteus. Two Gentlemen is often regarded as one of Shakespeares weakest plays and it has the smallest named cast of any play by Shakespeare. As the play begins, Valentine is preparing to leave Verona for Milan so as to broaden his horizons and he begs his best friend, Proteus, to come with him, but Proteus is in love with Julia, and refuses to leave. Disappointed, Valentine bids Proteus farewell and goes on alone, meanwhile, Julia is discussing Proteus with her maid, Lucetta, who tells Julia that she thinks Proteus is fond of her. Julia, however, acts coyly, embarrassed to admit that she likes him, Lucetta then produces a letter, she will not say who gave it to her, but teases Julia that it was Valentines servant, Speed, who brought it from Proteus. Julia, still unwilling to reveal her love in front of Lucetta and she sends Lucetta away, but then, realising her own rashness, she picks up the fragments of the letter and kisses them, trying to piece them back together. Meanwhile, Proteus father has decided that Proteus should travel to Milan and he orders that Proteus must leave the next day, prompting a tearful farewell with Julia, to whom Proteus swears eternal love. The two exchange rings and vows and Proteus promises to return as soon as he can, in Milan, Proteus finds Valentine in love with the Dukes daughter, Silvia. Despite being in love with Julia, Proteus falls instantly in love with Silvia, unaware of Proteus feelings, Valentine tells him the Duke wants Silvia to marry the foppish but wealthy Thurio, against her wishes. Because the Duke suspects that his daughter and Valentine are in love, he locks her nightly in a tower, however, Valentine tells Proteus that he plans to free her by means of a corded ladder, and together, they will elope. Proteus immediately informs the Duke, who captures and banishes Valentine. While wandering outside Milan, Valentine runs afoul of a band of outlaws, Valentine lies, saying he was banished for killing a man in a fair fight, and the outlaws elect him their leader. Meanwhile, in Verona, Julia decides to join her lover in Milan and she convinces Lucetta to dress her in boys clothes and help her fix her hair so she will not be harmed on the journey. Once in Milan, Julia quickly discovers Proteus love for Silvia and she contrives to become his page boy – Sebastian – until she can decide upon a course of action. e. Silvia deeply mourns the loss of Valentine, who Proteus has told her is rumoured dead, not persuaded of Valentines death, Silvia determines to flee the city with the help of Sir Eglamour. They escape into the forest but when they are confronted by the outlaws, Eglamour flees, the outlaws head to their leader, but on the way, they encounter Proteus and Julia
The Two Gentlemen of Verona
–
First page of The Two Gentlemen of Verona from the
First Folio (1623).
The Two Gentlemen of Verona
–
Silvia by
Charles Edward Perugini (1888).
The Two Gentlemen of Verona
–
Valentine Rescuing Silvia from Proteus by
William Holman Hunt (1851).
The Two Gentlemen of Verona
–
First page of
The Boke Named the Governour by
Thomas Elyot (1531).
28.
Christian eschatology
–
Christian eschatology is a major branch of study within Christian theology dealing with the last things. Broadly speaking, Christian eschatology is the study of the destiny of humankind as it is described in the Bible, eschatological passages are found in many places in the Bible, both in the Old and the New Testaments. There are also many examples of eschatological prophecy, as well as church traditions. Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of Tertullian, the word was used first by the Lutheran theologian Abraham Calovius but only came into general usage in the 19th century. They are by no means exclusive and are often combined to form a more complete. Most interpretations fit into one, or a combination, of these approaches, Preterism is an approach which sees prophecy as chiefly being fulfilled in the past, especially during the first century. Prophecies in general, therefore, have already been fulfilled, other Preterists consider the Book of Revelation to be a symbolic prophetic presentation of the struggle of Christianity to survive the persecutions of the Roman Empire. There are two views within Preterism, that of Partial preterism and Full preterism. Preterist beliefs usually have an association with Amillennialism, the belief that the Millennial reign of Christ began during the establishment of the Early Church. Preterists usually consider events such as the Great Tribulation as having occurred during the siege, Early Preterist theologians included Eusebius and John Chrysostom. Historicism is an approach which sees prophecy as being fulfilled in the past, present and future, specifically, Historists consider the Book of Revelation to be a symbolic prophetic presentation of the struggle of Protestantism to survive the continuing persecutions of the Papacy. Historists usually consider events such as the Great Tribulation as having occurred during the period of papal supremacy from 538-1798. The subject of the Revelation to John the apostle was large, Elliott, the first six seals of the book of Revelation outline the temporary prosperity of the Empire of heathen Rome followed by its decline and fall which covers the time period A. D.96 –396. Most prophecies will be fulfilled during a time of chaos known as the Great Tribulation. Futurist beliefs usually have an association with Premillennialism and Dispensationalism. Futurist beliefs were presented in the Left Behind series, in Idealism, also known as spiritual or nonliteral approach, the Book of Revelation and other eschatological materials are interpreted symbolically. There were different schools of thought on the afterlife in Israel during the first century, the Sadducees, who recognized only the Torah as authoritative, did not believe in an afterlife or any resurrection of the dead. By soul, Seventh-day Adventists theologians mean the person
Christian eschatology
–
Icon of the Second Coming. Greek, ca. 1700 A.D.
29.
Relic
–
In religion, a relic usually consists of the physical remains of a saint or the personal effects of the saint or venerated person preserved for purposes of veneration as a tangible memorial. Relics are an important aspect of forms of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Shamanism. Relic derives from the Latin reliquiae, meaning remains, and a form of the Latin verb relinquere, to leave behind, a reliquary is a shrine that houses one or more religious relics. In ancient Greece, a city or sanctuary might claim to possess, without necessarily displaying, the sanctuary of the Leucippides at Sparta claimed to display the egg of Leda. The bones were not regarded as holding a power derived from the hero, with some exceptions. Miracles and healing were not regularly attributed to them, rather, their presence was meant to serve a tutelary function, the bones of Orestes and Theseus were supposed to have been stolen or removed from their original resting place and reburied. Plutarch says that the Athenians were likewise instructed by the oracle to locate, the body of the legendary Eurystheus was also supposed to protect Athens from enemy attack, and in Thebes, that of the prophet Amphiaraus, whose cult was oracular and healing. As with the relics of Theseus, the bones are sometimes described in sources as gigantic. On the basis of their size, it has been conjectured that such bones were those of prehistoric creatures. The head of the poet-prophet Orpheus was supposed to have transported to Lesbos. The 2nd-century geographer Pausanias reported that the bones of Orpheus were kept in a stone vase displayed on a pillar near Dion, his place of death and these too were regarded as having oracular power, which might be accessed through dreaming in a ritual of incubation. The accidental exposure of the bones brought a disaster upon the town of Libretha, according to the Chronicon Paschale, the bones of the Persian Zoroaster were venerated, but the tradition of Zoroastrianism and its scriptures offer no support of this. In Hinduism, relics are less common than in other religions since the remains of most saints are cremated. The veneration of corporal relics may have originated with the movement or the appearance of Buddhism. In Buddhism, relics of the Buddha and various sages are venerated, after the Buddhas death, his remains were divided into eight portions. Afterward, these relics were enshrined in stupas wherever Buddhism was spread, some relics believed to be original remains of the body of the Buddha still survive, including the much-revered Sacred Relic of the tooth of the Buddha in Sri Lanka. A stupa is a building created specifically for the relics, many Buddhist temples have stupas and historically, the placement of relics in a stupa often became the initial structure around which the whole temple would be based. Today, many also hold the ashes or ringsel of prominent/respected Buddhists who were cremated
Relic
–
Reliquary and skull of Saint
Ivo of Kermartin (St. Yves or St. Ives), (1253–1303) in
Tréguier,
Brittany, France
Relic
–
Amphora depicting
Greek hero cult in honor of Oedipus (
Apulian red-figure, 380–370 BC)
Relic
–
Buddha relics from
Kanishka 's
stupa in
Peshawar, Pakistan, now in
Mandalay, Burma (Teresa Merrigan, 2005)
Relic
–
Reliquary at
Pope St. John XXIII National Seminary with relics of
St. James,
St. Matthew,
St. Philip,
St. Simon,
St. Thomas,
St. Stephen and other
saints
30.
Christian martyr
–
A Christian martyr is a person who is killed for following Jesus. In early church years, this occurred through stoning, crucifixion, burning at the stake or other forms of torture. The word martyr comes from the Greek word μάρτυς, mártys, at first, the term applied to Apostles. Once Christians started to undergo persecution, the term came to be applied to those who suffered hardships for their faith, finally, it was restricted to those who had been killed for their faith. The early Christian period before Constantine I was the Age of martyrs, Early Christians venerated martyrs as powerful intercessors, and their utterances were treasured as inspired by the Holy Spirit. The Greek word martus signifies a witness who testifies to a fact of which he has knowledge from personal observation and it is in this sense that the term first appears in Christian literature, the Apostles were witnesses of all that they had observed in the public life of Christ. The Apostles, from the beginning, faced grave dangers, until eventually almost all suffered death for their convictions. Thus, within the lifetime of the Apostles, the term came to be used in the sense of a witness who at any time might be called upon to deny what he testified to. St. John, at the end of the first century, the 2nd-century Church Father Tertullian wrote that the blood of martyrs is the seed of the Church, implying that the martyrs willing sacrifice of their lives leads to the conversion of others. Relics of the saints are still revered in the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the lives of the martyrs became a source of inspiration for some Christians, and their relics were honored. Numerous crypts and chapels in the Roman catacombs bear witness to the veneration for those champions of freedom of conscience. Special commemoration services, at which the holy Sacrifice were offered over their tombs gave rise to the time honoured custom of consecrating altars by enclosing in them the relics of martyrs, some felt they should not, while others said they could. In the end, it was agreed to them in after a period of penance. The re-admittance of the “lapsed” became a moment in the Church because it allowed the sacrament of repentance. This issue caused the Donatist and Novatianist schisms, Martyrdom for the faith. became a central feature in the Christian experience. “Notions of persecution by the world. run deep in the Christian tradition, the doctrines of the apostles brought the Early Church into conflict with some Jewish religious leaders. This eventually led to their expulsion from the synagogues, Acts records the martyrdom of the Christian leaders, Stephen and James of Zebedee. The first known Christian martyr was St. Stephen as recorded in the Acts 6, Stephen was accused of blasphemy and denounced the Sanhedrin as stiff-necked people who, just as their ancestors had done, persecute prophets
Christian martyr
–
The first Christian martyr
Saint Stephen, painting by
Giacomo Cavedone
Christian martyr
–
The Massacre of the Innocents (detail) by
Lucas Cranach the Elder (c. 1515),
National Museum in
Warsaw.
Christian martyr
–
The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer, by
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883). The artist also commented on the religious fortitude of the victims who were about to suffer martyrdom either by being devoured by the wild beasts or by being smeared with pitch and set ablaze, which also never took place in the
Circus Maximus.
Christian martyr
–
Faithful Unto Death – Christianæ ad Leones (Christians to the Lions), by
Herbert Gustave Schmalz.
31.
Continental Europe
–
Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe, or, by Europeans, simply the Continent, is the continuous continent of Europe, excluding surrounding islands. This historical core of Carolingian Europe was consciously invoked in the 1950s as the historical basis for the prospective European integration. In both Great Britain and Ireland, the Continent is widely and generally used to refer to the mainland of Europe, an apocryphal British newspaper headline supposedly once read, Fog in Channel, Continent Cut Off. It has also claimed that this was a regular weather forecast in Britain in the 1930s. In addition, the word Europe itself is regularly used to mean Europe excluding the islands of Great Britain, Iceland. The term mainland Europe is also sometimes used, derivatively, the adjective continental refers to the social practices or fashion of continental Europe. Examples include breakfast, topless sunbathing and, historically, long-range driving often known as Grand Touring. Differences include electrical plugs, time zones for the most part, the use of traffic, and for the United Kingdom, currency. Britain is physically connected to continental Europe through the undersea Channel Tunnel and this route is popular with refugees and migrants seeking to enter the UK. Especially in Germanic studies, continental refers to the European continent excluding the Scandinavian peninsula, Britain, Ireland, and Iceland. The reason for this is that although the Scandinavian peninsula is attached to continental Europe, kontinenten is a vernacular Swedish expression that refers to the area excluding Sweden, Norway, and Finland but including Denmark and the rest of continental Europe. In Norway, similarly, one speaks about Kontinentet as an entity, usually referring to Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Benelux countries. Today, the Scandinavian peninsula is accessible by train and road with several bridge/tunnel structures connecting the Danish peninsula of Jutland to Scania in Sweden. The Continent may sometimes refer to the part of Italy, the continental part of Spain, the continental part of France. The term is used from the perspective of the residents of each country to describe the continental portion of their country or the continent as a whole. Continental philosophy Geopolitical divisions of Europe Geographical midpoint of Europe Mainland Western Europe Hajnal line
Continental Europe
–
Map of the Scandiae islands by
Nicolaus Germanus for a 1467 publication of Cosmographia Claudii Ptolomaei Alexandrini.
Continental Europe
–
Continental Europe (green area); the boundaries of the continent are somewhat
disputed.
32.
Danse macabre
–
Dance of Death, also called Danse Macabre, is an artistic genre of late-medieval allegory on the universality of death, no matter ones station in life, the Dance of Death unites all. The Danse Macabre consists of the dead or personified Death summoning representatives from all walks of life to dance along to the grave, typically with a pope, emperor, king, child, and labourer. They were produced as mementos mori, to people of the fragility of their lives. Its origins are postulated from illustrated sermon texts, the earliest recorded visual scheme was a now-lost mural in the Saints Innocents Cemetery in Paris dating from 1424 to 1425, the earliest recorded visual example is from the cemetery of the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris. Marija na Škrilinama in the Istrian town of Beram, painted by Vincent of Kastav, there was also a Dance of Death painted in the 1540s on the walls of the cloister of St Pauls Cathedral, London with texts by John Lydgate, which was destroyed in 1549. The deathly horrors of the 14th century—such as recurring famines, the Hundred Years War in France, and, most of all, the Black Death—were culturally assimilated throughout Europe. Short verse dialogues between Death and each of its victims, which could have performed as plays, can be found in the direct aftermath of the Black Death in Germany. The French term danse macabre may derive from the Latin Chorea Machabæorum, in 2 Maccabees, a deuterocanonical book of the Bible, the grim martyrdom of a mother and her seven sons is described, and was a well-known mediaeval subject. An alternative explanation is that the term entered France via Spain, both the dialogues and the evolving paintings were ostensive penitential lessons that even illiterate people could understand. Numerous mural versions of that legend from the 13th century onwards have survived, since they showed pictorial sequences of men and corpses covered with shrouds, those paintings are sometimes regarded as cultural precursors of the new genre. A danse macabre painting may show a round dance headed by Death or a chain of alternating dead, from the highest ranks of the mediaeval hierarchy descending to its lowest, each mortals hand is taken by a skeleton or an extremely decayed body. The apparent class distinction in almost all of these paintings is completely neutralized by Death as the ultimate equalizer, the Totentanz of Metnitz, for example, shows how a pope crowned with his mitre is being led into Hell by the dancing Death. Usually, a dialogue is attached to each victim, in which Death is summoning him to dance. Who the beggar or the Emperor, ob arm, ob reich, im Tode gleich. Whether rich or poor, equal in death, the famous designs by Hans Holbein the Younger for his Dance of Death series were drawn in 1526 while he was in Basel. They were cut in wood by the accomplished Formschneider Hans Lützelburger and these woodcuts soon appeared in proofs with titles in German. The first book edition, containing forty-one woodcuts, was published at Lyons by the Treschsel brothers in 1538, ten further designs were added in later editions. The Dance of Death refashions the late-medieval allegory of the danse macabre as a reformist satire, most importantly, it was The pictures and the Bible quotations above them were the main attractions
Danse macabre
–
Pieter Brueghel the Elder,
The Triumph of Death (c. 1562) in the
Museo del Prado,
Madrid. Brueghel was strongly influenced by the style of
Hieronymus Bosch.
Danse macabre
–
The Dance of Death (1493) by
Michael Wolgemut, from the
Liber chronicarum by
Hartmann Schedel.
Danse macabre
–
La Danse macabre (
Abbot and
Bailiff). Paris,
Guy Marchant, 1486.
Danse macabre
–
Danse macabre in St Maria in
Bienno.
33.
Christian art
–
Christian art is sacred art which uses themes and imagery from Christianity. Images of Jesus and narrative scenes from the Life of Christ are the most common subjects, images of the Virgin Mary and saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Christianity makes far wider use of images than related religions, in which representations are forbidden, such as Islam. However, there is also a history of aniconism in Christianity from various periods. Early Christian art survives from dates near the origins of Christianity, the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating to the beginning of the 2nd century. The Orthodox Church of Constantinople, which enjoyed greater stability within the surviving Eastern Empire was key in commissioning imagery there and glorifying Christianity. As a stable Western European society emerged during the Middle Ages, during the development of Christian art in the Byzantine Empire, a more abstract aesthetic replaced the naturalism previously established in Hellenistic art. This new style was hieratic, meaning its primary purpose was to convey religious meaning rather than accurately render objects, realistic perspective, proportions, light and color were ignored in favor of geometric simplification of forms, reverse perspective and standardized conventions to portray individuals and events. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 brought an end to the highest quality Byzantine art, artists were commissioned more secular genres like portraits, landscape paintings and because of the revival of Neoplatonism, subjects from classical mythology. Occasionally, secular artists treated Christian themes — but only rarely was a Christian artist included in the historical canon. However many modern artists such as Eric Gill, Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Jacob Epstein, Elizabeth Frink, salvador Dali is an artist who had also produced notable and popular artworks with Christian themes. Artists such as Makoto Fujimura have had significant influence both in sacred and secular arts, other notable artists include Larry D. Alexander and John August Swanson. Some writers, such as Gregory Wolfe, see this as part of a rebirth of Christian humanism, since the advent of printing, the sale of reproductions of pious works has been a major element of popular Christian culture. In the nineteenth century, this included genre painters such as Mihály Munkácsy, the invention of color lithography led to broad circulation of holy cards. Subjects often seen in Christian art include the following, see Life of Christ and Life of the Virgin for fuller lists of narrative scenes included in cycles, Grabar, André. Christian iconography, a study of its origins, the glory of Byzantium, art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A. D. 843-1261. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Living Church, May 4,2014, 8–11
Christian art
–
Supper at Emmaus, 1601, by Caravaggio. Oil on canvas, 139 x 195 cm.
National Gallery, London.
Christian art
–
Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early
catacombs, Rome, 4th century.
Christian art
–
12th century Byzantine mosaics of the
Hagia Sophia showing the image of
Christ Pantocrator.
Christian art
–
Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper (1498).
34.
Christianity Today
–
Christianity Today magazine is an evangelical Christian periodical that was founded in 1956 and is based in Carol Stream, Illinois. The Washington Post calls Christianity Today, evangelicalism’s flagship magazine, Christianity Today magazine has a print circulation of approximately 118,000, of which approximately 36,000 is free, and readership of 260,000, as well as a website at ChristianityToday. com. The New York Times describes Christianity Today as a mainstream evangelical magazine, the first issue of Christianity Today was mailed October 15,1956, and the opening editorial, Why Christianity Today. Stated Christianity Today has its origin in a desire to express historical Christianity to the present generation. Neglected, slighted, misrepresented—evangelical Christianity needs a voice, to speak with conviction and love. A generation has grown up unaware of the truths of the Christian faith taught in the Scriptures. Its first editor was Carl F. H. Henry, notable contributors in its first two decades included contributions from F. F. Bruce, Edward John Carnell, Frank Gaebelein, Walter Martin, John Warwick Montgomery, and Harold Lindsell. Lindsell succeeded Henry as editor and during his editorial administration much attention centered on debates about biblical inerrancy, later editorial leadership came from Kenneth Kantzer, Terry Muck, and David Neff. The current editor is Mark Galli, and the publication now includes print, online, katelyn Beaty is managing editor of the print edition, and Richard Clark is managing editor of news and online journalism. Contents of print and online include feature stories, news ranging from cultural issues from a Christian viewpoint to the church, opinion, reviews. Its presence on the Internet began in October 1994 when it became one of the top 10 content providers on all of AOL, then, in 1996, their website was launched. It was originally named ChristianityOnline. com before becoming ChristianityToday. com, Today ChristianityToday. com serves as the web home for Christianity Today magazine, which now has distinct sections for Local Church Pastors, Reporting, Women, History, and Spanish readers. At the ministrys web home, ChristianityToday, additional web resources include Men of Integrity and Preaching Today. All Christianity Today brands together reach more than 2.5 million people every month when print and digital views are combined, the ministry offers access, both premium and free, to over 100,000 articles and other content on their various websites. A Korean-language edition, Christianity Today Korea, was launched in June 2008, a Portuguese-language edition, Christianity Today Brazil, was launched in October/November 2007. Two international editions of Leadership Journal were launched in 2012, an African edition in September, Books & Culture is published six times a year and is a book review and intellectual journal modeled after the New York Review of Books and New York Times Book Review. According to its page, the magazines circulation is 11,000. It is edited by John Wilson, and notable recent contributors include Mark Noll, Lauren Winner, Alan Jacobs, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Christian History was a journal of the history of Christianity, first issued in January 1982 by the Christian History Institute
Christianity Today
–
Cover of the April 2010 issue.
35.
Masque
–
The masque was a form of festive courtly entertainment that flourished in 16th- and early 17th-century Europe, though it was developed earlier in Italy, in forms including the intermedio. Professional actors and musicians were hired for the speaking and singing parts, in the tradition of masque, Louis XIV of France danced in ballets at Versailles with music by Jean-Baptiste Lully. The masque tradition developed from the elaborate pageants and courtly shows of ducal Burgundy in the late Middle Ages, masques were typically a complimentary offering to the prince among his guests and might combine pastoral settings, mythological fable, and the dramatic elements of ethical debate. There would invariably be some political and social application of the allegory, such pageants often celebrated a birth, marriage, change of ruler or a Royal Entry and invariably ended with a tableau of bliss and concord. Masque imagery tended to be drawn from Classical rather than Christian sources, Masque thus lent itself to Mannerist treatment in the hands of master designers like Giulio Romano or Inigo Jones. The New Historians, in works like the essays of Bevington, in English masques, purely musical interludes might be accompanied by a dumbshow. The rustic presentation of Pyramus and Thisbe as an entertainment in Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream offers a familiar example. Spectators were invited to join in the dancing, at the end, the players would take off their masks to reveal their identities. A descriptive narrative of a processional masque is the masque of the Seven Deadly Sins in Edmund Spensers The Faerie Queene, a particularly elaborate masque, performed over the course of two weeks for Queen Elizabeth, is described in the 1821 novel Kenilworth, by Sir Walter Scott. Later, in the court of James I, narrative elements of the masque became more significant, plots were often on classical or allegorical themes, glorifying the royal or noble sponsor. At the end, the audience would join with the actors in a final dance, Ben Jonson wrote a number of masques with stage design by Inigo Jones. Their works are thought of as the most significant in the form. Sir Philip Sidney also wrote masques, william Shakespeare wrote a masque-like interlude in The Tempest, understood by modern scholars to have been heavily influenced by the masque texts of Ben Jonson and the stagecraft of Inigo Jones. There is also a sequence in his Romeo and Juliet. John Miltons Comus is described as a masque, though it is reckoned a pastoral play. Reconstructions of Stuart masques have been few and far between, part of the problem is that only texts survive complete, there is no complete music, only fragments, so no authoritative performance can be made without interpretive invention. In the 18th-century, masques were even less frequently staged, but because of its ephemeral nature, not a lot of documentation related to masques remains, and much of what is said about the production and enjoyment of masques is still part speculation. While the masque was no longer as popular as it was at its height in the 17th Century, during the late 17th century, English semi-operas by composers such as Henry Purcell had masque scenes inset between the acts of the play proper
Masque
–
Costume for a Knight, by
Inigo Jones: the plumed helmet, the
"heroic torso" in armour and other conventions were still employed for
opera seria in the 18th century.
36.
Kingston, Ontario
–
Kingston is a city in Eastern Ontario, Canada. It is located on the end of Lake Ontario, at the beginning of the St. Lawrence River. The city is located midway between Toronto and Montreal, the Thousand Islands tourist region is nearby to the east. Kingston is nicknamed the Limestone City because of the heritage buildings constructed using local limestone. This outpost, called Fort Cataraqui or Fort Frontenac, became a focus for settlement, after the British conquered New France, the village was renamed Kingston. Kingston was named the first capital of the Province of Canada on February 10,1841, while its time as a political centre was short, Kingston has remained an important military installation. Kingston was the county seat of Frontenac County until 1998, Kingston is now a separated municipality from the County of Frontenac. A number of origins of Cataraqui, Kingstons original name, have been postulated, one is that it is derived from the Iroquois word that means the place where one hides. The name may also be derivations of Native words that mean impregnable, muddy river, place of retreat, clay bank rising out of the water or where the rivers and lake meet. Cataraqui today refers to an area around the intersection of Princess Street and Sydenham Road, Cataraqui is also the name of a municipal electoral district. Cataraqui was referred to as the Kings Town or Kings Town by 1787 in honour of King George III, the name was shortened to Kingston in 1788. Archaeological evidence suggests that people lived in the Kingston region as early as the Archaic Period, evidence of Late Woodland Period early Iroquois occupation also exists. The first more permanent encampments by aboriginal people in the Kingston area began about 500 AD, the group that first occupied the area before the arrival of the French was probably the Wyandot people, who were later displaced by Iroquoian groups. At the time the French arrived in the Kingston area, Five Nations Iroquois had settled along the shore of Lake Ontario. By 1700, the north shore Iroquois had moved south, european commercial and military influence and activities centered on the fur trade developed and increased in North America in the 17th century. Fur trappers and traders were spreading out from their centres of operation in New France, French explorer Samuel de Champlain visited the Kingston area in 1615. Settlement resumed in the early 1780s when the area soon to be called Kingston became a centre for Loyalist refugees who fled north because of the American Revolutionary War. The survey would also determine whether Cataraqui was suitable as a base since nearby Carleton Island on which a British navy base was located had been ceded to the Americans after the war
Kingston, Ontario
–
Kingston City Skyline from Fort Henry Hill
Kingston, Ontario
–
"View of Frontenac or Cataracoui in 1759". Watercolor map depicting Fort Frontenac
Kingston, Ontario
–
Overlooking Kingston Waterfront
Kingston, Ontario
–
Kingston City Hall
37.
Victorian era
–
The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
Victorian era
–
Queen Victoria, after whom the era is named
Victorian era
–
The Louth-London
Royal Mail travelling by train from
Peterborough East, 1845
Victorian era
–
A picture of
Leadenhall Street, London, c. 1837
Victorian era
–
The Poultry Cross,
Salisbury, painted by
Louise Rayner, c. 1870
38.
Ben Cooper, Inc.
–
Ben Cooper, Inc. was a privately held American corporation which primarily manufactured Halloween costumes from the late 1930s to the late 1980s. It was one of the three largest Halloween costume manufacturers in the U. S. from the 1950s through the mid-1980s, founder Ben Cooper was born on the Lower East Side of New York City in 1906. Although his father was a restaurateur, Cooper studied accounting and briefly sought a career as a songwriter before founding a theatrical costume business in 1927, Cooper designed costumes and sets for the legendary Cotton Club in Harlem and several editions of the Ziegfeld Follies. With live theatre becoming rarer in the 1930s due to the Great Depression and Halloween becoming a popular holiday, Cooper established Ben Cooper, Inc. in Brooklyn, New York. The firm assumed control of A. S, the two companies formally merged and incorporated as Ben Cooper, Inc. on December 8,1942. By the late 1940s, Ben Cooper, Inc. was one of the largest and most prominent Halloween costume manufacturers in the United States and its costumes were generally very thin fabric with a silk-screened image on the front that sold for less than $3. The company began selling its costumes through large retailers such as J. C, penney, Sears, Woolworths, and five-and-dime stores. At the time, the most popular costumes were traditional Halloween figures such as devils, ghosts, skeletons, in the 1950s, television characters such as Davy Crockett, Superman, and Zorro were more popular. As parents became concerned about safety in the 1950s, the company responded by creating its Glitter Glo costumes, dresses. The company banked heavily on the popularity of President John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Kennedy, in the 1960s and 1970s, Ben Cooper, Inc. was one of the big three Halloween costume companies, along with Collegeville and the H. Halpern Company. The company became known for licensing popular film and television characters, for example, it licensed Spider-Man, a virtually unknown character at the time, in 1963. The company also licensed the Batman character in 1964, the company produced a very popular Richard Nixon mask in the late 1960s, which sold as equally well as its Ronald Reagan mask even in the late 1980s. The company produced a George H. W. Bush mask in 1987, in 1979, Ben Cooper, Inc. was still the largest Halloween costume company in the U. S. That same year, the firm issued its first costume based on a character in an R-rated motion picture, the company suffered heavy financial losses in the early and mid-1980s. Beginning on September 29,1982, seven people died after taking the painkiller Tylenol, investigators discovered that someone had tampered with the product, lacing it with potassium cyanide. Terrified parents nationwide refused to allow their children to celebrate Halloween the following month, despite this setback, in 1984 the firm was still the largest supplier of Halloween costumes in the United States. The company recovered around 1987, as sales of accessories, costumes. The increasing sales in the late 1980s were not enough to stave off bankruptcy, Ben Cooper, Inc. s financial problems became so severe in 1988 that many customers left the firm and diverted licenses and business to its biggest competitor, Collegeville
Ben Cooper, Inc.
–
Ben Cooper, Inc.
Ben Cooper, Inc.
–
A translucent Halloween mummy mask sold by Ben Cooper, Inc. in the 1960s.
Ben Cooper, Inc.
–
A Ben Cooper boxed costume and mask manufactured in 1977 depicting the character
C-3PO from the "
Star Wars " movies.
Ben Cooper, Inc.
–
Rubie's Costume Co
39.
Supernatural
–
One complicating factor is that there is disagreement about the definition of natural and the limits of naturalism. Concepts in the domain are closely related to concepts in religious spirituality. Sometimes we understand by nature the established course of things, as when we say that nature makes the night succeed the day, nature hath made respiration necessary to the life of men. Sometimes we take nature for the universe, or system of the works of God, as when it is said of a phoenix, or a chimera. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express by nature a semi-deity or other kind of being. Parapsychologists use the term psi to refer to a unitary force underlying the phenomena they study. Views on the supernatural vary, for example it may be seen as, from this perspective, some events occur according to the laws of nature, and others occur according to a separate set of principles external to known nature. For example, in Scholasticism, it was believed that God was capable of performing any miracle so long as it didnt lead to a logical contradiction, others believe that all events have natural and only natural causes. They believe that human beings ascribe supernatural attributes to purely natural events, such as lightning, rainbows, floods, the supernatural is a feature of the philosophical traditions of Neoplatonism and Scholasticism. In contrast, the philosophy of Metaphysical naturalism argues for the conclusion that there are no supernatural entities, objects, most religions include elements of belief in the supernatural while also often featuring prominently in the study of the paranormal and occultism. Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead. It is not possible, in process metaphysics, to conceive divine activity as an intervention into the “natural” order of events. Process theists usually regard the distinction between the supernatural and the natural as a by-product of the doctrine of creation ex nihilo, in process thought, there is no such thing as a realm of the natural in contrast to that which is supernatural. On the other hand, if “the natural” is defined more neutrally as “what is in the nature of things, in Whiteheads words, “It lies in the nature of things that the many enter into complex unity”. It is tempting to emphasize process theisms denial of the supernatural, dreams as a Source of Supernatural Agent Concepts. Riekki T, Lindeman M, Raij T. T, Supernatural Believers Attribute More Intentions to Random Movement than Skeptics, An fMRI Study. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Purzycki Benjamin G, the Minds of Gods, A Comparative Study of Supernatural Agency. Unresolved Mourning, Supernatural Beliefs and Dissociation, A Mediation Analysis, vail K. E, Arndt J, Addollahi A
Supernatural
–
One of the many supernatural acts attributed to
Jesus,
walking on water. Art by
François Boucher Cathédrale Saint-Louis (1766)
Versailles
Supernatural
–
The
patron saint of air travelers, aviators, astronauts, people with a mental handicap, test takers, and poor students is
Saint Joseph of Cupertino, who is said to have been gifted with
supernatural flight.
40.
Vampire
–
A vampire is a being from folklore who subsists by feeding on the life essence of the living. In European folklore, vampires were undead beings that often visited loved ones and they wore shrouds and were often described as bloated and of ruddy or dark countenance, markedly different from todays gaunt, pale vampire which dates from the early 19th century. This increased level of vampire superstition in Europe led to mass hysteria and in some cases resulted in corpses actually being staked and people being accused of vampirism. In modern times, however, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity, porphyria was also linked with legends of vampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure, but has since been largely discredited. However, it is Bram Stokers 1897 novel Dracula which is remembered as the vampire novel. The success of this book spawned a distinctive vampire genre, still popular in the 21st century, with books, films, the vampire has since become a dominant figure in the horror genre. Vampires had already discussed in French and German literature. After Austria gained control of northern Serbia and Oltenia with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, officials noted the practice of exhuming bodies. These reports, prepared between 1725 and 1732, received widespread publicity, among the proposed proto-Slavic forms are *ǫpyrь and *ǫpirь. Another, less widespread theory, is that the Slavic languages have borrowed the word from a Turkic term for witch. Czech linguist Václav Machek proposes Slovak verb vrepiť sa, or its hypothetical anagram vperiť sa as an etymological background, and thus translates upír as someone who thrusts, bites. An early use of the Old Russian word is in the anti-pagan treatise Word of Saint Grigoriy, dated variously to the 11th–13th centuries, the notion of vampirism has existed for millennia. Cultures such as the Mesopotamians, Hebrews, Ancient Greeks, and Romans had tales of demons and spirits which are considered precursors to modern vampires. In most cases, vampires are revenants of evil beings, suicide victims, or witches, belief in such legends became so pervasive that in some areas it caused mass hysteria and even public executions of people believed to be vampires. It is difficult to make a single, definitive description of the folkloric vampire, vampires were usually reported as bloated in appearance, and ruddy, purplish, or dark in colour, these characteristics were often attributed to the recent drinking of blood. Indeed, blood was often seen seeping from the mouth and nose when one was seen in its shroud or coffin and its left eye was often open. It would be clad in the linen shroud it was buried in, and its teeth, hair, although vampires were generally described as undead, some folktales spoke of them as living beings. The causes of vampiric generation were many and varied in original folklore, in Slavic and Chinese traditions, any corpse that was jumped over by an animal, particularly a dog or a cat, was feared to become one of the undead
Vampire
–
The Vampire, by
Philip Burne-Jones, 1897
Vampire
–
Vampyren, "The Vampire", by
Edvard Munch
Vampire
–
“The Vampire”, lithograph by R. de Moraine (1864).
Vampire
–
Lilith (1892), by
John Collier
41.
Werewolf
–
Early sources for belief in lycanthropy are Petronius and Gervase of Tilbury. From the early period, werewolf beliefs also spread to the New World with colonialism. Belief in werewolves developed in parallel to the belief in witches, in the course of the Late Middle Ages, during the early period, accusations of lycanthropy were mixed with accusations of wolf-riding or wolf-charming. The case of Peter Stumpp led to a significant peak in both interest in and persecution of supposed werewolves, primarily in French-speaking and German-speaking Europe, the trappings of horror literature in the 20th century became part of the horror and fantasy genre of modern pop culture. The word werewolf continues a late Old English werwulf, a compound of were man, the only Old High German testimony is in the form of a given name, Weriuuolf, although an early Middle High German werwolf is found in Burchard of Worms and Berthold of Regensburg. The word or concept does not occur in medieval German poetry or fiction, Middle Latin gerulphus Anglo-Norman garwalf, Old Frankish *wariwulf. Old Norse had the cognate varúlfur, but because of the importance of werewolves in Norse mythology. In modern Scandinavian also kveldulf evening-wolf, presumably after the name of Kveldulf Bjalfason, use of lycanthropy for supposed shape-shifting is much later, introduced ca. Slavic uses the term vlko-dlak, literally wolf-skin, paralleling the Old Norse ulfhéðinn, however, the word is not attested in the medieval period. The Slavic term was loaned into modern Greek as Vrykolakas, baltic has related terms, Lithuanian vilkolakis and vilkatas, Latvian vilkatis and vilkacis. The name vurdalak for the Slavic vampire is a due to Alexander Pushkin. Tolstoy in his novella The Family of the Vourdalak, Greek λυκάνθρωπος and Germanic werewulf are parallel inasmuch as the concept of a shapeshifter becoming a wolf is expressed by means of a compound wolf-man or man-wolf. Their underlying common origin can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European mythology and this is reflected in Iron Age Europe in the Tierkrieger depictions from the Germanic sphere, among others. The standard comparative overview of this aspect of Indo-European mythology is McCone, such transformations of men into wolves in pagan cult were associated with the devil from the early medieval perspective. In his Man into Wolf, Robert Eisler tried to cast the Indo-European tribal names meaning wolf or wolf-men in terms of the European transition from fruit gathering to predatory hunting, a few references to men changing into wolves are found in Ancient Greek literature and mythology. In the second century BC, the Greek geographer Pausanias related the story of Lycaon, in accounts by the Bibliotheca and Ovid, Lycaon serves human flesh to Zeus, wanting to know if he is really a god. Lycaons transformation, therefore, is punishment for a crime, considered variously as murder, cannibalism, Ovid also relates stories of men who roamed the woods of Arcadia in the form of wolves. In addition to Ovid, other Roman writers also mentioned lycanthropy, virgil wrote of human beings transforming into wolves
Werewolf
–
Dolon wearing a wolf-skin. Attic red-figure vase, c. 460 BC.
Werewolf
–
Woodcut of a werewolf attack, by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1512
Werewolf
–
Vendel period depiction of a warrior wearing a wolf-skin (
Tierkrieger)
Werewolf
–
Zeus turning
Lycaon into a
wolf, engraving by
Hendrik Goltzius.
42.
Zombie
–
A zombie is a fictional undead being created through the reanimation of a human corpse. Zombies are most commonly found in horror and fantasy genre works, the term comes from Haitian folklore, where a zombie is a dead body reanimated through various methods, most commonly magic. Modern depictions of zombies do not necessarily involve magic but often invoke science fictional methods such as carriers, radiation, mental diseases, vectors, viruses, scientific accidents, etc. The English word zombie is first recorded in 1819, in a history of Brazil by the poet Robert Southey, the Oxford English Dictionary gives the origin of the word as West African, and compares it to the Kongo words nzambi and zumbi. One of the first books to expose Western culture to the concept of the zombie was The Magic Island by W. B. This is the account of a narrator who encounters voodoo cults in Haiti. Time claimed that the book introduced zombi into U. S. speech, Zombies have a complex literary heritage, with antecedents ranging from Richard Matheson and H. P. Lovecraft to Mary Shelleys Frankenstein drawing on European folklore of the undead. In 1932, Victor Halperin directed White Zombie, a film starring Bela Lugosi. Here zombies are depicted as mindless, unthinking henchmen under the spell of an evil magician, a new version of the zombie, distinct from that described in Haitian folklore, has also emerged in popular culture during the latter half of the twentieth century. This zombie is taken largely from George A. Romeros seminal film Night of the Living Dead, the word zombie is not used in Night of the Living Dead but was applied later by fans. The zombie apocalypse concept, in which the world is brought low by a global zombie infestation. The Oxford English Dictionary gives the origin of the word as West African, in Haitian folklore, a zombie is an animated corpse raised by magical means, such as witchcraft. The concept has been associated with the religion of voodoo. How the creatures in contemporary zombie films came to be called zombies is not fully clear, the film Night of the Living Dead made no spoken reference to its undead antagonists as zombies, describing them instead as ghouls. Although George Romero used the term ghoul in his original scripts, the word zombie is used exclusively by Romero in his 1978 script for his sequel Dawn of the Dead, including once in dialog. According to George Romero, film critics were influential in associating the term zombie to his creatures and he eventually accepted this linkage even though he remained convinced at the time that zombies corresponded to the undead slaves of Haitian voodoo as depicted in Bela Lugosis White Zombie. Zombies are featured widely in Haitian rural folklore as dead persons physically revived by the act of necromancy of a bokor, the bokor is opposed by the houngan or priest and the mambo or priestess of the formal voodoo religion. A zombie remains under the control of the bokor as a personal slave, the Haitian tradition also includes an incorporeal type of zombie, the zombie astral, which is a part of the human soul
Zombie
–
George A. Romero 's
Night of the Living Dead is considered a progenitor of the fictional zombie of modern culture.
Zombie
–
The actor T. P. Cooke as Frankenstein's Monster in an 1823 stage production of the novel
Zombie
–
Tor Johnson as a zombie with his victim in cult movie
Plan 9 from Outer Space (1959)
Zombie
–
A young zombie (Kyra Schon) feeding on human flesh, from Night of the Living Dead (1968)
43.
Ghosts in European culture
–
In folklore, a ghost is the soul or spirit of a dead person or animal that can appear to the living. Descriptions of ghosts vary widely from a presence to translucent or barely visible wispy shapes, to realistic. The deliberate attempt to contact the spirit of a person is known as necromancy. The belief in the existence of an afterlife, as well as manifestations of the spirits of the dead is widespread, certain religious practices—funeral rites, exorcisms, and some practices of spiritualism and ritual magic—are specifically designed to rest the spirits of the dead. Ghosts are generally described as solitary, human-like essences, though stories of ghostly armies and they are believed to haunt particular locations, objects, or people they were associated with in life. Ghosts exist as a concept only, despite centuries of investigation, the English word ghost continues Old English gást, from a hypothetical Common Germanic *gaistaz. It is common to West Germanic, but lacking in North Germanic, the pre-Germanic form was *ghoisdo-s, apparently from a root denoting fury, anger reflected in Old Norse geisa to rage. The Germanic word is recorded as only, but likely continues a neuter s-stem. The original meaning of the Germanic word would thus have been a principle of the mind, in particular capable of excitation. In Germanic paganism, Germanic Mercury, and the later Odin, was at the time the conductor of the dead. It could also denote any good or evil spirit, such as angels and demons, also from the Old English period, the word could denote the spirit of God, viz. the Holy Ghost. The now-prevailing sense of the soul of a person, spoken of as appearing in a visible form only emerges in Middle English. The synonym spook is a Dutch loanword, akin to Low German spôk, alternative words in modern usage include spectre, the Scottish wraith, phantom and apparition. The term shade in classical mythology translates Greek σκιά, or Latin umbra, haint is a synonym for ghost used in regional English of the southern United States, and the haint tale is a common feature of southern oral and literary tradition. The term poltergeist is a German word, literally a noisy ghost, wraith is a Scots word for ghost, spectre, or apparition. It appeared in Scottish Romanticist literature, and acquired the general or figurative sense of portent or omen. In 18th- to 19th-century Scottish literature, it applied to aquatic spirits. The word has no commonly accepted etymology, the OED notes of obscure origin only, an association with the verb writhe was the etymology favored by J. R. R. Tolkien
Ghosts in European culture
–
Yūrei (Japanese ghost) from the
Hyakkai Zukan, ca. 1737
Ghosts in European culture
–
Engraving of the
Hammersmith Ghost in Kirby's Wonderful and Scientific Museum, a magazine published in 1804
Ghosts in European culture
–
"
Hamlet and his father's ghost" by
Henry Fuseli (1780s drawing). The ghost is wearing stylized
plate armor in 17th-century style, including a
morion type helmet and
tassets. Depicting ghosts as wearing armor, to suggest a sense of antiquity, was common in
Elizabethan theater.
Ghosts in European culture
–
By 1853, when the popular song Spirit Rappings was published, Spiritualism was an object of intense curiosity.
44.
Skeleton (undead)
–
A skeleton is a type of physically manifested undead often found in fantasy, gothic and horror fiction, and mythical art. Most are human skeletons, but they can also be from any creature or race found on Earth or in the fantasy world, the Grim Reaper is often depicted as a hooded skeleton holding a scythe, which has been attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger. Death as one of the horsemen of the Apocalypse has been depicted as a skeleton riding a horse. The Triumph of Death is a 1562 painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depicting an army of skeletons raiding a town, figurines and images of skeletons doing routine things are common in Mexicos Day of the Dead celebration, where skulls symbolize life and their familiar circumstances invite levity. The Boy Who Wanted the Willies is a Brothers Grimm fairy tale in which a boy named Hans joins a circle of dancing skeletons, mekurabe are rolling skulls with eyeballs who menace Taira no Kiyomori in Japanese folklore. The animated skeleton features in some Gothic fiction, one example is in the short story Thurnley Abbey by Perceval Landon, originally published in his collection Raw Edges. It is reprinted in modern anthologies, such as The 2nd Fontana Book of Great Ghost Stories. They have also used and portrayed in fantasy role-playing games or adventure games such as Dungeons and Dragons. The basic animated skeleton is usually a form of undead. Undead skeletons have been portrayed in films such as The 7th Voyage of Sinbad, Jason and the Argonauts, Army of Darkness, The Nightmare Before Christmas. A duo of animated skeleton brothers play an important role in the role-playing game Undertale, the first of whom is named Sans, while his younger brother is named Papyrus. They each speak in Comic Sans and Papyrus, respectively, Death Grim reaper Santa Muerte La Calavera Catrina Skull art The Skeleton Dance
Skeleton (undead)
–
A CG art skeleton, as commonly found in modern
fantasy -theme games
Skeleton (undead)
–
Animated skeletons in The Dance of Death (1493), a
woodcut by
Michael Wolgemut, from the
Liber chronicarum by
Hartmann Schedel.
45.
Witch
–
Witchcraft broadly means the practice of, and belief in, magical skills and abilities that are able to be exercised by individuals and certain social groups. Witchcraft often occupies a religious, divinatory or medicinal role, and is present within societies. The concept of witchcraft and the belief in its existence have existed throughout recorded history and it posits a theosophical conflict between good and evil, where witchcraft was generally evil and often associated with the Devil and Devil worship. Christian views in the day are diverse and cover the gamut of views from intense belief and opposition to non-belief. From the mid-20th century, witchcraft – sometimes called contemporary witchcraft to clearly distinguish it from older beliefs – became the name of a branch of modern paganism and it is most notably practiced in the Wiccan and modern witchcraft traditions, and no longer practices in secrecy. The Western mainstream Christian view is far from the only societal perspective about witchcraft, Beliefs related to witchcraft and magic in these cultures were at times influenced by the prevailing Western concepts. Suspicion of modern medicine due to beliefs about illness being due to witchcraft also continues in countries to this day. HIV/AIDS and Ebola virus disease are two examples of infectious disease epidemics whose medical care and containment has been severely hampered by regional beliefs in witchcraft. Other severe medical conditions whose treatment is hampered in this way include tuberculosis, leprosy, epilepsy, the word witchcraft derives from the Old English wiccecræft, a compound of wicce and cræft. This definition was pioneered in a study of central African magical beliefs by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, European witchcraft is seen by historians and anthropologists as an ideology for explaining misfortune, however, this ideology has manifested in diverse ways, as described below. Some modern commentators believe the malefic nature of witchcraft is a Christian projection, many examples appear in early texts, such as those from ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Malicious magic users can become a cause for disease, sickness in animals, bad luck, sudden death, impotence. Witchcraft of a benign and socially acceptable sort may then be employed to turn the malevolence aside. The folk magic used to identify or protect against malicious magic users is often indistinguishable from that used by the witches themselves, there has also existed in popular belief the concept of white witches and white witchcraft, which is strictly benevolent. Many neopagan witches strongly identify with this concept, and profess ethical codes that prevent them from performing magic on a person without their request. Probably the most obvious characteristic of a witch was the ability to cast a spell, spell being the word used to signify the means employed to carry out a magical action. A spell could consist of a set of words, a formula or verse, or a ritual action, or any combination of these. Strictly speaking, necromancy is the practice of conjuring the spirits of the dead for divination or prophecy – although the term has also applied to raising the dead for other purposes
Witch
–
Witches by
Hans Baldung. Woodcut, 1508
Witch
–
Magic Circle by
John William Waterhouse, 1886
Witch
–
A painting in the
Rila Monastery in
Bulgaria, condemning witchcraft and traditional
folk magic
Witch
–
Execution of alleged witches, 1587
46.
Goblin
–
A goblin is a monstrous creature from European folklore, first attested in stories from the Middle Ages. They are ascribed various and conflicting abilities, temperaments and appearances depending on the story and country of origin and they are almost always small and grotesque, mischievous or outright evil, and greedy, especially for gold and jewelry. They often have magical abilities similar to a fairy or demon, similar creatures include brownies, dwarves, gnomes, imps, and kobolds. Alternative spellings include gobblin, gobeline, gobling, goblyn, and it may be related both to German kobold and to Medieval Latin cabalus, or *gobalus, itself from Greek κόβαλος, rogue, knave, imp, goblin. Moreover, these names are not from Normandy, where the word gobelin. German Kobold contains the Germanic root kov- which means originally a hollow in the earth, the word is probably related to Dial. Norman gobe hollow in a cliff, with simple suffix -lin or double suffixation -el-in The Welsh coblyn, a Pukwudgie is a type of Goblin from Wamponoag folklore as well as Cryptozoology A Redcap is a type of Goblin who dyes its hat in Human Blood in Anglo-Scottish border folklore. Kallikantzaros are Goblins from Southeastern European and Anatolian folklore, hobgoblins are Friendly Trickster Goblins from English, Scottish, and Pilgrim folklore and literature. The Benevolent Goblin, from Gesta Romanorum The Erlking is a malevolent goblin from German legend, the Goblin Pony, from The Grey Fairy Book The Goblins at the Bath House, from A Book of Ghosts and Goblins The Goblins Turned to Stone. King Gobb Mill Goblins appear in Norwegian folklore, Goblins are featured in the Hans Christian Andersen Fairy tales, The Elf Mound, The Goblin and the Grocer, and The Goblin and the Woman. Many Asian lagyt creatures have been likened to, or translated as and they are especially important mythical creatures in Korean folklore. They usually appear in childrens books, in Bangladesh, Santal people belief in Gudrobonga which is very similar to goblins. The Gap of Goeblin, a hole and underground tunnel in Mortain, cow is an old Scots word for Goblin, while cad means nasty. Dens and lairs refers to goblin homes, the Goblins, a comedy play by Sir John Suckling The Goblins Who Stole A Sexton is a short story by Charles Dickens where goblins torment a gravedigger for being cruel on Christmas. Goblin Market, a poem by Christina Rossetti The Princess and the Goblin by George MacDonald depicts the Goblins as grotesque humanoids, vulnerable to sunlight, song, and pressure on their feet. Davy and the Goblin by Charles E. Carryl J. R. R. Tolkien generally used the terms goblin and orc synonymously in The Hobbit and these works, featuring goblins of almost-human stature, generally informed the depiction of goblins in later fiction and games. Thompson adds that, in The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien has abandoned all pretence at depicting goblins in a comic light, Goblins are also present as the first tier creature in the Orc faction in Heroes of Might and Magic V, Tribes of the East. Goblins are recurring enemies in the Final Fantasy franchise, where they usually appear near the beginning of each game
Goblin
Goblin
–
The Princess and the Goblin by George MacDonald, illustrated by Jessie Willcox Smith, 1920
Goblin
–
From The Princess and the Goblin by George MacDonald, illustrated by Jessie Willcox Smith, 1920
47.
Troll
–
A troll is a class of being in Norse mythology and Scandinavian folklore. In Old Norse sources, beings described as trolls dwell in isolated rocks, mountains, or caves, live together in family units. Later, in Scandinavian folklore, trolls became beings in their own right, where they far from human habitation, are not Christianized. Depending on the source, their appearance varies greatly, trolls may be ugly and slow-witted, or look and behave exactly like human beings, trolls are sometimes associated with particular landmarks, which at times may be explained as formed from a troll exposed to sunlight. Trolls are depicted in a variety of media in popular culture. The Old Norse nouns troll and tröll and Middle High German troll, the origin of the Proto-Germanic word is unknown. In Norse mythology, troll, like thurs, is a term applied to jötnar and is mentioned throughout the Old Norse corpus. In Old Norse sources, trolls are said to dwell in isolated mountains, rocks, and caves, sometimes live together, the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál describes an encounter between an unnamed troll woman and the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason. There is much confusion and overlap in the use of Old Norse terms jötunn, troll, þurs, and risi, on the other hand, Ármann Jakobson is critical of Motzs interpretation and calls this theory unsupported by any convincing evidence. Later in Scandinavian folklore, trolls become defined as a type of being. According to John Lindow, what sets them apart is that they are not Christian, therefore, trolls were in the end dangerous, regardless of how well they might get along with Christian society, and trolls display a habit of bergtagning and overrunning a farm or estate. They therefore appear in various legends where collective nature-beings are called for. Lindow notes that trolls are sometimes swapped out for cats and little people in the folklore record, a Scandinavian folk belief that lightning frightens away trolls and jötnar appears in numerous Scandinavian folktales, and may be a late reflection of the god Thors role in fighting such beings. In connection, the lack of trolls and jötnar in modern Scandinavia is sometimes explained as a result of the accuracy and efficiency of the lightning strokes. Additionally, the absence of trolls in regions of Scandinavia are described in folklore as being a consequence of the constant din of the church-bells, large local stones are sometimes described as the product of a trolls toss. Smaller trolls are attested as living in burial mounds and in mountains in Scandinavian folk tradition, in Denmark, these creatures are recorded as troldfolk, bjergtrolde, or bjergfolk and in Norway also as troldfolk and tusser. Trolls may be described as small, human-like beings or as tall as men depending on the region of origin of the story, in Norwegian tradition, similar tales may be told about the larger trolls and the Huldrefolk yet a distinction is made between the two. The use of the trow in Orkney and Shetland, to mean beings which are very like the Huldrefolk in Norway may suggest a common origin for the terms
Troll
–
Look at them, troll mother said. Look at my sons! You won't find more beautiful trolls on this side of the moon. (1915) by
John Bauer
Troll
–
The Princess and the Trolls –
The Changeling, by
John Bauer, 1913.
48.
Devil
–
The Devil is, according to Christianity, the primary opponent of God. Islam identifies the Devil with all those who oppose Allah, some non-Abrahamic religions contain figures similar to the Devil, such as the Buddhist demon Mara and the Zoroastrian spirit Angra Mainyu. The Modern English word devil descends from the Middle English devel, from Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from Ancient Greek Greek, διάβολος, slanderer, from Greek, διαβάλλειν to slander, διά- across, through + βάλλειν to hurl, probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate he lifts up. In the New Testament, Satan occurs more than 30 times in passages alongside diábolos, in mainstream Judaism there is no concept of a devil as in mainstream Christianity or Islam. Texts make no direct link between the serpent that tempts Eve in the Garden of Eden in Genesis and the references to Satan are in Zechariah. For the Hasidim of the century, ha-satan was Baal Davar. In the Book of Wisdom, the devil is represented as the one who brought death into the world, a similar story is found in 1 Enoch, however, in that book, the leader of the Grigori is called Semjâzâ. In the apocryphal literature, Satan rules over a host of angels, mastema, who induced God to test Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature. The Book of Enoch contains references to Sathariel, thought also to be Sataniel and Satanel, the similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren Michael, Raphael, Uriel and Gabriel, previous to his expulsion from Heaven. In mainstream Christianity the devil is usually referred to as Satan, some modern Christians consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described as hating all humanity, opposing God, spreading lies, other modern Christians consider the devil in the Bible to refer figuratively to human sin and temptation and to any immoral human system. Satan is often identified as the serpent who convinced Eve to eat the fruit, thus. He is also identified as the dragon in the Book of Revelation, beelzebub is originally the name of a Philistine god but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for Satan. A corrupted version, Belzeboub, appears in The Divine Comedy, in Islam the Devil is referred to as Iblis or sometimes the Shaytan. Etymologically, Iblis means the desperate in Arabic, thus, the name Iblis can be seen as a sobriquet given to Shaitan after falling from Grace. The primary characteristic of the Devil, besides hubris, is that he has no other than the power to cast evil suggestions into the hearts of men and women. He was of the jinn and departed from the command of his Lord, then will you take him and his descendants as allies other than Me while they are enemies to you
Devil
–
Depiction of the devil as seen in the
Codex Gigas.
Devil
–
The
Baphomet, adopted symbol of some
Left-Hand Path systems, including
Theistic Satanism.
Devil
–
Devils – a fresco detail from the
Rila Monastery.
Devil
–
The devil depicted in the
Temptation of Christ, by
Ary Scheffer, 1854.
49.
Science fiction
–
Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
Science fiction
–
A futuristic setting is a common but not a necessary hallmark of science fiction. A common thread in science fiction is exploring the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations on people's lives.
Science fiction
–
H. G. Wells
Science fiction
–
Jules Verne
Science fiction
–
Arthur C. Clarke
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