1.
Chinese name
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Chinese personal names are names used by those from mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and the Chinese diaspora overseas. Prior to the 20th century, educated Chinese also utilized a courtesy name or style name called zi by which they were known among those outside of their family and closest friends. From at least the time of the Shang dynasty, the Han Chinese observed a number of naming taboos regulating who may or may not use a given name. In general, using the given name connoted the speakers authority, peers and younger relatives were barred from speaking it. Owing to this, many historical Chinese figures – particularly emperors – used a half-dozen or more different names in different contexts and those possessing names identical to the emperors were frequently forced to change them. Although some terms in the ancient Chinese naming system, such as xìng and míng, are used today, they were used in different. Commoners possessed only a name, and the modern concept of a surname or family name did not yet exist at any level of society.3 billion citizens. In fact, just the top three – Wang, Li, and Zhang – cover more than 20% of the population. This homogeneity results from the majority of Han family names having only one character. Chinese surnames arose from two separate traditions, the xìng and the shì. The original xìng were clans of royalty at the Shang court, the shì did not originate from families, but denoted fiefs, states, and titles granted or recognized by the Shang court. Apart from the Jiang and Yao families, the original xìng have nearly disappeared, xìng is now used to describe the shì surnames which replaced them, while shì is used to refer to maiden names. The enormous modern clans sometimes share ancestral halls with one another, nonetheless, however tenuous these bonds sometimes are, it remains a minor taboo to marry someone with the same family name. In modern mainland China, it is the norm that a woman keeps her name unchanged. A child usually inherits his/her fathers surname, though the law explicitly states that a child may use either parents or the grandparents. It is also possible, though far less common, for a child to both parents surnames. In the older generations, it was common for a married woman to prepend her husbands surname to her own. This practice is now almost extinct in mainland China, though there are a few such as the name change of Gu Kailai, but survives in some Hong Kong, Macau
2.
Chinese surname
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Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames existed, namely xing or lineage names, and shi or clan names, Chinese family names are patrilineal, passed from father to children. Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except in places with more Western influences such as Hong Kong, traditionally Chinese surnames have been exogamous. The colloquial expressions laobaixing and bǎixìng are used in Chinese to mean ordinary folks, prior to the Warring States period, only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was also a difference between clan names or xing and lineages names or shi, Xing were surnames held by the noble clans. They generally are composed of a nü radical which has taken by some as evidence they originated from matriarchal societies based on maternal lineages. Another hypothesis has been proposed by sinologist Léon Vandermeersch upon observation of the evolution of characters in oracular scripture from the Shang dynasty through the Zhou, the female radical seems to appear at the Zhou period next to Shang sinograms indicating an ethnic group or a tribe. This combination seems to designate specifically a female and could mean lady of such or such clan, prior to the Qin Dynasty China was largely a fengjian society. In this way, a nobleman would hold a shi and a xing, after the states of China were unified by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC, surnames gradually spread to the lower classes and the difference between xing and shi blurred. Many shi surnames survive to the present day, according to Kiang Kang-Hu, there are 18 sources from which Chinese surnames may be derived, while others suggested at least 24. The following are some of the sources, Xing, These were usually reserved for the central lineage of the royal family. Of these xings, only Jiang and Yao have survived in their form to modern days as frequently occurring surnames. Royal decree by the Emperor, such as Kuang, state name, Many nobles and commoners took the name of their state, either to show their continuing allegiance or as a matter of national and ethnic identity. These are some of the most common Chinese surnames, name of a fief or place of origin, Fiefdoms were often granted to collateral branches of the aristocracy and it was natural as part of the process of sub-surnaming for their names to be used. An example is Di, Marquis of Ouyangting, whose descendants took the surname Ouyang, there are some two hundred examples of this identified, often of two-character surnames, but few have survived to the present. Names of an ancestor, Like the previous example, this was also a common origin with close to 500 or 600 examples,200 of which are two-character surnames, often an ancestors courtesy name would be used. For example, Yuan Taotu took the character of his grandfathers courtesy name Boyuan as his surname. Sometimes titles granted to ancestors could also be taken as surnames, seniority within the family, In ancient usage, the characters of meng, zhong, shu and ji were used to denote the first, second, third and fourth eldest sons in a family
3.
Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China
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The Vice Premier of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China is a high-ranking executive assistant to the Premier. Generally, the title is held by individuals at one time. The highest-ranked office holder is called the First-ranked Vice Premier. The 1st-ranked VP takes over duties of the Premier at the time of the latters incapacity, current Vice Premiers, in order of rank, are Zhang Gaoli, Liu Yandong, Wang Yang and Ma Kai. The most prominent case of this is Deng Xiaoping between 1978 and 1980
4.
Li Keqiang
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Li Keqiang is the current Premier of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China. An economist by training, Li is Chinas head of government as well as one of the figures behind Chinese economic policy. He is also the member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China. Li is a part of the fifth generation of Chinese leadership. Li was named the Worlds 12th Most Powerful Person by the Forbes list of The Worlds Most Powerful People in 2015 and 2016, Li rose through the ranks through his involvement in the Communist Youth League. From 1998 to 2004, Li served as the Governor of Henan, from 2004 to 2007 he served as the Party Secretary of Liaoning, the top political office in the province. Given his Youth League experience, Li has generally been considered an ally of former leader Hu Jintao. Li assumed the post of Premier in 2013, and has facilitated the Chinese governments shifting of priorities from export-led growth to a focus on internal consumption. Li has also been a force behind the implementation of the comprehensively deepening reforms announced in the fall of 2013. Li was born on 1 July 1955 in Hefei, the capital and his father was a local official in Anhui. He was awarded the honour of Outstanding Individual in the Study of Mao Zedong Thought during this time and he earned a PhD in economics in 1995, and the prominent economist Li Yining was his doctoral advisor. His doctoral dissertation was awarded the Sun Yefang Prize, Chinas highest prize in economics, in 1980, Li became the Communist Youth League secretary at Peking University. Li became the organizations First Secretary in 1993 and served until 1998 and he is a representative member of the first generation to have risen from the CYL leadership. Li became the youngest Chinese provincial governor in June 1998 when he was appointed governor of Henan at the age of 43, according to provincial officials working with him at the time, Li refused to participate in any banquets or large fancy events not related to government activities. During his time as governor, a sense of his bad luck grew due to the occurrence of three major fires in the province. Li is known to be outspoken and led development in Henan. Li did not spend time pursuing superficial projects and he trekked through all regions of the province trying to search for a comprehensive solution to its growing problems. Henan jumped in national GDP rankings from 28th in the early 1990s to 18th in 2004, however, his government was relatively ineffective at curbing the HIV/AIDS epidemic that was affecting the rural areas of the province
5.
Zhang Gaoli
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Zhang Gaoli is the current first-ranked Vice Premier of the Peoples Republic of China and a member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, Chinas highest ruling council. As Premier Li Keqiangs principal lieutenant, Zhangs portfolio spans the fields of finance, economic development, natural resources, the environment, and housing. He is the chair of ad-hoc steering committees overseeing the Three Gorges Dam, the South–North Water Transfer Project, One Belt One Road, Zhang was born in a village in Jinjiang County, Fujian, to an ordinary family of farmers. He was the youngest of five children and his father died when he was three years old. He and his four siblings were raised almost single-handedly by his mother, as a child, Zhang helped his family with farm work and also caught fish in a neighboring river. Zhang attended Jinjiang Qiaosheng High School, in 1965, Zhang entered Xiamen University to study economics. After graduating in August 1970, Zhang was sent to an oil company logistics team in Maoming to work as a labourer, stocking materials in a warehouse and he joined the Communist Party of China in November 1973. He spent nearly 14 years in the company, eventually becoming very involved in the companys Communist Party branch. By 1984, he was made a manager in the company, in 1984, Zhang was named deputy party chief of Maoming. This was Zhangs first foray into politics, a year later he was named chair of the Guangdong Economic Commission. By 1988, he became Vice Governor of Guangdong, in 1993, at age 47, he made it onto the provincial Party Standing Committee, becoming one of the top leaders of the province. He also served in such as the head of the coordination agency in charge of developing the Pearl River Delta. In 1997, Zhang became party chief of Shenzhen, by the fall of that year he was named an alternate member to the 15th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. In 1998, he was deputy provincial party chief of Guangdong while holding onto his municipal leadership position in Shenzhen. He served under then-provincial party chief Li Changchun and alongside executive vice governor Wang Qishan, during this time it was said that he received praise from Jiang Zemin. He was also said to have visited and tended to the needs of party veteran Xi Zhongxun. In 1999 Zhang was named a professor of macroeconomics at the prestigious Tsinghua University and also an honorary president. In late 2001, Zhang was transferred to the coastal province of Shandong to become Governor
6.
Party Committee Secretary
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In most cases, it is the de facto highest political office of its area of jurisdiction. The term can also be used for the position of Communist Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, universities, hospitals. In post-Cultural Revolution Chinese political theory, the Communist Party is responsible for the formulation of policies, at every level of jurisdiction, a government leader serves alongside the party secretary. For example, in the case of a province, the provincial Party Secretary is the de facto highest office, the Governor is usually the second-highest-ranking official in the partys Provincial Committee, and holds the concurrent title of Deputy Party Committee Secretary. A similar comparison can be made for municipal Party Secretaries and Mayors, there have been rare instances where both Party Secretary and Governor positions were held by the same person, though this is not the common practice since the end of the Cultural Revolution. The Party Secretary is usually assisted by numerous Deputy Party Secretaries, until the 1980s, the leading position of a local party organization was called the First Secretary, its deputy the Second Secretary. The local party organizations each had its own Secretariat with numerous secretaries, at the provincial level, the party chief is known as CPC Provincial Committee Secretary, while the corresponding government position is known as Governor. At the prefecture or municipal level, the party chief is known as CPC Municipal Committee Secretary, at the county level, the party chief is known as CPC County Committee Secretary, while the corresponding government position is known as the County Governor. At the township level, the party chief is known as CPC Township/town Committee Secretary, at the village level, the local party chief, known as the Village Party Branch Secretary heads a committee of around ten people to make executive decisions related to the village. The process is not entirely formal, and therefore the party chief at this level is not considered part of the Chinese civil service. In writing and the media, the CPC designation before the title is not used often because it is assumed that Provincial Committee Secretary refers to the Communist Party secretary. Generally, a top government official will also hold the first deputy party chief position, a Deputy Party Secretary assists in the work of the Party Secretary. In provincial and most prefecture-level jurisdictions, there are two deputy party chiefs, the higher-ranked deputy party chief is generally also concurrently the head of the government of the party committees area of jurisdiction. The other deputy party chief is known as the zhuanzhi fushuji, literally, generally, the zhuanzhi deputy party chief is also the head of the party school of any given jurisdiction. A Party Branch or Party Group exists in almost all institutions of state which are not formally part of the Communist Party organization and these include government organs, Peoples Congresses, ministries, provincial and municipal departments and so on. These organizations are created by mandate of a Party Committee, serve to ensure that the policy guidelines of the party is followed at each respective institution. The Party Branch Secretary or Party Group Secretary is an office from that of the Party Committee Secretary. They do not have the organization and bureaucracy that is commonplace with a Party Committee
7.
Shanghai
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Shanghai is the most populous city proper in the world, with a population of more than 24 million as of 2014. As one of the four direct-controlled municipalities of the Peoples Republic of China, it is a financial centre and transport hub. Located in the Yangtze River Delta in East China, Shanghai sits on the edge of the mouth of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the eastern Chinese coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the north, south and west, as a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War, the subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a center of commerce between China and other parts of the world, and became the financial hub of the Asia-Pacific region in the 1930s. However, with the Communist Party takeover of the mainland in 1949, trade was limited to other socialist countries, and the citys global influence declined. In the 1990s, the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping resulted in an intense re-development of the city, aiding the return of finance. The two Chinese characters in the name are 上 and 海, together meaning Upon-the-Sea. The earliest occurrence of this dates from the 11th-century Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence. There are disputes as to exactly how the name should be understood, Shanghai is officially abbreviated 沪 in Chinese, a contraction of 沪渎, a 4th- or 5th-century Jin name for the mouth of Suzhou Creek when it was the main conduit into the ocean. This character appears on all motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today, another alternative name for Shanghai is Shēn or Shēnchéng, from Lord Chunshen, a third-century BC nobleman and prime minister of the state of Chu, whose fief included modern Shanghai. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use Shen in their names, such as Shanghai Shenhua F. C. Huating was another early name for Shanghai. In AD751, during the dynasty, Huating County was established at modern-day Songjiang. Today, Huating appears as the name of a hotel in the city. The city also has various nicknames in English, including Pearl of the Orient, during the Spring and Autumn period, the Shanghai area belonged to the Kingdom of Wu, which was conquered by the Kingdom of Yue, which in turn was conquered by the Kingdom of Chu. During the Warring States period, Shanghai was part of the fief of Lord Chunshen of Chu and he ordered the excavation of the Huangpu River. Its former or poetic name, the Chunshen River, gave Shanghai its nickname of Shen, two important events helped promote Shanghais development in the Ming dynasty
8.
Xi Jinping
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Xi Jinping is the current General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, President of the Peoples Republic of China, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission. As General Secretary, Xi holds a seat on the Politburo Standing Committee. The son of Communist veteran Xi Zhongxun, Xi Jinping rose through the ranks politically in Chinas coastal provinces, Xi was governor of Fujian from 1999 to 2002, and governor, then party secretary of neighboring Zhejiang province from 2002 to 2007. Following the dismissal of Chen Liangyu, Xi was transferred to Shanghai as party secretary for a period in 2007. Xi joined the Politburo Standing Committee and central secretariat in October 2007, Xi was vice-president from 2008 to 2013 and Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission from 2010 to 2012. Since assuming power, Xi has attempted to legitimize the authority of the Communist Party by introducing far-ranging measures to enforce party discipline and he initiated an unprecedented and far-reaching campaign against corruption, leading to the downfall of prominent incumbent and retired officials. Xi has also imposed further restrictions over civil society and ideological discourse, Xi Jinping was born in Beijing on 15 June 1953. After the founding of the Communist state in 1949, Xis father held a series of posts, including propaganda chief, vice-premier, Xis father is from Fuping County, Shaanxi, and Xi could further trace his patrilineal descent from Xiying in Dengzhou, Henan. He is the son of Xi Zhongxun and his wife Qi Xin. When Xi was age 10, his father was purged from the Party and sent to work in a factory in Luoyang, Henan. In May 1966, Xis secondary education was cut short by the Cultural Revolution, Xi was age 15 when his father was jailed in 1968 during the Cultural Revolution. Without the protection of his father, Xi was sent to work in Yanchuan County, Shaanxi and he later became the Party branch secretary of the production team, leaving that post in 1975. When asked about this experience later by Chinese state television, Xi recalled, and when the ideals of the Cultural Revolution could not be realised, it proved an illusion. From 1979 to 1982, Xi served as secretary for his fathers former subordinate Geng Biao and this gained Xi some military background. In 1985, as part of a Chinese delegation to study American agriculture, he visited the town of Muscatine and this trip, and his stay with an American family, has been considered influential in his views on the United States. Xi joined the Communist Youth League in 1971 and the Communist Party of China in 1974, in 1982, he was sent to Zhengding County in Hebei as deputy Party Secretary of Zhengding County. He was promoted in 1983 to Secretary, becoming the top official of the county, Xi subsequently served in four provinces during his regional political career, Hebei, Fujian, Zhejiang, and Shanghai. Xi held posts in the Fuzhou Municipal Party Committee and became the president of the Party School in Fuzhou in 1990, in 1997, Xi was named an alternate member of the 15th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
9.
Yu Zhengsheng
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Yu Zhengsheng is a Chinese politician and one of the top leaders of the Communist Party of China. Prior to coming to nationally, Yu served as the Communist Party Secretary of Hubei. Yu became a member of the Politburo in November 2002, Yu Zhengsheng was born in the communist revolutionary heartland of Yanan in 1945, the son of Yu Qiwei, a Communist revolutionary, and Fan Jin, a frontline journalist. Yus family was originally from Shaoxing, Zhejiang province and he graduated from Harbin Military Academy of Engineering specializing in the design of automated missiles. In December 1968 he was sent to work in Zhangjiakou, Hebei, until the mid-1980s his career concentration was in electronic engineering. In 1984, he was asked by Deng Xiaopings son Deng Pufang to take on a role in the Fund for Disabled Persons. In 1985, Yu was sent to Shandong to become Deputy Party Secretary of Yantai in Shandong province, in 1987 he was named mayor of Yantai at age 42. He failed to secure election to the Central Committee in 1992, Qingdao was approved as a sub-provincial city in 1997. Yu served as Deputy Minister of Construction when he was recalled back to Beijing in 1997, and he remained in that position in Zhu Rongjis cabinet from 1998 to 2001. He became a member of the powerful Politburo of the Communist Party of China in November 2002, Yu was the only Hubei party chief since economic reforms began to hold a seat on the Politburo. Following the 17th Party Congress, Yu became the party chief in Shanghai, prior to the 18th Party Congress, Yu was seen as a leading candidate for the Politburo Standing Committee. It was said that Yu edged out Li Yuanchao for membership on the council at the eleventh hour due to internal voting. Yu is married to Zhang Zhikai, the daughter of Zhang Zhenhuan, Yu was said to be friends with former leader Deng Xiaoping and his family, including Deng Xiaopings son Deng Pufang. After the senior Deng left politics, Yu was said to have served as his familys proxy within the Chinese government and he is known to speak without relying on script, and is often called Lao Yu by people familiar with him. Yus brother, Yu Qiangsheng, defected to the United States in 1985, after defecting, Qiangsheng informed the U. S. government that Larry Wu-Tai Chin, a retired CIA analyst, was actually a spy for the Chinese government. According to rumors reported by The Times of London, Yu Qiangsheng was assassinated by Chinese secret agents in Latin America after his defection, biography of Yu Zhengsheng at xinhuanet. com
10.
Hu Jintao
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Hu Jintao is a Chinese politician who was the paramount leader of China from 2002 to 2012. He was a member of the 14th to 17th CPC Politburo Standing Committee, Hu is the first leader of the Communist Party without any significant revolutionary credentials. As such, his rise to the leadership represented Chinas transition of leadership from establishment communists to younger, during his term in office, Hu reintroduced state control in some sectors of the economy that were relaxed by the previous administration, and was conservative with political reforms. Along with his colleague Premier Wen Jiabao, Hu presided over nearly a decade of consistent economic growth, meanwhile, Hu followed conservative policies on China politically, cracking down on social disturbances, ethnic minority protests, and dissident figures. On foreign policy, Hu advocated for Chinas peaceful development, pursuing soft power in international relations, throughout Hus tenure, Chinas influence in Africa, Latin America, and other developing regions increased. Hu possessed a low-key and reserved leadership style and his tenure was characterized by collective leadership and consensus-based rule. These traits made Hu a rather unknown figure in the public eye, Hu retired in 2013 and was succeeded by Xi Jinping. Hu Jintao was born on 21 December 1942 in Taizhou, Jiangsu province and his branch of the family migrated from Jixi County, Anhui to Taizhou during his grandfathers generation. Though his father owned a tea trading business in Taizhou. His mother was a teacher and died when he was 7, Hus father was denounced during the Cultural Revolution, an event that apparently had a deep effect upon Hu, who diligently tried to clear his fathers name. During his time at Tsinghua, he met his wife Liu Yongqing, from 1969 to 1974, he worked for Sinohydro Engineering Bureau as an engineer. In 1973, Hu was transferred to the Construction Department of Gansu as a secretary, the next year he was promoted to vice senior chief. In 1980, Deng Xiaoping implemented the Four Transformations program, which aimed to produce communist leaders who were more revolutionary, younger, more knowledgeable, another protégé of Song, Wen Jiabao, also became prominent at the same time. In 1982, Hu was promoted to the position of Communist Youth League Gansu Branch Secretary and was appointed as the director of the All-China Youth Federation. His mentor Song Ping was transferred to Beijing as Minister of Organization of the Communist Party of China, with the support of Hu Yaobang and Deng Xiaoping, Hu was assured of a bright future in the party. At Song Pings suggestion, in 1982 central CPC authorities invited Hu to Beijing to study at the Central Party School, soon after, he was transferred to Beijing and appointed as secretariat of the Communist Youth League Central Committee. Two years later Hu was promoted to First Secretary of CY Central, during his term in the Youth League, Hu escorted Hu Yaobang, who was CPC General Secretary then, in visits around the country. Hu Yaobang, himself a veteran coming from the Youth League, in 1985, then-Communist Party General Secretary Hu Yaobang pushed for Hu Jintao to be transferred to Guizhou as the provincial Committee Secretary of Communist Party of China
11.
Politics of Shanghai
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The Politics of Shanghai is structured in a dual party-government system like all other governing institutions in the mainland of the Peoples Republic of China. In the last few decades the city has produced many of the eventual senior leaders, including Jiang Zemin, Zhu Rongji, Wu Bangguo. The Mayor of the Shanghai Municipal Peoples Government is the highest ranking official in Shanghai. Since Shanghai is a municipality of China, the mayor occupies the same level in the order of precedence as provincial governors. Before 1941, Shanghai had an administration, the International Settlement, the French Concession. The Chinese city was invaded by the Japanese in 1937 and the concessions were occupied by the Japanese in 1941. After the occupation, the foreign powers formally ceded the territory to the Nationalist Government in Chongqing, prior to the establishment of the office of Mayor of Shanghai, the citys administration was overseen by the circuit intendant. The office was abolished at the fall of the Qing
12.
Communist Party of China
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The Communist Party of China is the founding and ruling political party of the Peoples Republic of China. It was founded in 1921, chiefly by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, the CPC is currently the worlds second largest political party with a membership of 88.76 million as of 2016. It also controls the worlds largest armed force, the Peoples Liberation Army, the highest body of the CPC is the National Congress, convened every fifth year. The partys leader holds the offices of General Secretary, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, through these posts the party leader is the countrys paramount leader. The current party leader is Xi Jinping, elected at the 18th National Congress, the CPC is still committed to communist thought and continues to participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties each year. The official explanation for Chinas economic reforms is that the country is in the stage of socialism. The planned economy established under Mao Zedong was replaced by the socialist market economy, the CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, during which radical ideologies like Marxism and anarchism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals. Other influences stemming from the Bolshevik revolution and Marxist theory inspired the Communist Party of China, Li Dazhao was the first leading Chinese intellectual who publicly supported Leninism and world revolution. In contrast to Chen Duxiu, Li did not renounce participation in the affairs of the Republic of China, both of them regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking, believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere. The CPC was modeled on Vladimir Lenins theory of a vanguard party, Study circles were, according to Cai Hesen, the rudiments. Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement, the founding National Congress of the CPC was held on 23–31 July 1921. With only 50 members in the beginning of 1921, the CPC organization, while it was originally planned to be held in Shanghai French Concession, police officers interrupted the meeting on 3 July. Because of that, the congress was moved to a tourist boat on South Lake in Jiaxing, Zhejiang province, only 12 delegates attended the congress, with neither Li nor Chen being able to attend. Chen sent a representative to attend the congress. The resolutions of the called for the establishment of a communist party. The communists dominated the left wing of the KMT, a party organized on Leninist lines, when KMT leader Sun Yat-sen died in March 1925, he was succeeded by a rightist, Chiang Kai-shek, who initiated moves to marginalize the position of the communists. Fresh from the success of the Northern Expedition to overthrow the warlords, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the communists, ignoring the orders of the Wuhan-based KMT government, he marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by communist militias. Although the communists welcomed Chiangs arrival, he turned on them, Chiangs army then marched on Wuhan, but was prevented from taking the city by CPC General Ye Ting and his troops
13.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
14.
East China Normal University
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East China Normal University is a comprehensive public research university located in Shanghai, China. It was formed in 1951 by the merger of the Great China University founded in 1924, ECNU is now organized into more than 22 schools, colleges, and institutes, located in two campuses throughout Minhang and Putuo. The university comprises 2 affiliated schools across the Shanghai metropolitan area, NYU Shanghai in Pudong, ECNU also maintains a National Forest Ecosystem Observation and Research Station in Tiantong National Forest Park, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province. ECNU is often considered to be one of the most prestigious universities in China and is recognized with institutional partnerships worldwide. Sponsored by the national program Project 211 and Project 985, the university is a force in the nations research and innovation. The university also has ties with the China Meteorological Administration, State Oceanic Administration. In 1879, St. Johns College was founded by William Jones Boone and Joseph Schereschewsky, Bishop of Shanghai, in 1905, the College became St. Johns University, and became registered in Washington D. C. in the United States. It was the first institution to grant bachelors degrees in China, in 1924, after a student protest at the Xiamen University in Fujian Province, some academics fled north to Shanghai where they established what became the Great China University. In the 1950s, the Chinese government regrouped the countrys higher education institutions in an attempt to build a Soviet-style system, some of the academics at the Tongji University and Jiaotong University were also transferred to ECNU. In March 1959, ECNU was authenticated as one of the first 16 National Key Universities in China, from 1972 to 1980, it was known as Shanghai Normal University, and in 1980 its original name was resumed. In June 1986, ECNU was selected to be one of the first 33 higher education institutions authorized, by the State Council, in 1996, ECNU passed the prerequisites appraisal and became one of universities sponsored by the major national program Project 211. The University sponsors or supervises publication of more than 20 academic journals and periodicals, the library collection exceeds 4,000,000 volumes. 25 primary or secondary schools are affiliated to the university, the development and transformation of China and the modernized international metropolis of Shanghai brings huge opportunities to the university for its progress. ECNU is working its way up steadfastly toward the goal of establishing itself as an internationally renowned high-level research university, ECNU attaches great importance to the internationalization in its development and enjoys a wide influence and reputation in the world. It has been carrying out academic exchanges with over 150 universities and institutions of Great Britain, France, Germany, Japan, the United States, Canada, Australia, Korea, ECNU plays host to a CIEE satellite campus, where 100 American college students study each semester. In 2008, it set up the NOCFL Study and Training Base for International Chinese Teachers, an ENS campus is housed in the ECNU at the Aspiring Researchers Institute and at the Franco-Chinese Advanced Studies Institute. In 2007, the EMLYON Business School opened the official EMLYON Asia Campus in the heart of the ECNU campus, in 2008, the Cornell-ECNU Center for Comparative Culture was jointly funded by Cornell University and ECNU. Chinas first Sino-American university – New York University Shanghai – was co-established by New York University, along with several other Chinese universities, East China Normal University has hosted the United Kingdom government-funded Study China Programme for a number of years
15.
Simplified Chinese characters
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Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters for use in mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of the two character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the Peoples Republic of China in mainland China has promoted them for use in printing since the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to increase literacy and they are officially used in the Peoples Republic of China and Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau. Overseas Chinese communities generally tend to use traditional characters, Simplified Chinese characters may be referred to by their official name above or colloquially. Strictly, the latter refers to simplifications of character structure or body, character forms that have existed for thousands of years alongside regular, Simplified character forms were created by decreasing the number of strokes and simplifying the forms of a sizable proportion of traditional Chinese characters. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms embodying graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms, some characters were simplified by applying regular rules, for example, by replacing all occurrences of a certain component with a simplified version of the component. Variant characters with the pronunciation and identical meaning were reduced to a single standardized character. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification, and are identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. Some simplified characters are very dissimilar to and unpredictably different from traditional characters and this often leads opponents not well-versed in the method of simplification to conclude that the overall process of character simplification is also arbitrary. In reality, the methods and rules of simplification are few, on the other hand, proponents of simplification often flaunt a few choice simplified characters as ingenious inventions, when in fact these have existed for hundreds of years as ancient variants. However, the Chinese government never officially dropped its goal of further simplification in the future, in August 2009, the PRC began collecting public comments for a modified list of simplified characters. The new Table of General Standard Chinese Characters consisting of 8,105 characters was promulgated by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China on June 5,2013, cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print have always existed, they date back to as early as the Qin dynasty, One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lubi Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China, Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and it was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Fu Sinian, a leader of the May Fourth Movement, called Chinese characters the writing of ox-demons, lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die. Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the problems in China during that time
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Traditional Chinese characters
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Traditional Chinese characters are Chinese characters in any character set that does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. They are most commonly the characters in the character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong. Currently, a number of overseas Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between both sets. In contrast, simplified Chinese characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, the debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters has been a long-running issue among Chinese communities. Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of Mainland China, Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear, nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Taiwan has never adopted Simplified Chinese characters since it is ruled by the Republic of China, the use of simplified characters in official documents is even prohibited by the government in Taiwan. Simplified characters are not well understood in general, although some stroke simplifications that have incorporated into Simplified Chinese are in common use in handwriting. For example, while the name of Taiwan is written as 臺灣, similarly, in Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, because of the influx of mainland Chinese tourists, today, even government websites use simplified Chinese, as they answer to the Beijing government. This has led to concerns by residents to protect their local heritage. In Southeast Asia, the Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative regarding simplification, while major public universities are teaching simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications like the Chinese Commercial News, World News, and United Daily News still use traditional characters, on the other hand, the Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified. Aside from local newspapers, magazines from Hong Kong, such as the Yazhou Zhoukan, are found in some bookstores. In case of film or television subtitles on DVD, the Chinese dub that is used in Philippines is the same as the one used in Taiwan and this is because the DVDs belongs to DVD Region Code 3. Hence, most of the subtitles are in Traditional Characters, overseas Chinese in the United States have long used traditional characters. A major influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States occurred during the half of the 19th century. Therefore, the majority of Chinese language signage in the United States, including street signs, Traditional Chinese characters are called several different names within the Chinese-speaking world
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Standard Chinese
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Its pronunciation is based on the Beijing dialect, its vocabulary on the Mandarin dialects, and its grammar is based on written vernacular Chinese. Like other varieties of Chinese, Standard Chinese is a language with topic-prominent organization. It has more initial consonants but fewer vowels, final consonants, Standard Chinese is an analytic language, though with many compound words. There exist two standardised forms of the language, namely Putonghua in Mainland China and Guoyu in Taiwan, aside from a number of differences in pronunciation and vocabulary, Putonghua is written using simplified Chinese characters, while Guoyu is written using traditional Chinese characters. There are many characters that are identical between the two systems, in English, the governments of China and Hong Kong use Putonghua, Putonghua Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, and Mandarin, while those of Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia, use Mandarin. The name Putonghua also has a long, albeit unofficial, history and it was used as early as 1906 in writings by Zhu Wenxiong to differentiate a modern, standard Chinese from classical Chinese and other varieties of Chinese. For some linguists of the early 20th century, the Putonghua, or common tongue/speech, was different from the Guoyu. The former was a prestige variety, while the latter was the legal standard. Based on common understandings of the time, the two were, in fact, different, Guoyu was understood as formal vernacular Chinese, which is close to classical Chinese. By contrast, Putonghua was called the speech of the modern man. The use of the term Putonghua by left-leaning intellectuals such as Qu Qiubai, prior to this, the government used both terms interchangeably. In Taiwan, Guoyu continues to be the term for Standard Chinese. The term Putonghua, on the contrary, implies nothing more than the notion of a lingua franca, Huayu, or language of the Chinese nation, originally simply meant Chinese language, and was used in overseas communities to contrast Chinese with foreign languages. Over time, the desire to standardise the variety of Chinese spoken in these communities led to the adoption of the name Huayu to refer to Mandarin and it also incorporates the notion that Mandarin is usually not the national or common language of the areas in which overseas Chinese live. The term Mandarin is a translation of Guānhuà, which referred to the lingua franca of the late Chinese empire, in English, Mandarin may refer to the standard language, the dialect group as a whole, or to historic forms such as the late Imperial lingua franca. The name Modern Standard Mandarin is sometimes used by linguists who wish to distinguish the current state of the language from other northern. Chinese has long had considerable variation, hence prestige dialects have always existed. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán rather than colloquial regional dialects, rime books, which were written since the Northern and Southern dynasties, may also have reflected one or more systems of standard pronunciation during those times
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Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
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State Council of the People's Republic of China
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The State Council, constitutionally synonymous with the Central Peoples Government since 1954, is the chief administrative authority of the Peoples Republic of China. It is chaired by the Premier and includes the heads of each governmental department, currently, the council has 35 members, the premier, one executive vice premier, three other vice premiers, five state councilors, and 25 additional ministers and chairs of major agencies. The State Council directly oversees the various subordinate Peoples Governments in the provinces, the State Council meets once every six months. Between meetings it is guided by a Standing Committee that meets weekly, the standing committee includes the premier, one executive vice premier, three vice premiers, and five other state councilors. The vice-premiers and state councilors are nominated by the premier, incumbents may serve two successive five-year terms. Each vice premier oversees certain areas of administration, each State Councilor performs duties as designated by the Premier. The secretary-general heads the General Office which handles the work of the State Council. The secretary-general has relatively little power and should not be confused with the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, commissions outrank ministries and set policies for and coordinate the related activities of different administrative organs. Offices deal with matters of ongoing concern, bureaus and administrations rank below ministries. In addition to the 25 ministries, there are 38 centrally administered government organizations that directly to the state council. The heads of these organizations attend full meetings of the committee on an irregular basis. The State Council and the Communist Party of China are also tightly interlocked, with rare exceptions, State Councilors are high-ranking members of the CPC. Although, as Party members, they are supposed to follow Party instructions and this results in a system which is unlike the Soviet practice in which the Party effectively controlled the State. Rather, the Party and State are fused at this level of government, the State Council is the functional center of state power and clearinghouse for government initiatives at all levels. With the governments emphasis on modernization, the State Council clearly acquired additional importance and influence. The State Council controls the Ministry for National Defense but does not control the Peoples Liberation Army, which is instead controlled by the Central Military Commission. e
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Politburo of the Communist Party of China
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Unlike politburos of other Communist parties, power within the politburo is centralized in the Politburo Standing Committee. The Politburo is nominally elected by the Central Committee, in addition, some Politburo members hold powerful regional positions. How the Politburo works internally is unclear, but it appears that the full Politburo meets once a month and this is believed to be much more infrequent than the former Soviet Politburo had met. The agenda for the meetings appears to be controlled by the General Secretary, the Politburo was eclipsed by the Secretariat of the Communist Party of China Central Committee in the early 1980s under Hu Yaobang, but has re-emerged as a dominant force after Hus ousting in 1987. The 18th Politburo was elected at the 1st Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee on November 15,2012, the 9th Politburo was elected at the 1st Plenary Session of the 9th Central Committee on April 28,1969, consisting of 21 members and 4 alternate members. There have been no alternate members since, miller, China Leadership Monitor No.9 www. nodulo. org Pictures of the members
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General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
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The officeholder is usually considered the paramount leader of China. According to the Constitution, the General Secretary serves as an ex member of the Politburo Standing Committee. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012, as China is a de facto one-party state, the General Secretary holds ultimate power and authority over state and government. However, the men who have held the post have held far less power than Chairman Mao Zedong, since the mid-1990s, the General Secretary has traditionally also held the post of President of the PRC. While the presidency is nominally a ceremonial post, it is customary for the General Secretary to assume the presidency to confirm his status as de jure head of state. These bodies were tasked with establishing the general direction for national security as well as the agenda for economic reform. Both groups are headed by the General Secretary, that the power of the General Secretary has become more concentrated
22.
Jiang Zemin
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Jiang has been described as the core of the third generation of Communist Party leaders since 1989. With the waning influence of Eight Elders due to old age and with the death of Deng Xiaoping, Jiang consolidated his hold on power, Jiang has been criticized for being too concerned about his personal image at home, and too conciliatory towards Russia and the United States abroad. His contributions to party doctrine, known as the Three Represents, were written into the constitution in 2002. Jiang vacated the post of party General Secretary in 2002, but did not relinquish all of his titles until 2005. Jiang was born in the city of Yangzhou, Jiangsu and his ancestral home was the Jiang Village, Wuyuan County, Jiangxi. This was also the hometown of a number of prominent figures in Chinese academic, Jiang grew up during the years of Japanese occupation. His uncle, also his father, Jiang Shangqing, died fighting the Japanese in World War II and is considered in Jiang Zemins time to be a national hero. He graduated there in 1947 with a degree in electrical engineering. Jiang married Wang Yeping in 1949, also a native of Yangzhou and she graduated from Shanghai International Studies University. They have two sons, Jiang Mianheng and Jiang Miankang and he claims that he joined the Communist Party of China when he was in college. After the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China, Jiang received his training at the Stalin Automobile Works in Moscow in the 1950s and he also worked for Changchuns First Automobile Works. In 1985 he became Mayor of Shanghai, and subsequently the Party Secretary of Shanghai, Jiang received mixed reviews as mayor. Many of his critics dismissed him as a pot, a Chinese term for someone who only seems useful. Many credited Shanghais growth during the period to Zhu Rongji, Jiang was an ardent believer, during this period, in Deng Xiaopings economic reforms. In an attempt to curb student discontent in 1986, Jiang recited the Gettysburg Address in English in front of a group of student protesters, Jiang was described as having a passable command of several foreign languages, including Romanian, Russian, and English. One of his activities was to engage foreign visitors in small talk on arts and literature in their native language. He became friends with Allen Broussard, the African-American judge who visited Shanghai in 1987, in 1989, China was in crisis over the Tiananmen Square protest, and the central government was in conflict on how to handle the protesters. In June, Deng Xiaoping dismissed liberal Zhao Ziyang, who was considered to be too conciliatory toward the student protestors, at the time, Jiang was the Shanghai Party secretary, the top figure in Chinas new economic center
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Cixi, Zhejiang
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Cixi is a county-level city under the jurisdiction of the sub-provincial city of Ningbo, Zhejiang. At the 2010 census, its population was 1,462,383 and its urban agglomeration built-up area, essentially contiguous with Yuyao, had 2,473,042 inhabitants. Cixi is a city with a culture and a long history. It was part of the state of Yue in the Spring, the county was set up in the Qin Dynasty. At first it was called “Juzhang” and has been using the name of “Cixi” since the Kaiyuan reign of the Tang Dynasty. Cixi City is located on the south of the circle of Yangtze River Delta. Cixi has a monsoon climate, with an average annual temperature of 16℃. Cixi has a public transportation system that provides convenience. Highway connections are provided to all cities, typical travel times are 1. Shanghai and Ningbo are also the closest sea ports, Cixi is an important manufacturing city in northern Zhejiang province. The Hangzhou Bay New District is located in the city. Fifteen towns and five subdistricts are under the jurisdiction of Cixi City, the city houses many Yue Kiln Sites, which are widely regarded as one of the origin of Chinese porcelain. Cixi was listed as the base for community digital learning in the national city. List of twin towns and sister cities in China Cixi City travel guide from Wikivoyage The Peoples Government Cixi City official website
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Zhejiang
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Zhejiang, formerly romanized as Chekiang, is an eastern coastal province of China. The provinces name derives from the Zhe River, the name of the Qiantang River which flows past Hangzhou. Kuahuqiao culture was a neolithic culture that flourished in Hangzhou area in 6. Zhejiang was the site of the Neolithic cultures of the Hemudu, the area of modern Zhejiang was outside the major sphere of influence of the Shang civilization during the second millennium BC. Instead, this area was populated by peoples known as Dongyue. The kingdom of Yue began to appear in the chronicles and records written during the Spring, according to the chronicles, the kingdom of Yue was in northern Zhejiang. Shiji claims that its leaders were descended from the Shang founder Yu the Great, the Song of the Yue Boatman was transliterated into Chinese and recorded by authors in north China or inland China of Hebei and Henan around 528 BC. The song shows that the Yue people spoke a language that was mutually unintelligible with the dialects spoken in north, the Sword of Goujian bears bird-worm seal script. Yuenü was a swordswoman from the state of Yue, to check the growth of the kingdom of Wu, Chu pursued a policy of strengthening Yue. Under King Goujian, Yue recovered from its early reverses and fully annexed the lands of its rival in 473 BC, the Yue kings then moved their capital center from their original home around Mount Kuaiji in present-day Shaoxing to the former Wu capital at present-day Suzhou. With no southern power to turn against Yue, Chu opposed it directly and, in 333 BC, yues former lands were annexed by the Qin Empire in 222 BC and organized into a commandery named for Kuaiji in Zhejiang but initially headquartered in Wu in Jiangsu. Kuaiji Commandery was the power base for Xiang Liang and Xiang Yus rebellion against the Qin Empire which initially succeeded in restoring the kingdom of Chu. At the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era, Zhejiang was home to the warlords Yan Baihu and Wang Lang prior to their defeat by Sun Ce and Sun Quan, who eventually established the Kingdom of Wu. Despite the removal of their court from Kuaiji to Jianye, they continued development of the region, industrial kilns were established and trade reached as far as Manchuria and Funan. Zhejiang was part of the Wu during the Three Kingdoms, Wu, commonly known as Eastern Wu or Sun Wu, had been the economically most developed state among the Three Kingdoms. The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms records that Zhejiang had the best-equipped, the story depicts how the states of Wei and Shu, lack of material resources, avoided direct confrontation with the Wu. In armed military conflicts with Wu, the two states relied intensively on tactics of camouflage and deception to steal Wus military resources including arrows and bows, the other two centers in the south were Jiankang and Chengdu. In 589, Qiantang was raised in status and renamed Hangzhou, some may have lost social privilege, and took refugee in areas south to Yangtze River
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Cultural Revolution
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The Cultural Revolution, formally the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement that took place in China from 1966 until 1976. The Revolution marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of power after the Great Leap Forward, the movement paralyzed China politically and negatively affected the countrys economy and society to a significant degree. The Revolution was launched in May 1966, after Mao alleged that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society at large, to eliminate his rivals within the Communist Party of China, Mao insisted that these revisionists be removed through violent class struggle. Chinas youth responded to Maos appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country, the movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a purge of senior officials, most notably Liu Shaoqi. During the same period Maos personality cult grew to immense proportions, a large segment of the population was forcibly displaced, most notably the transfer of urban youth to rural regions during the Down to the Countryside Movement. Historical relics and artifacts were destroyed, Cultural and religious sites were ransacked. Mao officially declared the Cultural Revolution to have ended in 1969, after Maos death and the arrest of the Gang of Four in 1976, reformers led by Deng Xiaoping gradually began to dismantle the Maoist policies associated with the Cultural Revolution. In 1958, after Chinas first Five-Year Plan, Mao called for grassroots socialism in order to accelerate his plans for turning China into an industrialized state. In this spirit, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, established Peoples Communes in the countryside, many communities were assigned production of a single commodity—steel. Mao vowed to increase production to twice 1957 levels. The Great Leap was an economic failure, uneducated farmers attempted to produce steel on a massive scale, partially relying on backyard furnaces to achieve the production targets set by local cadres. The steel produced was low quality and largely useless, the Great Leap reduced harvest sizes and led to a decline in the production of most goods except substandard pig iron and steel. Furthermore, local authorities frequently exaggerated production numbers, hiding and intensifying the problem for several years, in the meantime, chaos in the collectives, bad weather, and exports of food necessary to secure hard currency resulted in the Great Chinese Famine. Food was in shortage, and production fell dramatically. The famine caused the deaths of millions of people, particularly in poorer inland regions, the Great Leaps failure reduced Maos prestige within the Party. Forced to take responsibility, in 1959, Mao resigned as the President of the Peoples Republic of China, Chinas de jure head of state
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Zhu Rongji
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A tough administrator, his time in office saw the continued double-digit growth of the Chinese economy and Chinas increased assertiveness in international affairs. His opponents, however, charge that Zhus tough and pragmatic stance on policy was unrealistic and unnecessary, Zhu retired in 2003 and has not been a public figure since. Premier Zhu was also known for his charisma and tasteful humour. Zhu Rongji was born in Changsha, Hunan, to a family of intellectuals, according to family tradition, his family was descended from Zhu Yuanzhang, the first emperor of the Ming dynasty. His father died when he was born, and his mother died when he was nine, Zhu was subsequently raised by his uncle, Zhu Xuefang, who continued to support Zhus education. Zhu was educated locally, and after graduation from school he attended the prestigious Tsinghua University in Beijing. While attending Tsinghua he became a student leader and took part in activities that were organized by the Communist Party, in 1951 he became the chairman of the Tsinghua Student Union. Following his graduation, Zhu began his career as a civil servant and he began his career in the Northeast China Ministry of Industries, where he was appointed the deputy head of its production planning office. From 1952-1958 he worked in the State Planning Commission, where he worked as head, deputy director. In 1957, during the Hundred Flowers Campaign, he criticized Mao Zedongs economic policies and his comments led to him being subsequently identified as a rightist in 1958, for which he was persecuted, demoted, disgraced, and thrown out of the Communist Party. In the late 1950s his family was persecuted for their pre-revolutionary status as wealthy landowners. After his persecution as a rightist, Zhu was sent to work at a cadre school. During the Cultural Revolution Zhu was purged again, from 1970-1975 he was sent for re-education to the May Seventh Cadre School, a special farm for disgraced government workers and former Party members. During his exile in the countryside Zhu worked as a laborer, raising pigs and cattle, carrying human waste. Shortly after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 Deng Xiaoping initiated economic and political reforms led to Zhus rehabilitation. From 1976 to 1979 he worked as an engineer in the Ministry of Petroleum Industry, in 1978 he was formally rehabilitated and allowed to rejoin the Communist Party. He had few connections in the army, the Party, or the bureaucracy, in 1979 he was reassigned to the State Economic Commission, in which he served as vice-minister from 1983-1987. After being politically rehabilitated and re-entering the civil service, Zhu resumed connections with his alma mater, in 1984 he was named the founding dean of the Tsinghua University School of Economics and Management
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Luwan District
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Luwan District, formerly romanized as Lokawei, was a district located in central Shanghai, China until its merger with Huangpu District, Shanghai in June 2011. It had an area of 8.05 km² and population of 350,000 as of 2001, Luwan district was located directly south of Peoples Square. The northern part of Luwan included one of the best sections of Huaihai Road, famous for its international fashion shops, Luwan was a part of the old French Concession area, one of the most prestigious sections of the city. It was famous for its boulevards, the plane trees lining the main streets were imported from France over 100 years ago. The district included the historical residences of Sun Yat-sen, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Agnes Smedley and it was announced on June 8,2011 that the proposed plan of merging Luwan and Huangpu districts had been approved by the State Council. Since the new district would still maintain the name Huangpu, Luwan as a district ceased to exist, the district was named after Lujia Wan, literally Lus Bay, formerly a bend in a local river which had since been covered up. The name survived in bus stops located near the location of the bay. Known as Lukawei during the French concession period, this was the location of the police depot. Huangpu District, Shanghai Shanghai French Concession Xuhui District Lupu Bridge Lippo Plaza, Shanghai
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Huaihai Road
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Huaihai Road or Huaihai Lu is one of the two major shopping streets in Shanghai, China, the other is Nanjing Road. Compared with the more touristy Nanjing Road, Huaihai Road is more upscale, Huaihai Road comprises three sections, the main section being Middle Huaihai Road in the former French Concession of Shanghai. Middle Huaihai Road is also known by its former French name Avenue Joffre. Todays Huaihai Road comprises three sections, which were three distinct streets. West Huaihai Road, formerly called Jordan Road, is 1,510 meters long, east Huaihai Road, formerly Ningbo Road, is 373 meters long and was the boundary road between Huangpu and Nanshi districts before the two districts merged. Middle Huaihai Road, the section, is 5,500 meters long. Most of this lies in the former Luwan District, and extends west into Xuhui. Middle Huaihai Road was built in 1901 as Rue Sikiang, five years later it was renamed Route Paul Brunat. It was renamed again in 1915 to Avenue Joffre to honor the French general Joseph Joffre, in the 1920s Avenue Joffre became an enclave of a large community of Russians fleeing the Communist revolution in their homeland. The Japanese occupied Shanghai during World War II, taking over the concessions in 1941. In 1943 Avenue Joffre was renamed Taishan Road after Mount Taishan, however, the Communists in turn defeated the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War, and took over Shanghai in 1949. A year later the Communist government gave the street the current name, the 5. 5-kilometer long Middle Huaihai Road has a large number of shops lining its route, from small boutiques to major department stores and shopping malls, as well as hotels and restaurants. The eastern section of Middle Huaihai Road near the popular Xintiandi precinct has recently seen an influx of a number of Western luxury brands, including Louis Vuitton, Rolex, Coach. Balenciaga, Dior, Burberry, Moschino, Valentino SpA, Versace, Dolce & Gabbana, Miu Miu, Marks & Spencer, UGG, cartier, Gucci, Prada, Victorias Secret, Hermès, Vivienne Westwood, Giorgio Armani SpA, Chanel and Ermenegildo Zegna. Many of the stores were opened in 2010 to coincide with the Shanghai Expo, east Huaihai Road is served by the Dashijie Station on Metro Line 8. Wukang Mansion Wukang Road Xintiandi Huaihai Road Map of Middle Huaihai Road
29.
Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
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The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China is a political body that comprises the top leaders of the Communist Party of China. It is currently composed of 205 full members and 171 alternate members, members are elected once every five years by the National Congress of the Communist Party of China. The Central Committee is, formally, the partys highest organ of authority when the National Congress is not in session and it also oversees work of various powerful national organs of the party. The Committee convenes at least once a year at a plenary session, the Committee operates, however, on the principle of democratic centralism, i. e. once a decision is made, the entire body speaks with one voice. The role of the Central Committee has varied throughout history, nonetheless, Central Committee plenums function as venues whereby policy is discussed, fine-tuned, and publicly released in the form of resolutions or decisions. The Central Committee is therefore technically the partys highest organ of authority when the National Congress is not in session. The Central Committee must also be convened to prepare for a National Congress, for example, to determine its dates, delegate selection, agenda. The Central Committee has the power to elect the General Secretary and the members of the Politburo, its Standing Committee, and the Central Military Commission. These elections take place in the form of votes, i. e. there is only one candidate. In some instances write-in candidates may also be allowed, the Central Committee also confirms membership of the Secretariat, the organ in charge of executing party policy, whose membership is determined through nomination by the Politburo. The Central Committees role has varied throughout history and it was founded in 1927 as a successor organization to the Central Executive Committee, a group of party leaders charged with executing party work during the pre-revolutionary days of the CPC. Over the next decades it served to confirm the party leadership lineup and legitimize military, strategic. In practice, power was concentrated in a group of military and political leaders. Although the Central Committee was required to convene at least once a year, it did not convene at all in 1951–53,1960, 1963–65, and 1967. Mao did not hold power over the Central Committee, as evidenced by the debates surrounding the policies of the Great Leap Forward. Mao faced some opposition at the 11th Plenum but ultimately most delegates were goaded into ratifying Maos decisions, many members were politically disgraced or purged thereafter. The Committee was then convened again in October 1968 to ratify the decision to then head of state Liu Shaoqi from the Party. At the 12th plenum, less than half the members actually attended, in a letter to Mao evaluating the members of the Central Committee at the time, Kang Sheng wrote that some 70% of CC members were considered traitors, spies, or otherwise politically unreliable
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President of Brazil
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The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the Brazilian Armed Forces. The presidential system was established in 1889, upon the proclamation of the republic in a military coup détat against Emperor Pedro II, since then, Brazil has had six constitutions, three dictatorships, and three democratic periods. During the democratic periods, voting has always been compulsory, the Constitution of Brazil, along with several constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office and the method of election. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, a provisional measure comes into effect immediately, before Congress votes on it, and remains in force for up to 60 days unless Congress votes to rescind it. The 60-day period can be extended once, up to 120 days, if Congress, on the other hand, votes to approve the provisional measure, it becomes an actual law, with changes decided by the legislative branch. The provisional measure expires at the end of the 60-day period, or sooner, the President of Brazil serves for a term of office of four years, and may be reelected for a single consecutive term. This two-term limit, however, is not for life—a former President who has served for two terms may, at a later time, run again for office, as long as at least one term has elapsed. The current term of four years was established by the 5th Amendment to the Constitution, in 1994, and the permission for reelection, by the 16th Amendment, in 1997. Before that, the President had been barred from reelection for all of Brazils republican history, with the exception of the latter half of the Vargas Era. The office was limited to men until the Brazilian Constitution of 1937, as of 2015, the president earns a monthly salary of R$30,934.70, along with an undisclosed expense account to cover travel, goods and services while in office.1. The Palácio do Planalto in Brasília is the workplace of the President. The Residência Oficial do Torto, popularly known as Granja do Torto, is a located on the outskirts of the capital and is used as a country retreat by the president. The Palácio Rio Negro in Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, is a retreat of the president. In addition, the presidency of the republic also maintains the Jaburu Palace in Brasília for use by the Vice President of the Republic as his or her official residence. In the 2000s, the government decided to establish Regional Offices of the Presidency of the Republic in certain key Brazilian cities. The presidency of the republic also maintains offices in Porto Alegre. For ground travel, the president uses the state car. A1952 Rolls Royce Silver Wraith is used by the president on ceremonial occasions, such as Independence Day commemorations, state visits, a modified version of the Airbus A319, air force designation VC-1A, is used to transport the president on all medium and long-range international flights
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National People's Congress
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The National Peoples Congress is the national legislature of the Peoples Republic of China. With 2,987 members in 2013, it is the largest parliamentary body in the world, the NPC is elected for a term of five years. It holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting from 10 to 14 days, the fourth session of the 12th NPC was held from March 5 to March 16,2016. In theory, the NPC is the highest organ of power in China. However, in practice it usually acts as a stamp for decisions already made by the states executive organs. One of its members, Hu Xiaoyan, told the BBC in 2009 that she has no power to help her constituents and she was quoted as saying, As a parliamentary representative, I dont have any real power. In 2014, the party pledged to unswervingly adhere to the leadership of Chinese Communist Party. Since the 1990s, the NPC has become a forum for mediating policy differences between different parts of the Party, the government, and groups of society, there are mainly four functions and powers of the NPC,1. To amend the Constitution and oversee its enforcement Only the NPC has the power to amend the Constitution, Amendments to the Constitution must be proposed by the NPC Standing Committee or 1/5 or more of the NPC deputies. In order for the Amendments to become effective, they must be passed by 2/3 majority vote of all deputies, to enact and amend basic law governing criminal offences, civil affairs, state organs and other matters 3. To elect and appoint members to the state organs The NPC elects the Chairman, Vice Chairmen, Secretary-General. It also elects the President of the Peoples Republic of China, NPC also appoints the Premier of the State Council and many other crucial officials to the central state organs. The NPC also has the power to remove the officials from the office. The drafting process of NPC legislation is governed by the Organic Law of the NPC and it begins with a small group, often of outside experts, who begin a draft. Over time, this draft is considered by larger and larger groups, by the time the full NPC or NPCSC meets to consider the legislation, the major substantive elements of the draft legislation have largely been agreed to. However, minor wording changes to the draft are often made at this stage, the process ends with a formal vote by the Standing Committee of the NPC or by the NPC in a plenary session. The NPC mainly exists to give sanction to decisions already made at the highest levels of the government. However, it is not completely without influence and it functions as a forum in which legislative proposals are drafted and debated with input from different parts of the government and outside technical experts
32.
Reuters
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Reuters /ˈrɔɪtərz/ is an international news agency headquartered in London, England. It is a division of Thomson Reuters, until 2008, the Reuters news agency formed part of an independent company, Reuters Group plc, which was also a provider of financial market data. Since the acquisition of Reuters Group by the Thomson Corporation in 2008, Reuters transmits news in English, French, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Urdu, and Chinese. The Reuter agency was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in Britain at the London Royal Exchange, Paul Reuter worked at a book-publishing firm in Berlin and was involved in distributing radical pamphlets at the beginning of the Revolutions in 1848. Upon moving to England, he founded Reuters Telegram Company in 1851, headquartered in London, the company initially covered commercial news, serving banks, brokerage houses, and business firms. The first newspaper client to subscribe was the London Morning Advertiser in 1858, Reuters agency built a reputation in Europe and the rest of the world as the first to report news scoops from abroad. Reuters was the first to report Abraham Lincolns assassination in Europe, for instance, in 1872, Reuters expanded into the far east, followed by South America in 1874. Both expansions were made possible by advances in overland telegraphs and undersea cables, in 1883, Reuters began transmitting messages electrically to London newspapers. In 1923, Reuters began using radio to transmit news internationally, in 1925, The Press Association of Great Britain acquired a majority interest in Reuters, and full owners some years later. During the world wars, The Guardian reported that Reuters came under pressure from the British government to national interests. In 1941 Reuters deflected the pressure by restructuring itself as a private company, the new owners formed the Reuters Trust. In 1941, the PA sold half of Reuters to the Newspaper Proprieters Association, the Reuters Trust Principles were put in place to maintain the companys independence. At that point, Reuters had become one of the major news agencies. In 1961, Reuters scooped news of the erection of the Berlin Wall, in 1981, Reuters began making electronic transactions on its computer network, and afterwards developed a number of electronic brokerage and trading services. Reuters was floated as a company in 1984, when Reuters Trust was listed on the stock exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange. Reuters published the first story of the Berlin Wall being breached in 1989, share price grew during the dotcom boom, then fell after the banking troubles in 2001. In 2002, Brittanica wrote that most news throughout the world came from three major agencies, the Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse, Reuters merged with Thomson Corporation in Canada in 2008, forming Thomson Reuters. In 2009, Thomson Reuters withdrew from the LSE and the NASDAQ, instead listing its shares on the Toronto Stock Exchange, the last surviving member of the Reuters family founders, Marguerite, Baroness de Reuter, died at age 96 on 25 January 2009
33.
Dong Biwu
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Dong Biwu was a Chinese communist political leader during the regime of Chairman Mao Zedong. Dong served as the Vice President and acting President of China, Dong Biwu was born in Huanggang, Hubei. In 1911 he joined the Tongmenghui, and participated in the Xinhai Revolution, twice he went to Japan to study at Nihon University. In 1921 he attended the 1st Congress of the Communist Party of China as a representative of Wuhan, Mao Zedong and Dong Biwu were the only two men to attend both the 1st Congress and the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China at Tiananmen in 1949. He was Vice President of China from 1959 until 1975, jointly with Soong Ching-ling, in 1975, the office of president was abolished and the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National Peoples Congress - then Zhu De - became formal head of state. Dong was elected Vice Chairman of the Standing Committee of Peoples National Congress, Dong was a member of Politburo of the Communist Party of China from 1945 to 1975. He was elected one of nine members of the Standing Committee of the Politburo at 10th Congress of the Communist Party in 1973 and he died a year before Mao and several other important politicians like Zhou Enlai and Zhu De. In 1991, a statue of Dong Biwu was erected in one of Wuhans central squares, Hubei Provincial museum houses a collection of Dongs personal items
34.
Chen Yun
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Chen Yun was one of the most influential leaders of the Peoples Republic of China during the 1980s and 1990s. He was also known as Liao Chengyun, it is whether this was his original name or a pseudonym he used during his underground work in Shanghai. He was active throughout his career in the field of economics, as a typesetter for the famous Commercial Press of Shanghai, Chen played a prominent role as a younger organizer in the labor movement during the early and mid-1920s, joining the CPC in 1924. Following the May Thirtieth Movement of 1925, Chen was an important organizer under Zhou Enlai, after Chiang Kai-shek turned against the CPC in 1927, Chen fled to his hometown, but soon returned to Shanghai and secretly continued his work as a labor unionist. He served on the Central Committee in the Third Plenary Session of Sixth Central Committee of CPC in 1930, in 1933 he evacuated to Ruijin, in Jiangxi province, the headquarters of the CPCs main soviet area. He was in charge of the Partys white areas work. On the Long March he was one of the four Standing Committee members of the Political Bureau who attended the January 1935 Zunyi Conference. He left the Long March sometime in the spring of 1935, returning to Shanghai, in 1937 Chen returned to China as an adviser to the Xinjiang leader Sheng Shicai. Chen later joined Mao in Yanan, probably before the end of 1937, in November 1937 he became director of the Partys Organization Department, serving in that capacity until 1944, and by the early 1940s was in the inner circle of Maos advisers. Chen’s economic career began in 1942, when he was replaced by Ren Bishi as head of the CPC Organization Department, in his new position, Chen was assigned responsibility for the financial management of Northwest China. Two years later, he was identified as responsible for finance in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region as well and he added Northeast China to his portfolio in 1946 (under the overall leadership of General Lin Biao and Political Commissar Peng Zhen. In May 1949, Chen Yun was named head of the new national Central Finance, in early 1952, Zhou Enlai led a team to draft the first Five-Year Plan which included Chen, Bo Yibo, Li Fuchun and General Nie Rongzhen. Zhou, Chen and Li presented the draft to Soviet experts in Moscow, in early 1953, Gao Gang and the State Planning Commission began work on what would eventually become the final version. After Gaos fall, Chen, Bo Yibo, Li Fuchuan, throughout the 1950s, Chen was the official who did the most to moderate Maos radical economic reforms. Looking back, Chen would later believe that it was the Chairmans errors that most kept China from achieving its Five-Year Plans, in 1956, when the 8th National Congress of Communist Party of China was held, Chen was elected a Vice-chairman of the Central Committee. Around that time, both Mao and Chen had come to believe that the system, modeled on that of the Soviet Union, was overly centralized. Chen’s proposal was to make use of the market, allowing for the operation of supply. He argued that decisions concerning prices and production should be made by individual firms, at the same time he favored giving the central government ministries stronger control over these firms, to assure that their decisions did not transgress the boundaries of the plan
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