1.
Garden square
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A garden square is an open space with buildings surrounding a garden, often located in fashionable urban areas. There are many squares in London, England, for example. The large estates in London, e. g. the Bedford Estate in Bloomsbury, originally the gardens were a private amenity for the residents of the houses in the square. Some remain private, while others are now open to the public, there may be levies to raise money for maintenance of the garden in a garden square. Normally the charge is set annually by a garden committee, however they are not only a British phenomenon, as the Place des Vosges in Paris and the Square de Meeûs and Square Orban in Brussels show. Dublin, Ireland contains several Georgian garden squares, including Merrion Square, private gardens in town squares are sometimes opened to the public on a temporary basis. Parks and open spaces in London List of garden squares in London Squares in London Town square
2.
Knightsbridge
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Knightsbridge is a residential and retail district in West London, south of Hyde Park. It is identified in the London Plan as one of two international centres in London, alongside the West End. Knightsbridge was a hamlet located primarily in the parish of St Margaret and it also extended into the parishes of Kensington and Chelsea. It was therefore divided between local authorities from an early time. In the time of Edward I, the manor of Knightsbridge appertained to the abbey of Westminster and it was named after a crossing of the River Westbourne, which is now an underground river. It is recorded that the citizens of London met Matilda of England at the Knights Bridge in 1141, the exhibition was very popular, with over 250,000 visitors during its early months. Japanese artisans illustrated the manners, customs, and art-industries of their country, attired in their national, magnificently decorated and illuminated Buddhist temple. Five o’clock tea in the Japanese tea-house, W. S. Gilbert and his wife attended the exhibition, which is said to have inspired him to write The Mikado. When the Mikado requests of Ko-Ko the address of his son after Ko-Ko tells the Mikado that Nanki-Poo has gone abroad, the original bridge was where one of the old roads to the west that crossed the River Westbourne. The allusion may simply be to a place where cnihtas congregated, bridges, however there is possibly a more specific reference to the important cnihtengild in 11th century London and to the limits of its jurisdiction. Cniht in the pre Norman days did not have the meaning of a minor noble. There are however other claims of the origins,1. According to a topographer named Norden, the bridge was known as ‘Stonebridge’ until a knight called Sir Knyvett was attacked while walking across the bridge late at night. The knight managed to better his attackers and ‘slew the master thief with his own hand’ and this tale of Sir Knyvett’s valour supposedly gave a new name to the bridge. A claim that the bridge may have used by wealthy residents. A claim that the area was used as a place for local youths – where ‘knight’ was a slang term for ‘lad’. Even the original name of the area has come under scrutiny with some claiming it was called ‘Knightsbrigg’ while others believe it was ‘Kynesbrigg’, Knightsbridge is east of Exhibition Road and west of Sloane Street. South of this area, the district fades into Chelsea while Belgravia lies to the east, the district also has banks that cater to wealthy individuals
3.
Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea
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The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea is an inner London borough of Royal borough status, to the west of the centre. As the smallest borough in London and the second smallest district in England, the borough is immediately to the west of the City of Westminster and to the east of London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. It contains major museums and universities in Albertopolis, department stores such as Harrods, Peter Jones and Harvey Nichols and it is home to the Notting Hill Carnival, Europes largest. It contains many of the most expensive places in the world. The local authority is Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council, the boroughs motto is Quam Bonum in Unum Habitare, which can be roughly translated as How good to dwell in unity. The borough was created in 1965 from the boroughs of Kensington. Kensingtons Royal Borough status was inherited by the new borough, the new borough was originally to be called just Kensington – the inclusion of Chelsea was locally supported. Due to its high French population it has held the unofficial title of the 21st arrondissement of Paris. In 2005, the borough had more of its covered by domestic buildings than anywhere else in England at 19%. It also had the fifth highest proportion of land covered by buildings at 12%. As of 2010, statistics released by the Office for National Statistics showed that life expectancy at birth for females was 89.8 years in 2008–2010, male life expectancy at birth for the same period was 85.1 years. The figures in 1991–1993 were significantly lower,73.0 years for males and 80.0 for females, the borough has a higher proportion of high earners than any other local government district in the country. It has the highest proportion of workers in the financial sector, in December 2006, Sport England published a survey which showed that the boroughs residents were the fourth most active in England in sports and other fitness activities. 27. 9% of the population participate at least three times a week for 30 minutes, the top quarter earn at least £41 per hour, three and a half times the level of the lowest quarter at £12 per hour or less. Two of its more notable leaders were Nicholas Freeman, from 1977 until 1989. The Council has 42 Conservative,9 Labour and 3 Liberal Democrat councillors, the borough has combined a number of services and departments with its neighbours, Hammersmith & Fulham and Westminster City Council. Chelsea has less Underground access than Kensington, the station within Chelsea being Sloane Square. There are long-term plans for the Chelsea-Hackney line, with a station in the Kings Road near Chelsea Old Town Hall, buses Many London bus routes pass through the borough, most of them along Kings Road, Fulham Road, Kensington High Street and Ladbroke Grove
4.
Central London
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Central London is the innermost part of London, UK. Over time a number of definitions have been used to define the scope of central London for statistics, urban planning and local government. From 2004 to 2008, the London Plan included a sub-region called Central London comprising Camden, Islington, Kensington and Chelsea, Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth and it had a 2001 population of 1,525,000. The sub-region was replaced in 2008 with a new structure which amalgamated inner and outer boroughs together and this was altered in 2011 when a new Central London sub region was created, now including the City of London and excluding Wandsworth. However, districts at the edge of this subregion such as Streatham, Dulwich. During the Herbert Commission and the subsequent passage of the London Government Bill, the first two were detailed in the 1959 Memorandum of Evidence of the Greater London Group of the London School of Economics. It had an population of 350,000 and occupied 7,000 acres. The area had an population of 400,000 and occupied 8,000 acres. During the passage of the London Government Bill an amendment was put forward to create a central borough corresponding to the used at the 1961 census. The population was estimated to be 270,000
5.
Harrods
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Harrods is a luxury department store located on Brompton Road in Knightsbridge, London. It is owned by the state of Qatar, the store occupies a 5-acre site and has 330 departments covering one million square feet of retail space. The Harrods motto is Omnia Omnibus Ubique, which is Latin for all things for all people, several of its departments, including the seasonal Christmas department and the food halls, are well known. In 1824, at the age of 25, Charles Henry Harrod established a business at 228 Borough High Street in Southwark and he ran this business, variously listed as a draper, mercer, and a haberdasher, until 1831 at least. During 1825, the business was listed as Harrod and Wicking, Linen Drapers, Retail and his first grocery business appears to be as ‘Harrod & Co. Grocers’ at 163 Upper Whitecross Street, Clerkenwell, E. C.1. in 1832. In 1834 in Londons East End, he established a grocery in Stepney, at 4, Cable Street. Harrods rapidly expanded, acquired the buildings, and employed one hundred people by 1880. However, the stores booming fortunes were reversed in early December 1883, remarkably, in view of this calamity, Charles Harrod fulfilled all of his commitments to his customers to make Christmas deliveries that year—and made a record profit in the process. A. Milne, and many members of the British Royal Family, a chance meeting in London with businessman, Edgar Cohen, eventually led to Charles Harrod selling his interest in the store for £120,000 via a stock market floatation in 1889. The new company was called Harrod’s Stores Limited, sir Alfred James Newton became chairman and Richard Burbidge managing director. Financier William Mendel was appointed to the board in 1891 and he raised funding for many of the expansion plans. Richard Burbidge was succeed in 1917 by his son Woodman Burbidge, nervous customers were offered brandy at the top to revive them after their ordeal. The department store was purchased by the Fayed brothers in 1985, following denial that it was for sale, Harrods was sold to Qatar Holdings, the sovereign wealth fund of the State of Qatar in May 2010. A fortnight previously, chairman of Harrods since 1985, Mohamed Al-Fayed, had stated that People approach us from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, but I put two fingers up to them. This is not Marks and Spencer or Sainsburys and it is a special place that gives people pleasure. A spokesman for Mohamed Al-Fayed said in reaching the decision to retire, wished to ensure that the legacy, Harrods was sold for £1.5 billion, half of the sale will be used to pay bank debts of £625 million. Al-Fayed later revealed in an interview that he decided to sell Harrods following the difficulty in getting his dividend approved by the trustee of the Harrods pension fund. Al-Fayed said Im here every day, I cant take my profit because I have to take a permission of those bloody idiots. I say is this right, I run a business and I need to take the trustees permission to take my profit
6.
Hans Sloane
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His name was later used for streets and places such as Hans Place, Hans Crescent and Sloane Square in London, and also to Sir Hans Sloane Square in his birthplace, Killyleagh. Sloane was born on 16 April 1660 at Killyleagh in County Down and he was the seventh son of Alexander Sloane, agent for James Hamilton, second Viscount Claneboye and later first Earl of Clanbrassil. Sloanes family had migrated from Ayrshire in Scotland, but settled in the north of Ireland under James I and his father died when he was six years old. As a youth, Sloane collected objects of natural history and other curiosities and this led him to the study of medicine, which he went to London, where he studied botany, materia medica, surgery and pharmacy. His collecting habits made him useful to John Ray and Robert Boyle, after four years in London he travelled through France, spending some time at Paris and Montpellier, and stayed long enough at the University of Orange-Nassau to take his MD degree there in 1683. He returned to London with a collection of plants and other curiosities, of which the former were sent to Ray. Sloane was elected to the Royal Society in 1685, at the same time attracted the notice of Thomas Sydenham, who gave him valuable introductions to practice. Jamaica was fast emerging as a source of profit to British merchants based on the cultivation of sugar. He became secretary to the Royal Society in 1693, and edited the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for twenty years, Sloane married Elizabeth Langley Rose, the widow of Fulke Rose of Jamaica, and daughter of alderman John Langley. They had three daughters, Mary, Sarah and Elizabeth, and one son, Hans, of the four children only Sarah and Elizabeth survived infancy. Sarah married George Stanley of Paultons and Elizabeth married Charles Cadogan, Sloane encountered cacao while he was in Jamaica, where the locals drank it mixed with water, though he is reported to have found it nauseating. Many recipes for mixing chocolate with spice, eggs, sugar, after returning from Jamaica, Sloane may have devised his own recipe for mixing chocolate with milk, though if so, he was not the first. By the 1750s, a Soho grocer named Nicholas Sanders claimed to be selling Sloanes recipe as a medicinal elixir, by the nineteenth century, the Cadbury Brothers sold tins of drinking chocolate whose trade cards also invoked Sloanes recipe. His practice as a physician among the classes was large, fashionable. He served three successive sovereigns, Queen Anne, George I and George II, in 1716, Sloane was created a baronet, making him the first medical practitioner to receive a hereditary title. In 1719 he became president of the Royal College of Physicians, in 1722, he was appointed physician-general to the army, and in 1727 first physician to George II. In 1727 he succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as president of the Royal Society and he was a founding governor of Londons Foundling Hospital, the nations first institution to care for abandoned children. Sloanes fame is based on his judicious investments rather than what he contributed to the subject of science or even of his own profession
7.
British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
8.
Henry Holland (architect)
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Henry Holland was an architect to the English nobility. He was born in Fulham, London, where his father, also Henry and his younger brother was Richard Holland, who later changed his surname to Bateman-Robson and became an MP. Although Henry would learn a lot from his father about the practicalities of construction, Brown and Holland formed a partnership in 1771 and Henry Holland married Browns daughter Bridget on 11 February 1773 at St Georges, Hanover Square. In 1772 Sir John Soane joined Hollands practice in order to further his education, Holland paid a visit to Paris in 1787 which is thought to have been in connection with his design of the interiors at Carlton House. From this moment on his interior work owed less to the Adam style, Holland was a founder member in 1791 of the Architects Club, which included Thomas Hardwick as a signtory. In the 1790s he translated into English A. M, cointereauxs Traite sur la construction des Manufactures, et des Maisons de Champagne. He had got out of bed shortly before and inquired what the hour was, being told he said is was too early to rise and got into bed again. He immediately fell into a fit, I was sent for, and a minute after I came to his bedside he breathed his last. He was buried at All Saints Church, Fulham, in a simple tomb, Bridget Holland his wife lived for another 17 years and was the main beneficiary of her husbands will. Of his sons, the elder Henry Jr remained a bachelor, the younger son, Colonel Lancelot, married Charlotte Mary Peters and they had fifteen children. Of Hollands five daughters, two married two brothers, Bridget to Daniel Craufurd and Mary Frances Holland to Major-General Robert Craufurd, commander of the Light Division during the Peninsular War, Bridget later remarried to Sir Robert Wilmot of Chaddesden. The remaining daughters, Harriet, Charlotte and Caroline never married, Holland began his practice by designing Claremont House for Robert Clive, with his future father-in-law in 1771 and their partnership lasted until Browns death twelve years later. Claremont is of nine by five bays, of brick with stone dressings. The main feature on the front is the tetrastyle Corinthian pedimented portico. This leads to the hall with red scagliola columns, these are arranged in an oval with the rectangular room. The drawing room has a plaster ceiling and marble fireplace with two caryatids. In 1771 he took a lease from Charles Cadogan, 2nd Baron Cadogan on his Chelsea estate and began the Hans Town development on 89 acres of open field and marsh. There he laid out parts of Knightsbridge and Chelsea, including Sloane Street and Sloane Square and these developments quickly became some of the most fashionable areas in greater London
9.
Earl Cadogan
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Earl Cadogan /kəˈdʌɡən/ is a title that has been created twice in the Peerage of Great Britain. The Cadogan family descends from Major William Cadogan, a officer in Oliver Cromwells army. His son Henry Cadogan was a barrister in Dublin and his eldest son William Cadogan was a noted soldier, politician and diplomat. He was a general in the army and fought in the War of the Spanish Succession and also served as Ambassador to the Netherlands and as Master-General of the Ordnance. In 1716, he was raised to the Peerage of Great Britain as Baron Cadogan, of Reading in the County of Berkshire and these titles were also in the Peerage of Great Britain. Lord Cadogan had two daughters but no sons, so on his death in 1726, three titles - the barony of 1716, the viscountcy, and earldom - became extinct. However, he was succeeded in the barony of 1718 according to the remainder by his brother Charles. He was a General of the Horse and also represented Reading and Newport, Isle of Wight, Cadogan married Elizabeth, second daughter and heiress of the prominent physician and collector Sir Hans Sloane. Through this marriage the Sloane estates in central London came into the Cadogan family, and his son, the third Baron, sat as Member of Parliament for Cambridge and served as Master of the Mint. In 1800 the earldom of Cadogan held by his uncle was revived when he was created Viscount Chelsea, in the County of Middlesex and these titles were in the Peerage of Great Britain. His youngest son, the third Earl, was an admiral in the Royal Navy. In 1831, one year before he succeeded in the earldom, he was raised to the Peerage of the United Kingdom in his own right as Baron Oakley and he was succeeded by his eldest son, the fourth Earl. He was a Conservative politician and served under Lord Derby and Benjamin Disraeli as whip and his eldest son, the fifth Earl, was also a noted Conservative politician. He held office under Disraeli and later Lord Salisbury as Under-Secretary of State for War, Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Privy Seal and his only son Edward, Viscount Chelsea, died in 1910 at the age of seven. Lord Cadogan was therefore succeeded by his third but eldest surviving son, as of 2014 the titles are held by the latters grandson, the eighth Earl, who succeeded his father in 1997. Several other members of the Cadogan family have gained distinction, lady Sarah Cadogan, daughter of the first Earl of the first creation, married Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond, and was the mother of the famous Lennox sisters. Sir George Cadogan, second son of the third Earl, was a general in the army, two further members represented seats in the House of Commons. The family seat was Culford Park, near Culford, Suffolk, the heir apparents heir apparent is his eldest son Hon. George Edward Charles Diether Cadogan
10.
Ordnance Survey
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Ordnance Survey is a non-ministerial government department which acts as the national mapping agency for Great Britain and is one of the worlds largest producers of maps. Since 1 April 2015 it has operated as Ordnance Survey Ltd, the Ordnance Survey Board remain accountable to the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. It is also a member of the Public Data Group, the agencys name indicates its original military purpose, mapping Scotland in the wake of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745. There was also a general and nationwide need in light of the potential threat of invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. Ordnance Survey mapping is usually classified as either large-scale or small-scale, the Surveys large-scale mapping comprises maps at six inches to the mile or more and was available as sheets until the 1980s, when it was digitised. Small-scale mapping comprises maps at less than six inches to the mile, such as the one inch to the mile leisure maps. These are still available in sheet form. Ordnance Survey maps remain in copyright for fifty years after their publication, some of the Copyright Libraries hold complete or near-complete collections of pre-digital OS mapping. The origins of the Ordnance Survey lie in the aftermath of the last Jacobite rising which was defeated by forces loyal to the government at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. In 1747, Lieutenant-colonel David Watson proposed the compilation of a map of the Highlands to facilitate the subjugation of clans, in response, King George II charged Watson with making a military survey of the Highlands under the command of the Duke of Cumberland. Among Watsons assistants were William Roy, Paul Sandby and John Manson, the survey was produced at a scale of 1 inch to 1000 yards and included the Duke of Cumberlands Map now held in the British Library. This work was the point of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain. Roys technical skills and leadership set the standard for which Ordnance Survey became known. Work was begun in earnest in 1790 under Roys supervision, when the Board of Ordnance began a military survey starting with the south coast of England. A set of stamps, featuring maps of the Kentish village of Hamstreet, was issued in 1991 to mark the bicentenary. In 1801, the first one-inch-to-the-mile map was published, detailing the county of Kent, during the next twenty years, roughly a third of England and Wales was mapped at the same scale under the direction of William Mudge, as other military matters took precedence. It took until 1823 to re-establish a relationship with the French survey made by Roy in 1787, by 1810, one inch to the mile maps of most of the south of England were completed, but were withdrawn from sale between 1811 and 1816 because of security fears. It was gruelling work, major Thomas Colby, later the longest serving director general of Ordnance Survey, in 1824, Colby and most of his staff moved to Ireland to work on a six-inches-to-the-mile valuation survey
11.
Osbert Lancaster
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Sir Osbert Lancaster, CBE was an English cartoonist, author, art critic and stage designer, best known to the public at large for his cartoons published in the Daily Express. Interested in art and architectural history and an activist for conservation, much of his work parodied British history, Lancaster was born in London, and educated at St Ronans School, and then at Charterhouse and Lincoln College, Oxford. At Oxford he became friends with John Betjeman and drew cartoons for the university magazine Cherwell and he graduated with a fourth-class degree in English after an extra year beyond the normal three years of study. Intending a career in law, he failed his bar exams, Lancaster initially worked alongside Betjeman at the Architectural Review. In 1936 he published Progress at Pelvis Bay, the first of his books of social and architectural satire. In these he sympathetically mocked the British upper classes, personified by his characters William, during his Express career Lancaster drew some 10,000 cartoons over a period of 40 years. During World War II, Lancaster worked in censorship, then in Greece as a Foreign Office press attaché. During the war years his cartoons provided comic relief from the privations of rationing and bombing raids, after the war Lancaster published Classical Landscape with Figures, The Saracens Head and Drayneflete Revealed, the last dealing with the Littlehamptons architectural and artistic inheritances. Along with The Littlehampton Bequest, it provided a humorous and satirical but very well-informed, survey of architectural and aesthetic trends in British, among the books he illustrated in this period was Say Please by Virginia Graham, a sardonic etiquette guide. In 1951 Lancaster worked with John Piper on designs for the Festival of Britain and this was followed by stage design work for opera, ballet and theatre including productions at Sadlers Wells and Glyndebourne, among them Frederick Ashtons production of La Fille mal gardée. Lancaster was firmly embedded in the British upper middle classes, as is clear by his autobiographies All Done From Memory and With an Eye to the Future. In his later life it was observed that he affected a caricatured persona similar to those depicted in his drawings, when he was knighted in 1975 he became one of only a small number of cartoonists to have received the honour, John Tenniel and David Low being others. Lancaster was the illustrator of books by other writers, including Noblesse Oblige (London, Hamish Hamilton,1973, edited by Nancy Mitford. Northcote Parkinsons books, including Parkinsons Law, its sequel The Law and the Profits, In-laws & Outlaws, and Law of Delay. Apart from his knighthood, Lancasters honours included a CBE in 1953 and an honorary DLitt from Oxford, as well as degrees from Birmingham, Newcastle upon Tyne. Lancaster died of causes, aged 77, in Chelsea. He is buried at West Winch, Norfolk, curated by James Knox and supported by the John R. Murray Charitable Trust of John Murray, it coincided with the publication of a new biography with the same title as the exhibition. Cartoons and Coronets, The Genius of Osbert Lancaster Bevis Hillier, Lancaster, Sir Osbert, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,2004
12.
The Blitz
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By September 1940—two months into the battle—faulty German intelligence suggested that the Royal Air Force was close to defeat at the hands of the Luftwaffe. The German air fleets were ordered to attack London, thereby drawing up the last remnants of RAF Fighter Command into a battle of annihilation, Adolf Hitler and commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, sanctioned the change in emphasis on 6 September 1940. From 7 September 1940, one year into the war, London was systematically bombed by the Luftwaffe for 56 out of the following 57 days, on 15 September 1940, a large daylight attack against London was repulsed with significant German losses. Thereafter, the Luftwaffe gradually decreased daylight operations in favour of nocturnal attacks, ports and industrial centres outside London were also attacked. The main Atlantic sea port of Liverpool was bombed, the North Sea port of Hull, a convenient and easily found target or secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary targets, was subjected to raids in the Hull Blitz during the war. More than one million London houses were destroyed or damaged and more than 40,000 civilians were killed, by May 1941, the threat of an invasion of Britain had ended, and Hitlers attention turned to Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The bombing failed to demoralise the British into surrender or significantly damage the war economy, the eight months of bombing never seriously hampered British production and the war industries continued to operate and expand. The German offensives greatest effect was forcing the dispersal of aircraft production, British wartime studies concluded that cities generally took 10 to 15 days to recover when hit severely but exceptions like Birmingham took three months. The German air offensive failed for several reasons, discussions in OKL revolved around tactics rather than strategy. Poor intelligence on British industry and economic efficiency was also a factor, in the 1920s and 1930s, air power theorists Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell espoused the idea that air forces could win wars, without a need for land and sea fighting. It was thought there was no defence against air attack, particularly at night, enemy industry, seats of government, factories and communications could be destroyed, taking away their means to resist. It was also thought the bombing of residential centres would cause a collapse of civilian will, democracies, where the populace was allowed to show overt disapproval of the state, were thought particularly vulnerable. This thinking was prevalent in both the RAF and the United States Army Air Corps, the policy of RAF Bomber Command became an attempt to achieve victory through the destruction of civilian will, communications and industry. In the Luftwaffe, there was a view of strategic bombing. OKL did not believe that air power alone could be decisive, contrary to popular belief, evidence suggests that the Luftwaffe did not adopt an official bombing policy in which civilians became the primary target until 1942. The vital industries and transport centres that would be targeted for shutdown were valid military targets and it could be claimed civilians were not to be targeted directly, but the breakdown of production would affect their morale and will to fight. German legal scholars of the 1930s carefully worked out guidelines for what type of bombing was permissible under international law. Wever outlined five points of air strategy, To destroy the air force by bombing its bases and aircraft factories
13.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
14.
Jane Austen
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Jane Austen was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Austens plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of social standing. Her works critique the novels of sensibility of the half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism. With the publications of Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park and Emma and she wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began another, eventually titled Sanditon, but died before its completion. Her novels have rarely been out of print, although they were published anonymously, a significant transition in her posthumous reputation occurred in 1869, fifty-two years after her death, when her nephews publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider audience. Austen has inspired a number of critical essays and literary anthologies. Her novels have inspired many films, from 1940s Pride and Prejudice to more recent productions, Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austens use of biting irony, along with her realism and social commentary have earned her great and historical importance to critics and scholars. The Bank of England has confirmed that the face of the new plastic £10 note will be Austen, the notes are expected to be released in summer 2017. There is little information about Jane Austens life except the few letters that survive. During her lifetime Austen wrote approximately 3,000 letters but only about 160 survive, many of the letters were written to Austens older sister Cassandra, who in 1843 burned the greater part of them and cut pieces out of those she kept. Cassandra believed that in the interest of tact and Janes penchant for forthrightness, the paucity of record of Austens life leaves modern biographers little to work with. The situation was compounded as successive generations of the family expunged and sanitized the already opaque details of Austens biography, Jane Austen was born in Steventon, Hampshire, on 16 December 1775. She was born a month later than her parents expected, her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother certainly expected to have brought to bed a month ago. He added that her arrival was particularly welcome as a companion to her sister. The winter of 1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the church with the single name Jane. For much of Janes life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, and he came from an old, respected, and wealthy family of wool merchants. Over the centuries as each generation of eldest sons received inheritances their wealth was consolidated and he and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. His sister Philadelphia went to India to find a husband and George entered St Johns College, Oxford on a fellowship and she came from the prominent Leigh family, her father was rector at All Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry
15.
Letitia Elizabeth Landon
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Letitia Elizabeth Landon, English poet and novelist, better known by her initials L. E. L. Letitia Elizabeth Landon was born on 14 August 1802 in Chelsea, London to John Landon and Catherine Jane, at the age of five, Landon began attending Mrs Rowdens school at 22 Hans Place, which counted among its alumnae Mary Russell Mitford and Lady Caroline Lamb. The family moved to the country in 1809, so that John Landon could carry out a model farm project, I never knew her to be wrong. When young, Letitia was very close to her brother, Whittington Henry. Paying for Whittington through university was one of the needs that drove Letitia to publish and she also supported his preferment and later dedicated her poem ‘Captain Cook’ to their childhood days together. Whittington went on to become a minister and published a book of Sermons in 1835, sadly, he did not show any appreciation for all his sisters financial assistance but spread false rumours about her marriage and death. Letitia also had a sister, Elizabeth Jane, who was a frail child and died in 1819. Little is known of Elizabeth but her death may well have left an impression on Letitia. The following statements from those who knew her give some idea of the known as L. E. L. Emma Roberts, from her introduction to The Zenana and other works. Gay and piquant, her complexion, dark hair, and eyes, rendered her, when in health and spirits. Her figure was slight, and beautifully proportioned, with hands and feet. A little high-backed cane chair, which gave you any idea but that of comfort, one aspect that is common to all accounts of those who knew Miss Landon is that she possessed an exceptionally high level of intelligence. Fredric Rowton in his The Female Poets of Great Britain puts it thus, Of Mrs. Macleans genius there can be but one opinion. It is distinguished by very great power, a highly sensitive and ardent imagination, an intense fervour of passionate emotion. Of mere art she displays but little and her style is irregular and careless, and her painting sketchy and rough but there is genius in every line she has written. An agricultural depression soon followed, and the family moved back to London in 1815, where John Landon made the acquaintance of William Jerdan, editor of the Literary Gazette. According to 19th-century commentator Mrs A. T. Jerdan encouraged Landons poetic endeavors, and her first poem was published under the single initial L in the Gazette in 1820, when Landon was 18. The following year, with support from her grandmother, Landon published a book of poetry, The Fate of Adelaide
16.
Arthur Griffith
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Arthur Griffith was an Irish politician and writer, who founded and later led the political party Sinn Féin. He served as President of Dáil Éireann from January to August 1922, Arthur Griffith was born at 61 Upper Dominick Street, Dublin, Ireland on 31 March 1872, of distant Welsh lineage, and was educated by the Irish Christian Brothers. He worked for a time as a printer before joining the Gaelic League and his father had been a printer on The Nation newspaper — Griffith was one of several employees locked out in the early 1890s due to a dispute with a new owner of the paper. The young Griffith was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and he visited South Africa from 1897 to 1898, after the defeat and death of Charles Stewart Parnell whose more moderate views he had initially supported, while recovering from tuberculosis. There he supported the Boers against British expansionism and was an admirer of Paul Kruger. In 1899, on returning to Dublin, he co-founded the weekly United Irishman newspaper with his associate William Rooney, on 24 November 1910, Griffith married his fiancée, Maud Sheehan, after a fifteen-year engagement, they had a son and a daughter. Griffiths fierce criticism of the Irish Parliamentary Partys alliance with British Liberalism was heavily influenced by the rhetoric of Young Irelander John Mitchel. Griffith made a number of controversial statements and opinions. He defended anti-semitic rioters in Limerick, and denounced socialists and pacifists as conscious tools of the British Empire, Griffith also supported movements seeking national independence from the British Empire in Egypt and India and wrote a highly critical description of the British government action at Matabele. Despite his opposition to communism and socialism, he worked with James Connolly. In September 1900, he established an organisation called Cumann na nGaedheal to unite advanced nationalist/separatist groups, in 1903 he set up the National Council to campaign against the visit to Ireland of King Edward VII and his consort Alexandra of Denmark. In 1907, this merged with the Sinn Féin League, which itself had been formed from an amalgamation of Cumann na nGaedheal. Most historians opt for 28 November 1905 as a date because it was on this date that Griffith first presented his Sinn Féin Policy. Its first president was Edward Martyn and this was similar to the policy of Henry Grattan a century earlier. Griffith sought to combine elements of Parnellism with the traditional separatist approach, he saw not as a leader. In 1907 Sinn Féin unsuccessfully contested a by-election in North Leitrim, the IRB members argued that the aim of dual monarchism should be replaced by republicanism, and that Griffith was excessively inclined to compromise with conservative elements. In 1916 rebels seized and took over a number of key locations in Dublin, in became known as the Easter Rising. After its defeat, it was widely described both by British politicians and the Irish and British media as the Sinn Féin rebellion, even though Sinn Féin had very limited involvement
17.
Robert Barton
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Robert Childers Barton was an Irish nationalist, politician and farmer who participated in the negotiations leading up to the signature of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. His father was Charles William Barton and his mother was Agnes Childers and his wife was Rachel Warren of Boston, daughter of Fiske Warren. His double first cousin and close friend was Robert Erskine Childers and he was born in County Wicklow into a wealthy Irish Protestant land-owning family, namely of Glendalough House. Educated in England at Rugby and Oxford, he became an officer in the Royal Dublin Fusiliers on the outbreak of the First World War. He was stationed in Dublin during the 1916 Easter Rising and came into contact with many of its leaders in the aftermath while on duty at Richmond Barracks. He resigned his commission in protest at the heavy-handed British government suppression of the revolt and he then joined the Republican movement Charles William Barton was born on 13 July 1836. He married Agnes Alexandra Frances Childers, daughter of Rev, canon Charles Childers, on 26 October 1876. He died on 3 October 1890 at age 54, roberts two younger brothers, Erskine and Thomas, died in the British Army during the First World War. At the 1918 general election to the British House of Commons Barton was elected as the Sinn Féin member for West Wicklow, in common with all Sinn Féin members, he boycotted the Westminster parliament and instead sat in Dáil Éireann. Arrested in February 1919 for sedition, he escaped from Mountjoy Prison on St. Patricks Day and he was recaptured in January 1920 and sentenced to three years imprisonment, but was released under the general amnesty of July 1921. In May of that year, prior to his release, he was elected as a Sinn Féin member for Kildare–Wicklow in the 1921 Irish election to the House of Commons of Southern Ireland. Once again all Sinn Féin members boycotted this parliament, hence Barton sat instead in the Second Dáil of Dáil Éireann and he was appointed Minister for Agriculture of the Irish Republic, then of Economic Affairs. Barton was one of the Irish delegates, along with his cousin and he reluctantly signed the Treaty on 6 December 1921, defending it as the lesser of two outrages forced upon me and between which I had to choose. He nevertheless was firmly committed to the Irish Republic and despite signing the Treaty rejected it and he won re-election to Dáil Éireann in June 1922 as the only signatory of the Anglo-Irish Treaty to stand for the Sinn Féin party, but did not take his seat. After being defeated at the 1923 general election, he retired from politics for the law and he was chairman of the Agricultural Credit Corporation from 1934–1954. Barton died at home in County Wicklow on 10 August 1975, at the age of 94, Éamon de Valera, who was also heavily involved with the Treaty, died only nineteen days later, on 29 August 1975. In 1969, RTÉ Television interviewed Barton, alongside Ernest Blythe, Glendalough House, run by Barton for over 70 years right up until his death, is still considered one of Irelands most notable properties, alongside nearby Powerscourt Estate. The house was the center of political meetings and gatherings from 1910 to 1922
18.
Michael Collins (Irish leader)
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Michael Collins was a soldier and politician who was a leading figure in the struggle for Irish independence in the early 20th century. Subsequently, he was both Chairman of the Provisional Government and Commander-in-chief of the National Army, Collins was shot and killed in an ambush in August 1922 during the Irish Civil War. Born in Woodfield, Sams Cross, near Clonakilty, County Cork, Collins was the third son, most biographies give his date of birth as 16 October 1890, but his tombstone cites 12 October 1890. Referred to in a British secret service report as brainy, the Collins family were part of an ancient clan and they had republican connections that can be traced back to the 1798 rebellion. Collins father, Michael John, was a farmer by profession, a mathematician in his spare time, he had been a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood movement. The elder Collins was 60 years old when he married Mary Anne OBrien, then 23 and they brought up eight children on a 90-acre farm called Woodfield, which the Collins had held as tenants for several generations. On his death bed, his father predicted that his daughter Helena would become a nun and she later did, known as Sister Mary Celestine, based in Whitby. He then turned to the family and told them to care of Michael. Hell do great work for Ireland, Michael was six years old when his father died. Collins was a bright and precocious child with a fiery temper and he named a local blacksmith, James Santry, and his headmaster at Lisavaird National School, Denis Lyons, as the first nationalists to personally inspire his pride of Irishness. Lyons was a member of the IRB, while Santrys family had participated in, and forged arms for, there are a number of anecdotal explanations for the origin of his nickname, The Big Fellow. The most authoritative comes from his family, stating that he was called this as a child and it had been a term of endearment for their youngest brother, who was always keen to take on tasks beyond his years. It was certainly established by his teens, long before he emerged as a political or military leader. At the age of thirteen he boarded at Clonakilty National School, during the week he stayed with his sister Margaret Collins-ODriscoll and her husband Patrick ODriscoll, while at weekends he returned to the family farm. Patrick ODriscoll founded the newspaper The West Cork People and Collins helped out with general reporting jobs, in 1910 he became a messenger at a London firm of stockbrokers, Horne and Company. While living in London he studied law at Kings College London and he joined the London GAA and, through this, the IRB. Sam Maguire, a republican from Dunmanway, County Cork, introduced the 19-year-old Collins to the IRB, an organiser of considerable intelligence, Collins had become highly respected in the IRB. This led to his appointment as financial advisor to Count Plunkett, father of one of the Easter Risings organisers, Collins took part in preparing arms and drilling troops for the insurrection
19.
Robert Erskine Childers
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He was executed by the authorities of the nascent Irish Free State during the Irish Civil War. He was the son of British Orientalist scholar Robert Caesar Childers, the cousin of Hugh Childers and Robert Barton, when Erskine was six his father died from tuberculosis and, although seemingly healthy, Anna was confined to an isolation hospital, where she died six years later. The five children were sent to the Bartons, the family of their fathers uncle, at Glendalough and they were treated kindly there and Erskine grew up knowing and loving Ireland, albeit at that stage from the comfortable viewpoint of the Protestant Ascendancy. At the recommendation of his grandfather, Canon Charles Childers, he was sent to Haileybury College, there he won an exhibition to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied the classical tripos and then law. He distinguished himself as the editor of Cambridge Review, the university magazine, notwithstanding his unattractive voice and poor debating skills, he became president of the Trinity College Debating Society. Although Erskine was an admirer of his cousin Hugh Childers, a member of the British Cabinet working for Irish home rule, at this stage he spoke vehemently against the policy in college debates. With many sporting ventures now closed to him because of his injury, Childers was encouraged by Walter Runciman. After picking up the fundamentals of seamanship as a deckhand on Runcimans yacht, in 1893 he bought his own scrubby little yacht Shulah and he sold the Shulah in 1895 to a Plymouth man following a trip around the Lizard in a heavyish sea. In 1894 while he was living in Glendalough, he bought a Dublin Bay Water Wag and he sailed this boat on Lough Dan, close to Glendalough, and he and his brother Henry used to take friends for a sail in the Water Wag. These were the adventures he was to fictionalise in 1903 as The Riddle of the Sands, his most famous book and a huge bestseller. In 1903 Childers, now accompanied by his new wife Molly, was cruising in the Frisian Islands, in Sunbeam. Mollys father, Dr Hamilton Osgood, arranged for a fine 28-ton yacht, Asgard, to be built for the couple as a wedding gift and Sunbeam was only a temporary measure while Asgard was being fitted out. (The Asgard was acquired by the Irish government as a training vessel in 1961, stored on dry land in the yard of Kilmainham Gaol in 1979. As with most men of his background and education, Childers was originally a steadfast believer in the British Empire. He was an artilleryman classed as a driver, caring for a pair of horses. The unit set off for South Africa on 2 February 1900, most of the new volunteers, after the three-week voyage it was something of a disappointment that the HAC detachment was, initially, not used. On 26 June, while escorting a train of slow ox-wagons, Childers first came under fire. However it was a smartly executed defence of an infantry regiment on 3 July that established their worth
20.
President of Ireland
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The President of Ireland is the head of state of Ireland and the Supreme Commander of the Irish Defence Forces. The President holds office for seven years, and can be elected for a maximum of two terms, unless a candidate runs unopposed, the President is directly elected by the people. The presidency is largely a ceremonial office, but the President does exercise certain limited powers with absolute discretion, the President acts as a representative of the Irish state. Former President Mary McAleese described the office as the guardian of the constitution, the Presidents official residence is Áras an Uachtaráin, which is located in the Phoenix Park in Dublin. The office was established by the Constitution of Ireland in 1937, the current president is His Excellency Michael D Higgins, who was elected on 29 October 2011. His inauguration was held on 11 November 2011, President Higgins is a veteran left-wing politician and human rights campaigner. As a member of the Labour Party, he has served in both houses of the Oireachtas, President Higgins is also a poet and speaks the Irish language fluently. The Constitution of Ireland provides for a system of government. The President is formally one of three parts of the Oireachtas, which also comprises Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann, unlike most other parliamentary democracies, the President is not even the nominal chief executive. Rather, executive authority is vested in the Government. The Government is obliged, however, to keep the President generally informed on matters of domestic, most of the functions of the President may be carried out only in accordance with the strict instructions of the Constitution, or the binding advice of the Government. The President does, however, possess certain personal powers that may be exercised at his or her discretion, the main functions are prescribed by the Constitution, Appoints the government The President formally appoints the Taoiseach and other ministers, and accepts their resignations. The Taoiseach is appointed upon the nomination of the Dáil, ministers are dismissed on the advice of the Taoiseach and the Taoiseach must, unless there is a dissolution of the Dáil, resign upon losing the confidence of the house. Appoints the judiciary The President appoints the judges to all Courts of the Republic of Ireland, convenes and dissolves the Dáil This power is exercised on the advice of the Taoiseach, government or Dáil approval is not needed. The President may only refuse a dissolution when a Taoiseach has lost the confidence of the Dáil, signs bills into law The President cannot veto a bill that the Dáil and the Seanad have adopted. However, he/she may refer it to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, if the Supreme Court upholds the bill, the President must sign it. If, however, it is found to be unconstitutional, the President will decline to give assent, represents the state in foreign affairs This power is exercised only on the advice of the Government. The President accredits ambassadors and receives the letters of credence of foreign diplomats, ministers sign international treaties in the Presidents name
21.
Erskine Hamilton Childers
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Erskine Hamilton Childers was an Irish politician who served as the fourth President of Ireland from 25 of June 1973 until his death on 17 November 1974. He was a Teachta Dála from 1938 until 1973, Childers served as Minister for Posts and Telegraphs, Minister for Lands, Minister for Transport and Power, and Minister for Health. He was appointed Tánaiste in 1969 and his father Robert Erskine Childers, a leading Irish republican and author of the espionage thriller The Riddle of the Sands, was executed during the Irish Civil War. Childers was born in the Embankment Gardens, London, to a Protestant family originally from Glendalough and his mother, Mary Alden Childers was a Bostonian whose ancestors arrived on the Mayflower. Childers was educated at Greshams School, Holt, and the University of Cambridge, before his execution, in a spirit of reconciliation, the older Childers obtained a promise from his son to seek out and shake the hand of every man who had signed the death warrant. After attending his fathers funeral, Childers returned to Greshams, then two years later he went on to Trinity College, Cambridge, after finishing his education, Childers worked for a period in a tourism board in Paris. In 1931, Éamon de Valera invited him to work for de Valeras recently founded newspaper, The Irish Press and he became a naturalised Irish citizen in 1938. That same year, he was first elected as a Fianna Fáil Teachta Dála for Athlone–Longford and he would remain in the Dáil Éireann until 1973, when he resigned to become President. Childers joined the cabinet in 1951 as Minister for Posts and Telegraphs in the de Valera government, erskines period as a minister was controversial. One commentator described his career as spectacularly unsuccessful. Others praised his willingness to make tough decisions, Childers was nominated by Fianna Fáil at the behest of de Valera, who pressured Jack Lynch in the selection of the presidential candidate. He was a nominee, owing not only to his British birth and upbringing. Childers, though 67, quickly gained a reputation as a vibrant, extremely hard-working president, however, he had a strained relationship with the incumbent government, led by Taoiseach Liam Cosgrave of Fine Gael. Childers had campaigned on a platform of making the more open and hands-on. He refused to co-operate with Childers first priority upon taking office, Childers considered resigning from the presidency, but was convinced to remain by Cosgraves Foreign Minister, Garret FitzGerald. Prevented from transforming the presidency as he desired, Childers instead threw his energy into a schedule of official visits and speeches. On 17 November 1974, just after making a speech to the Royal College of Physicians in Dublin and he died the same day at Mater Misericordiae University Hospital. He was buried in the grounds of the Church of Ireland Derralossary church in Roundwood, childerss widow, Rita, shared her late husbands widespread personal popularity
22.
Anglo-Irish Treaty
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It also provided Northern Ireland, which had been created by the Government of Ireland Act 1920, an option to opt out of the Irish Free State, which it exercised. The agreement was signed in London on 6 December 1921, by representatives of the British government and by representatives of the Irish Republic including Michael Collins, the Irish representatives had plenipotentiary status acting on behalf of the Irish Republic, though the British government declined to recognise that status. As required by its terms, the agreement was ratified by a meeting of the elected to sit in the House of Commons of Southern Ireland. In reality, Dáil Éireann first debated then ratified the treaty, though the treaty was narrowly ratified, the split led to the Irish Civil War, which was won by the pro-treaty side. Among the treatys main clauses were that, Crown forces would withdraw from most of Ireland, Ireland was to become a self-governing dominion of the British Empire, a status shared by Australia, Canada, Newfoundland, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa. As with the dominions, the King would be the Head of State of the Irish Free State. Members of the new free states parliament would be required to take an Oath of Allegiance to the Irish Free State. A secondary part of the oath was to be faithful to His Majesty King George V, His heirs and successors by law, Northern Ireland would have the option of withdrawing from the Irish Free State within one month of the Treaty coming into effect. If Northern Ireland chose to withdraw, a Boundary Commission would be constituted to draw the boundary between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. Britain, for its own security, would continue to control a number of ports, known as the Treaty Ports. The Irish Free State would assume responsibility for a part of the United Kingdoms debt. The treaty would have superior status in Irish law, i. e. in the event of a conflict between it and the new 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State, the treaty would take precedence. The negotiators included, Providing Secretarial Assistance Robert Barton was the last surviving signatory and he died on 10 August 1975 at the age of 94. Notably, the Irish President Éamon de Valera did not attend, Robert Erskine Childers, the author of the Riddle of the Sands and former Clerk of the British House of Commons, served as one of the secretaries of the Irish delegation. Tom Jones was one of Lloyd Georges principal assistants, and described the negotiations in his book Whitehall Diary, Éamon de Valera sent the Irish plenipotentiaries to the 1921 negotiations in London with several draft treaties and secret instructions from his cabinet. In the meantime, de Valera had been elevated to President of the Republic on 26 August, primarily to be able to accredit plenipotentiaries for the negotiations and that was the basis of our proposals, and we cannot alter it. The status which you now claim in advance for your delegates is, in effect, I am prepared to meet your delegates as I met you in July, in the capacity of chosen spokesmen for your people, to discuss the association of Ireland with the British Commonwealth. On 7 October de Valera signed a letter of accreditation as President on behalf of the Government of the Republic of Ireland, but the letter was never requested by the British side
23.
Peter Arne
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Peter Arne was a British character actor best known for various performances in British film and television. He made more than 50 film appearances including roles in Ice Cold in Alex, The Moonraker and he made numerous appearances on television and stage. He had supporting roles in the television series The Avengers, Danger Man, as well as villains in Blake Edwards Pink Panther series, in August 1983, Arne was murdered. His body was found, beaten to death, inside his Knightsbridge flat, Arne was born in Kuala Lumpur, British Malaya, to a Swiss-French mother and an American father, and gained his early acting experience in British provincial repertory. In 1953, the New Lindsey Theatre Club performed his play No Stranger, in addition to acting, he ran his own antiques business. In 1968, he played the roles of the known as the Duke, as well as Dr. Sanson Carrasco. In the 1960s and 1970s, Arne was a character actor on television. He appeared in several ITC adventure series including four episodes of The Avengers as different characters each time and he appeared in the last two episodes of Secret Army as a German Colonel, and as a regular in series two of Triangle in 1982. Arne and Corke persuaded Mary Renault that they could get rich quickly by building housing for recent immigrants like themselves. The four of them established a company called CAM Construction, which Renault financed using her £25,000 MGM award, employing labourers, Arne and Corke, squandered funds on high living, leaving bills unpaid, and the company failed to generate revenue. After Arne and Corke stole Renaults Studebaker, her lawyer obtained their resignations from the firm, Arne and Corke then disappeared from Renaults life for good, Arne returning to Britain. On 1 August 1983, Arne attended a costume fitting in Clerkenwell intended for his character Range in the BBC Doctor Who television serial Frontios, shortly after Arne returned to his Knightsbridge home, neighbours reported hearing a violent argument coming from his home. Arnes body was found inside his flat, bludgeoned to death with a stool and a log from his fireplace, which was found in the communal hall. The prime suspect in Arnes murder was a schoolteacher from Verona, Italy, who had been living rough in a local park, police issued a photofit image after eyewitnesses reported seeing a young man loitering nearby eating a jar of honey. Four days later, a body matching this description was found in the River Thames at Wandsworth, bloodstained clothes were later found upstream at Putney. Police identified the body as that of Giuseppe Perusi, an Italian schoolteacher, inquiries revealed Arne had been giving food to the Italian man. An inquest at Westminster Coroners Court in October 1983 recorded a verdict of unlawful killing for Arne, police concluded that Perusi had beaten the actor to death then killed himself rather than enduring the ensuing publicity. The reason for the violent argument remains unknown, Farrington / Doctor Farrington Triangle - Kevin Warrender Hart to Hart - Brooks Kerr The Far Pavilions - The General Peter Arne at the Internet Movie Database Peter Arne at AllMovie
24.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
25.
Lily Allen
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Lily Rose Beatrice Cooper, known professionally as Lily Allen, is an English singer, songwriter, actress, and television presenter. She is the daughter of actor Keith Allen and film producer Alison Owen, Allen left school when she was 15 and concentrated on improving her performing and compositional skills. In 2005, she made some of her recordings public on Myspace and the publicity resulted in airplay on BBC Radio 1 and her first mainstream single, Smile, reached number one on the UK Singles Chart in July 2006. Her debut record, Alright, Still, was received, selling over 2.6 million copies worldwide and brought Allen a nomination at the Grammy Awards, Brit Awards. She began hosting her own talk-show, Lily Allen and Friends and her second studio album, Its Not Me, Its You, saw a genre shift, having more of an electropop feel, rather than the ska and reggae influences of the first one. The album debuted at one on the UK Albums Chart. It spawned the hit singles The Fear and Fuck You and this success saw her receive the Brit Award for British Female Solo Artist at the 2010 Brit Awards. In 2009, Allen announced that she would be taking a hiatus from musical activities, in 2011, she launched her own record label. In 2013, Allen revealed that she had begun working on her studio album. On 12 November 2013, Allen premiered the video for her first original song since 2009, Hard out Here, Allen was born in Hammersmith, west London, daughter of Keith Allen, a Welsh-born comedian, and film producer Alison Owen. She has a sister, Sarah, a younger brother, actor Alfie. She is the goddaughter of Wild Colonials vocalist Angela McCluskey and she is the third-cousin of singer Sam Smith. At age three Allen appeared on The Comic Strip Presents, episode The Yob, which her father had co-written. When she was four, her left the family. During her early childhood, Allen lived with her family on a council estate, for a time, the family lived with comedian Harry Enfield while her mother dated him. The Clash singer and guitarist Joe Strummer was close to Allen and she attended 13 schools, including Prince Charless junior alma mater, Hill House School, Millfield, Bedales School and was expelled from several of them for drinking and smoking. This led to Allen singing Baby Mine from Disneys Dumbo at a school concert, Allen told Loveline that the audience was brought to tears at the sight of a troubled young girl doing something good. At that point Allen said she knew music was something she needed to do either as a lifelong vocation or to get it out of her system
26.
Ashwell Bury
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The house is of two storeys and five bays, but the central bay is wide, with a triple sash window above the front door. Lutyens replaced the cornice with eaves but retained the existing roof and chimneystacks, inserted new sash windows. His most notable addition is the new hall, which gives the house an effective focus. It was fitted into a rear courtyard and has an octagonal lantern. The lowest steps of the fill the full width of the well, before narrowing to the width of the second. Two other rooms have Lutyens chimneypieces, the gardens were altered by Gertrude Jekyll in 1908–09. Arts Council of England, Lutyens,1982, p.142 Sir N. Pevsner & B, cherry, The buildings of England, Hertfordshire,1977, p.77 Burkes Peerage Images of England
27.
Vivien Gribble
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Vivien Massie Gribble was a wood engraver who was active at the beginning of the twentieth century. She was a pupil of Noel Rooke at the Central School of Arts and Crafts, Gribble was born into a wealthy family, and was the third of six children. She studied first in Munich and then at the Slade and the Central School of Arts and Crafts under Noel Rooke, during the First World War she joined the Land Army. Her brother Julian, who won the V. C. died of influenza right at the end of the war, in 1919 she married Douglas Doyle Jones, a barrister from a similarly wealthy background, and they set up house at Higham in Suffolk. Doyle Jones soon gave up working as a barrister to look after his estate, after several miscarriages the couple adopted a child. Gribble, who had a temperament, tended to lose interest in projects when her initial wish was gratified. She died of cancer on 6 February 1932, in 1926 the couple bought Valley Farm in Higham where Doyle Jones became known locally as the “Old Man of the Trees”. He was responsible for establishing much of the woodland around the cottage, the woodland was largely destroyed in the Great Storm of 1987. Sweet Chestnuts have now been replanted, however, and are now thriving alongside the established Walnut Grove, Doyle Jones also planted the Copper Beech on Higham Green, close to the farm, to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1952. The couple also owned The Pound which in 1929 became the home of Cedric Morris, on Gribbles death in 1932, the two became the owners. H. He was impressed enough to ask her in 1916 to produce 12 wood engravings for an edition of Cupid and she exhibited in the second exhibition of the Society of Wood Engravers in 1921, and continued to do so until 1925. She also produced the cover vignette for the book and this was a limited edition of 550 copies, Gribble worked with Balston to produce three more books at Duckworth in a similarly luxurious format. The first was a 380 signed copy edition of Sixe Idillia by Theocritus and this was followed in 1923 by Odes by John Keats, in a 170 signed copy edition and in 1924 an edition of 150 signed copy edition of Songs from The Princess by Tennyson. Both the Keats and the Tennyson were also produced in ordinary editions and her final commission was her swan song, in 1926 MacMillan published an edition of Tess of the dUrbervilles by Thomas Hardy with 41 wood engravings by Gribble. There was an edition of 1,500 copies. Her work is represented in national collections, the British Museum, the Central School. Gribbles wood engravings are clearly modern, but in the black line tradition of Edward Gordon Craig and Lucien Pissarro rather than the prevailing white line tradition. She was prominent in the period of modern wood engraving, but her period of activity reflects the lifespan of that modern black line tradition
28.
Julian Royds Gribble
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Capt. Gribble was in command of the right company of the battalion when the enemy attacked, and his orders were to hold on to the last. His company was eventually entirely isolated, though he could easily have withdrawn them at one period when the rest of the battalion on his left were driven back to a secondary position. His right flank was in the air, owing to the withdrawal of all troops of a neighbouring division and his company was eventually surrounded by the enemy at close range, and he was seen fighting to the last. By his splendid example of grit, Capt and he was taken prisoner and died in Germany of pneumonia, aged 21. He is commemorated on the War Memorial at Long Bredy in Dorset, close to Kingston Russell House and his Victoria Cross was destroyed in a house fire and no replacement has been issued. Monuments to Courage The Register of the Victoria Cross VCs of the First World War - Spring Offensive 1918 T/CAPTAIN Julian Royds Gribble
29.
Chelsea, London
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Chelsea is an affluent area in West London, bounded to the south by the River Thames. Its frontage runs from Chelsea Bridge along the Chelsea Embankment, Cheyne Walk, Lots Road and its eastern boundary was once defined by the River Westbourne, which is now in a pipe above Sloane Square tube station. The modern eastern boundary is Chelsea Bridge Road and the half of Sloane Street. To the north and northwest, the area fades into Knightsbridge and Brompton, the football club Chelsea F. C. is based at Stamford Bridge in neighbouring Fulham. From 1900, and until the creation of Greater London in 1965, the exclusivity of Chelsea as a result of its high property prices has historically resulted in the term Sloane Ranger being used to describe its residents. Since 2011, Channel 4 has broadcast a reality show called Made in Chelsea. Moreover, Chelsea is home to one of the largest communities of Americans living outside the United States, the word Chelsea originates from the Old English term for landing place for chalk or limestone. Abbot Gervace subsequently assigned the manor to his mother, and it passed into private ownership, the modern-day Chelsea hosted the Synod of Chelsea in 787 AD. King Henry VIII acquired the manor of Chelsea from Lord Sandys in 1536, in 1609 James I established a theological college, King Jamess College at Chelsey on the site of the future Chelsea Royal Hospital, which Charles II founded in 1682. By 1694, Chelsea – always a popular location for the wealthy, Kings Road, named for Charles II, recalls the Kings private road from St Jamess Palace to Fulham, which was maintained until the reign of George IV. One of the important buildings in Kings Road, the former Chelsea Town Hall. Part of the building contains the Chelsea Public Library and this is no longer the case, although housing trusts and Council property do remain. The areas to the west also attract very high prices and this former fashionable village was absorbed into London during the eighteenth century. Many notable people of 18th century London, such as the bookseller Andrew Millar, were married and buried in the district. The memorials in the churchyard of Chelsea Old Church, near the river and these include Lord and Lady Dacre, Lady Jane Cheyne, Francis Thomas, director of the china porcelain manufactory, Sir Hans Sloane, Thomas Shadwell, Poet Laureate. Sir Thomas Mores tomb can also be found there, in 1718, the Raw Silk Company was established in Chelsea Park, with mulberry trees and a hothouse for raising silkworms. At its height in 1723, it supplied silk to Caroline of Ansbach, Chelsea once had a reputation for the manufacture of Chelsea buns, made from a long strip of sweet dough tightly coiled, with currants trapped between the layers, and topped with sugar. The Chelsea Bun House sold these during the 18th century and was patronised by the Georgian royalty, at Easter, great crowds would assemble on the open spaces of the Five Fields – subsequently developed as Belgravia
30.
Sloane Street
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Sloane Street is a major London street in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea which runs north to south, from Knightsbridge to Sloane Square, crossing Pont Street about halfway along. Sloane Street takes its name from Sir Hans Sloane, who purchased the area in 1712. Many of the properties in the street belong to his descendants the Earls Cadogan. Sloane Street has long been a shopping street, especially the northern section closest to Knightsbridge. Since the 1990s Sloane Streets status has increased further, and it is now on a par with Bond Street, the street has flagship stores for many of the worlds most famous brands in fashion. Sloane Street, along with Sloane Square, also gives its name to Sloane Rangers, during the 1990s, Dubais ruling Al Maktoum family, led by Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, bought most of the properties on the west side of Sloane Street at the Knightsbridge end. The National Bank of Dubai opened its first overseas branch in London to serve the many UAE-based visitors who rent these properties in summer, the Jumeirah Carlton Tower Hotel is owned by the hotels arm of Dubai Holding Company, which is also controlled by Sheikh Mohammed. The northern half of the street is near Knightsbridge and is home to a few smart, more residential blocks, all with 24-hour porterage. Harrods lies next to Hans Place immediately to the west along Basil Street and Hans Crescent, harvey Nichols lies at the corner of Knightsbridge and Sloane Street. In the most exclusive area of the street, which is between Sloane Square and Cadogan Place, some of the residences have remained as whole houses. Properties in this area have sold in early 2007 for in excess of £2,500 per square foot on long leases. Notable buildings include Holy Trinity Sloane Street by the Victorian architect J. D. Sedding, the Danish Embassy designed by Arne Jacobsen, northern half, Southern half, sloanestreet. co. uk sloane-street. co. uk Sloane Street west Sloane Street east
31.
Belgravia
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Belgravia is a district in West London in the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. It is noted for its very expensive residential properties and is one of the wealthiest districts in the world, much of it, known as the Grosvenor Estate, is still owned by a family property company, the Duke of Westminsters Grosvenor Group. The area takes its name one of the Dukes subsidiary titles. Owing to the Leasehold Reform Act 1967, the estate has been forced to sell many freeholds to its erstwhile tenants, the area takes its name from one of the Duke of Westminsters subsidiary titles, Viscount Belgrave. The village of Belgrave, Cheshire is two miles from the Grosvenor familys main seat of Eaton Hall. Most of the area was owned by Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster. Thomas Cubitt was the main contractor, Belgravia is characterised by grand terraces of white stucco houses, and is focused on Belgrave Square and Eaton Square. It was one of Londons most fashionable residential districts from its beginnings, fashion design houses that have their retail flagship stores and studios within the area include Philip Treacy, Donna Ida, Jenny Packham and HEMYCA. On the southern edge of Belgravia is Pimlico Road, renowned for its antique shops and high-end furniture. It is a quiet district in the heart of London, contrasting with neighbouring districts. Many embassies are located in the area, especially in Belgrave Square and this phenomenon has diminished social relations in the neighbourhood. Belgrave Square, one of the grandest and largest 19th century squares, is the centrepiece of Belgravia and it was laid out by the property contractor Thomas Cubitt for the 2nd Earl Grosvenor, later to be the 1st Marquess of Westminster, in the 1820s. Most of the houses were occupied by 1840, the numbering is anti-clockwise from the north, NW terrace Nos.1 to 11, west corner mansion No. 12, SW terrace 13–23, south corner mansion No,24, SE terrace Nos. 25–36, east corner mansion No. There is also a later detached house at the northern corner. 49, which was built in by Cubitt for Sidney Herbert in 1851, the terraces were designed by George Basevi and are possibly the grandest houses ever built in London on a speculative basis. The largest of the mansions, Seaford House in the east corner, was designed by Philip Hardwick. Eaton Square is larger but less grand than the feature of the district, Belgrave Square
32.
Platanus
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Platanus /ˈplætənəs/ is a genus consisting of a small number of tree species native to the Northern Hemisphere. They are the living members of the family Platanaceae. All members of Platanus are tall, reaching 30–50 m in height, all except for P. kerrii are deciduous, and most are found in riparian or other wetland habitats in the wild, though proving drought-tolerant in cultivation. The hybrid London plane has proved tolerant of urban conditions. They are often known in English as planes or plane trees, some North American species are called sycamores, although the term sycamore also refers to the fig Ficus sycomorus, the plant originally so named, and to the Sycamore maple Acer pseudoplatanus. The flowers are reduced and are borne in balls, 3–7 hairy sepals may be fused at the base, male and female flowers are separate, but borne on the same plant. The number of heads in one cluster is indicative of the species, the male flower has 3–8 stamens, the female has a superior ovary with 3–7 carpels. Male flower-heads fall off after shedding their pollen, after being pollinated, the female flowers become achenes that form an aggregate ball. The fruit is a multiple of achenes, typically, the core of the ball is 1 cm in diameter and is covered with a net of mesh 1 mm, which can be peeled off. The ball is 2. 5–4 cm in diameter and contains several hundred achenes, each of which has a seed and is conical. There is also a tuft of many thin stiff yellow-green bristle fibers attached to the base of each achene and these bristles help in wind dispersion of the fruits as in the dandelion. The leaves are simple and alternate, in the subgenus Platanus they have a palmate outline. The base of the stalk is enlarged and completely wraps around the young stem bud in its axil. The axillary bud is exposed only after the leaf falls off, the mature bark peels off or exfoliates easily in irregularly shaped patches, producing a mottled, scaly appearance. On old trunks, bark may not flake off, but thickens, within subgenus Platanus, genetic evidence suggests that P. racemosa is more closely related to P. orientalis than it is to the other North American species. There are fossil records of plane trees as early as 115 million years, despite the geographic separation between North America and Old World, species from these continents will cross readily resulting in fertile hybrids such as the London plane. The following are recognized species of trees, Planes are susceptible to plane anthracnose. The most severe infections are associated with cold, wet spring weather, P. occidentalis and the other American species are the most susceptible, with P. orientalis the most resistant
33.
Chestnut
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The chestnut group is a genus of eight or nine species of deciduous trees and shrubs in the beech family Fagaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce, Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae, which also includes oaks and beeches. Unrelated but externally similar species of horse chestnut are abundant around Europe, other trees commonly mistaken for chestnut trees are the chestnut oak and the American beech, both of which are also in Fagaceae. The name chestnut is derived from an earlier English term chesten nut, the name Castanea is probably derived from the old name for the sweet chestnut, either in Latin or in Ancient Greek. Another possible source of the name is the town of Kastania in Thessaly, Greece, more probable, in the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the trees growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops and they grow so abundantly there, their presence would have determined the places name. Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of Sardis glans – Sardis being the capital of Lydia, Asia Minor, the name is cited twice in the King James Version of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock. Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates the fruit was a staple food in the early 17th century. These synonyms are or have been in use, Fagus castanea, Sardian nut, Jupiters nut, husked nut, Chestnut trees are of moderate growth rate to fast-growing for American and European species. Their mature heights vary from the smallest species of chinkapins, often shrubby, to the giant of past American forests, C. dentata that could reach 60 m. Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut at 10 m average, followed by the Chinese chestnut at about 15 m, when standing on their own, they spread on the sides and develop broad, rounded, dense crowns at maturity. The two latters foliage has striking yellow autumn colouring and its bark is smooth when young, of a vinous maroon or red-brown colour for the American chestnut, grey for the European chestnut. The leaves are simple, ovate or lanceolate, 10–30 cm long and 4–10 cm wide, with sharply pointed, the flowers follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer or into July. They are arranged in long catkins of two kinds, with both kinds being borne on every tree, some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight stamens, or 10 to 12 for C. mollissima, the ripe pollen carries a heavy, sweet odour that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near the twig from which these spring, two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly calybium, which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or husk, covering the fruits. Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination, all Castanea species readily hybridize with each other
34.
Tilia
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Tilia is a genus of about 30 species of trees native throughout most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Commonly called lime trees in the British Isles, they are not related to the lime fruit, other names include linden, and basswood for the North American species. The genus occurs in Europe and eastern North America, but the greatest species diversity is found in Asia, Tilia species are mostly large, deciduous trees, reaching typically 20 to 40 metres tall, with oblique-cordate leaves 6 to 20 centimetres across. As with elms, the number of species is uncertain, as many if not most of the species will hybridise readily. Limes are hermaphroditic, having perfect flowers with male and female parts, pollinated by insects. The genus is called lime or linden in Britain and linden, lime. Within Germanic languages, English lithe, German lind lenient, yielding are from the same root, neither the name nor the tree is related to the citrus fruit called lime. Another common name used in North America is basswood, derived from bast, teil is an old name for the lime tree. Latin tilia is cognate to Greek πτελέᾱ, ptelea, elm tree, τιλίαι, tiliai, black poplar, ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European word *ptel-ei̯ā with a meaning of broad, perhaps broad-leaved or similar. The Tilias sturdy trunk stands like a pillar and the divide and subdivide into numerous ramifications on which the twigs are fine. In summer, these are profusely clothed with large leaves and the result is a head of abundant foliage. The flowers of the European and American Tilia species are similar, except the American bears a petal-like scale among its stamens, all of the Tilia species may be propagated by cuttings and grafting, as well as by seed. They grow rapidly in rich soil, but are subject to the attack of many insects, Tilia is notoriously difficult to propagate from seed unless collected fresh in the fall. If allowed to dry, the seeds will go into a deep dormancy, cars left under the trees can quickly become coated with a film of the syrup thus dropped from higher up. The ant/aphid farming process does not appear to any serious damage to the trees. In Europe, some linden trees reached considerable ages, a coppice of T. cordata in Westonbirt Arboretum in Gloucestershire is estimated to be 2,000 years old. In the courtyard of the Imperial Castle at Nuremberg is a Tilia which, by tradition recounted in 1900, was planted by the Empress Cunigunde, the Tilia of Neuenstadt am Kocher in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, was estimated at 1000 years old when it fell. The Alte Linde tree of Naters, Switzerland, is mentioned in a document in 1357, a plaque at its foot mentions that in 1155 a linden tree was already on this spot
35.
Historic England
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Historic England is an executive non-departmental public body of the British Government sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. It is tasked with protecting the environment of England by preserving and listing historic buildings, ancient monuments. The body was created by the National Heritage Act 1983. Historic England has a remit to and complements the work of Natural England which aims to protect the natural environment. Historic England inherits English Heritages position as the UK governments statutory adviser and this includes archaeology on land and under water, historic buildings sites and areas, designated landscapes and the historic elements of the wider landscape. It monitors and reports on the state of Englands heritage and publishes the annual the Heritage at Risk survey which is one of the UK Governments Official statistics and it is tasked to secure the preservation and enhancement of the man-made heritage of England for the benefit of future generations. Giving grants national and local organisations for the conservation of buildings, monuments. In 2013/14 over £13 million worth of grants were made to support heritage buildings, advising central UK government on which English heritage assets are nationally important and should be protected by designation. Administering and maintaining the register of Englands listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered battlefields, conservation areas and protected parks and this is published as an online resource as The National Heritage List for England. Advising local authorities on managing changes to the most important parts of heritage, providing expertise through advice, training and guidance to improve the standards and skills of people working in heritage, practical conservation and access to resources. In 2009–2010 it trained around 200 professionals working in local authorities, consulting and collaborating with other heritage bodies, local and national planning organisations e. g. It is not responsible for approving alterations to listed buildings, the management of listed buildings is the responsibility of local planning authorities and the Department for Communities and Local Government. It also owns the National Heritage Collection of nationally important historic sites, however they do not run these sites as this function is instead carried out by the English Heritage Trust under licence until 2023. Britain from Above, presents the unique Aerofilms collection of photographs from 1919-1953. Images of England website Heritage Explorer, Education site for teachers Department for Culture Media and Sport
36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
37.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
38.
Albertopolis
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Albertopolis is the nickname given to the area centred on Exhibition Road in London, England, named after Prince Albert, spouse of Queen Victoria. It contains a number of educational and cultural sites. It is in South Kensington, split between the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and the City of Westminster, and the area bordered by Cromwell Road to the south, Royal School of Naval Architecture, from 1864 to 1873. Royal School of Needlework, from 1903 to 1987, Imperial Institute, later Commonwealth Institute, from 1893 to 1962. This is commemorated in the name of the principal north-south street laid out on their estate, after his death the term fell into disuse, and the area was more widely referred to as South Kensington. Among the buildings threatened was the Imperial Institute, designed by T. E. Collcutt, there is a central axis between the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens to the north and the central portal of the south façade of the Natural History Museum. The closest tube station is South Kensington, linked to the museums by a tunnel beneath Exhibition Road constructed in 1885. Originally published by the Athlone Press for the Greater London Council,1975, available online as part of British History Online. Walking tour of Albertopolis Podcast, PDF and map
39.
Bayswater
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Bayswater is an area within the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in central London. It is a district located 2.5 miles west-north-west of Charing Cross, bordering the north of Kensington Gardens. Bayswater is one of Londons most cosmopolitan areas, a local population is augmented by a high concentration of hotels. There is also a significant Arab community present here, the area has attractive streets and garden squares lined with Victorian stucco terraces, mostly now subdivided into flats and boarding houses. The property ranges from very expensive apartments to small studio flats, Queensway and Westbourne Grove are its busiest main streets, both having many ethnic-cuisine restaurants. In 1720, the lands of the Dean and Chapter are described to be the occupation of Alexander Bond, of Bears Watering, after their divorce in 1975 Catherine married jazzman Chris Barber. Trudie Styler, now his wife, lived in a basement flat two doors down, luigi Sturzo Catholic priest and politician. One of the fathers of Christian democracy and a founder of the Italian Peoples Party John Tenniel, artist and cartoonist, was born at 22 Gloucester Place, New Road, Bayswater on 28 February 1820. The Bayswater area elects a total of six councillors to Westminster City Council, currently, all six are of the Conservative Party, with the Bayswater Ward showing a more than 250-vote Conservative majority and Lancaster Gate being a safe Conservative ward. Paddington Notting Hill St Johns Wood Knightsbridge Little Venice Kensington The nearest London Underground stations are Bayswater, Queensway, Paddington, Royal Oak, in le Carrés Smileys People, the retired Russian major lives in a dingy flat on Westbourne Grove. Many of the characters in Samuel Selvons novel The Lonely Londoners live in Bayswater, the Alfred Hitchcock film Frenzy was filmed in the area. In Martin Amiss Success, the two characters live together in a flat in Bayswater, which he calls the district of transients. In Oscar Wildes The Importance of Being Earnest, Lady Bracknell indicates that the perambulator was found standing by itself in a corner of Bayswater. In Sakis short story Cross Currents, Vanessa Pennington lives on a Bayswater back street, in Evelyn Waughs novel Brideshead Revisited, Charles Ryders father lives in Bayswater. Whiteleys is frequently seen in film, e. g. Love Actually, Closer and it also has Princess Productions studios on the top floor. Scenes in Alfie were filmed around Chepstow Road, the main character in Iris Murdochs novel A Word Child, Hilary Burde, has a flatlet near Bayswater Tube Station. Scenes in The Black Windmill refer to, and were filmed around, in the Italian comics series Dylan Dog the main character lives in Craven Road. Nick Jenkins meets Uncle Giles for tea at the Ufford Hotel, riding at anchor on the sluggish Bayswater tide, in The Acceptance World, the Poisonous Seed a novel by Linda Stratmann is set almost entirely in Victorian Bayswater
