1.
Killyleagh
–
Killyleagh is a village and civil parish in County Down, Northern Ireland. It is on the A22 road from Downpatrick, on the side of Strangford Lough. It had a population of 2,483 people in the 2001 Census and it is best known for its 12th century Killyleagh Castle. Killyleagh lies within the Down District Council area and the Strangford Constituency area, Killyleagh is classified as an intermediate settlement by the NI Statistics and Research Agency. On Census day there were 2,483 people living in Killyleagh and it is a private family home, claimed to be the oldest inhabited castle in Ireland. In the past performers have included Van Morrison, Arlo Guthrie, Jackson Browne, Glen Hansard, delamont Country Park is just outside Killyleagh on the road to Downpatrick. Killyleagh Youth F. C. play association football in the Northern Amateur Football League and it was the birthplace of Hans Sloane. He began collecting plants and birds eggs on the shores of Strangford Lough and he was also personal physician to King George II. Killyleaghs adjacent townland, Moymore, was the birthplace of William Carr and his statue in Belfast, standing outside the Royal Belfast Academical Institution, is known as The Black Man. Killyleagh is the town of David Healy, the retired Northern Ireland football player. Healy is Northern Irelands record goalscorer by a distance, with 36 goals. The second highest total is 13 goals and he also holds the record for most goals scored in a European Championship Qualifying Phase, with 13 goals during the countrys failed bid to reach Euro 2008. Healys former Bury teammate Trevor Carson is also from Killyleagh, the present Duke of York, HRH The Prince Andrew, also has the title Baron Killyleagh. Robert Lowry, born in Killyleagh, emigrated to the USA and became a judge, thomas L. Young, born in Killyleagh, served as Governor of Ohio from 1877 to 1878. Killyleagh is twinned with Cleveland, North Carolina, USA, the civil parish is mainly in the barony of Dufferin, with one townland in the barony of Castlereagh Upper. It also contains the village of Killyleagh, the civil parish contains the following townlands, Market houses in Northern Ireland List of civil parishes of County Down Killyleagh Primary School BBC Northern Exposure Brief History of Killyleagh
2.
County Down
–
County Down is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland, situated in the northeast of the island of Ireland. Adjoined to the southeast shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 2,448 km² and has a population of about 531,665 and it is also one of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland and is within the province of Ulster. The county was archaically called Downshire and it borders County Antrim to the north, the Irish Sea to the east and south, County Armagh to the west, and County Louth across Carlingford Lough to the southwest. In the east of the county is Strangford Lough and the Ards Peninsula, the largest town is Bangor, on the northeast coast. Three other large towns and cities are on its border, Newry lies on the border with County Armagh, while Lisburn. Down contains both the southernmost point of Northern Ireland and the easternmost point of Ireland and it is currently one of only two counties of Ireland to have a majority of the population from a Protestant background, according to the 2001 census. The other is County Antrim to the north, during the Williamite War in Ireland the county was a centre of Protestant rebellion against the rule of the Catholic James II. After forming a force the Protestants were defeated by the Irish Army at the Break of Dromore and forced to retreat. Later the same year Marshal Schombergs large Williamite expedition arrived in Belfast Lough, after laying siege to Carrickfergus Schomberg marched south to Dundalk Camp, clearing County Down and much of the rest of East Ulster of Jacobite troops. Down contains two significant peninsulas, Ards Peninsula and Lecale peninsula, the county has a coastline along Belfast Lough to the north and Carlingford Lough to the south. Strangford Lough lies between the Ards Peninsula and the mainland, down also contains part of the shore of Lough Neagh. Smaller loughs include Lough Island Reavy, the River Lagan forms most of the border with County Antrim. The River Bann also flows through the areas of the county. Other rivers include the Clanrye and Quoile, there are several islands off the Down coast, Mew Island, Light House Island and the Copeland Islands, all of which lie to the north of the Ards Peninsula. Gunn Island lies off the Lecale coast, in addition there are a large number of small islands in Strangford Lough. County Down is where, in the words of the song by Percy French, The mountains of Mourne sweep down to the sea. Slieve Donard, at 849 m, is the highest peak in the Mournes, in Northern Ireland, another important peak is Slieve Croob, at 534 m, the source of the River Lagan. An area of County Down is known as the Brontë Homeland, after Patrick Brontë, father of Anne, Charlotte, Emily, Patrick Brontë was born in this region
3.
Chelsea, London
–
Chelsea is an affluent area in West London, bounded to the south by the River Thames. Its frontage runs from Chelsea Bridge along the Chelsea Embankment, Cheyne Walk, Lots Road and its eastern boundary was once defined by the River Westbourne, which is now in a pipe above Sloane Square tube station. The modern eastern boundary is Chelsea Bridge Road and the half of Sloane Street. To the north and northwest, the area fades into Knightsbridge and Brompton, the football club Chelsea F. C. is based at Stamford Bridge in neighbouring Fulham. From 1900, and until the creation of Greater London in 1965, the exclusivity of Chelsea as a result of its high property prices has historically resulted in the term Sloane Ranger being used to describe its residents. Since 2011, Channel 4 has broadcast a reality show called Made in Chelsea. Moreover, Chelsea is home to one of the largest communities of Americans living outside the United States, the word Chelsea originates from the Old English term for landing place for chalk or limestone. Abbot Gervace subsequently assigned the manor to his mother, and it passed into private ownership, the modern-day Chelsea hosted the Synod of Chelsea in 787 AD. King Henry VIII acquired the manor of Chelsea from Lord Sandys in 1536, in 1609 James I established a theological college, King Jamess College at Chelsey on the site of the future Chelsea Royal Hospital, which Charles II founded in 1682. By 1694, Chelsea – always a popular location for the wealthy, Kings Road, named for Charles II, recalls the Kings private road from St Jamess Palace to Fulham, which was maintained until the reign of George IV. One of the important buildings in Kings Road, the former Chelsea Town Hall. Part of the building contains the Chelsea Public Library and this is no longer the case, although housing trusts and Council property do remain. The areas to the west also attract very high prices and this former fashionable village was absorbed into London during the eighteenth century. Many notable people of 18th century London, such as the bookseller Andrew Millar, were married and buried in the district. The memorials in the churchyard of Chelsea Old Church, near the river and these include Lord and Lady Dacre, Lady Jane Cheyne, Francis Thomas, director of the china porcelain manufactory, Sir Hans Sloane, Thomas Shadwell, Poet Laureate. Sir Thomas Mores tomb can also be found there, in 1718, the Raw Silk Company was established in Chelsea Park, with mulberry trees and a hothouse for raising silkworms. At its height in 1723, it supplied silk to Caroline of Ansbach, Chelsea once had a reputation for the manufacture of Chelsea buns, made from a long strip of sweet dough tightly coiled, with currants trapped between the layers, and topped with sugar. The Chelsea Bun House sold these during the 18th century and was patronised by the Georgian royalty, at Easter, great crowds would assemble on the open spaces of the Five Fields – subsequently developed as Belgravia
4.
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
5.
Chelsea Old Church
–
The Chelsea Old Church, also known as All Saints, is an Anglican church, on Old Church Street, Chelsea, London SW3, England, near Albert Bridge. It is the church for a parish in the Diocese of London, inside, there is seating for 400 people. There is a plaque to the author Henry James who lived nearby on Cheyne Walk. To the west of the church is a public garden containing a sculpture by Jacob Epstein. Chelsea Old Church dates from 1157, formerly it was the parish church of Chelsea when it was a village, before it was engulfed by London. The building originally consisted of a 13th-century chancel with chapels to the north and south, the one to the north was called the Lawrence Chapel and was owned by Chelseas Lord of the Manor. The chapel to the south was rebuilt in 1528 as Sir Thomas Mores private chapel, the date can be found on one of the capitals of the pillars leading to the chancel, which were reputedly designed by Holbein. There is a statue by Leslie Cubitt Bevis of More outside the church, there is a 1669 memorial to Lady Jane Cheyne. It was designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini but executed by an apprentice and it is the only London church to have chained books. They are the gift of Hans Sloane and consist of the so-called Vinegar Bible of 1717, the church appears in several paintings by James McNeill Whistler and J. M. W. Turner, in all cases more than a white dot. For example, the church was depicted in the background of Whistlers Nocturne, Blue and Gold - Old Battersea Bridge, the church suffered severe bombing during the Blitz of the Second World War in 1941, with the More Chapel least affected. Services were held in the hospital for nine years. In 1950 the More Chapel was reopened, followed by the chancel and Lawrence Chapel in May 1954, in May 1958, the entire church was reconsecrated by the Bishop of London, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother. The Church has been restored in its entirety on its old foundations and it looks quite different from the way it did before World War II, as it is now clad in red brick, whereas it was previously a white building. The brickwork was necessary because so much was destroyed, some of the tombs inside have been reconstructed, almost like jigsaw puzzles. In 1978, Jack Leslau wrote an article in The Ricardian suggesting that one of the Princes in the Tower survived, namely Edward V of England and his evidence depends on a complicated interpretation of a painting by Hans Holbein the Younger. Leslaus website expands on this thesis, but no major academic institution endorses the thesis, the social reformer Catherine Courtney, Baroness Courtney of Penwith, is buried in the church
6.
Chelsea Physic Garden
–
The Chelsea Physic Garden was established as the Apothecaries’ Garden in London, England, in 1673. This physic garden is the second oldest botanical garden in Britain, after the University of Oxford Botanic Garden and its rock garden is the oldest English garden devoted to alpine plants. The largest fruiting olive tree in Britain is there, protected by the garden’s heat-trapping high brick walls, jealously guarded during the tenure of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, in 1983 the Garden became a registered charity and was opened to the general public for the first time. The garden is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine, the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries initially established the garden on a leased site of Sir John Danvers’ well-established garden in Chelsea, London. This house, called Danvers House, adjoined the mansion that had once been the house of Sir Thomas More, Danvers House was pulled down in 1696 to make room for Danvers Street. That initiated the golden age of the Chelsea Physic Garden under the direction of Philip Miller and its seed-exchange program was established following a visit in 1682 from Paul Hermann, a Dutch botanist connected with the Hortus Botanicus Leiden and has lasted till the present day. The seed exchange program’s most notable act may have been the introduction of cotton into the colony of Georgia and more recently, elizabeth Blackwell’s A Curious Herbal was illustrated partly from specimens taken from the Chelsea Physic Garden. Sir Joseph Banks worked with the gardener and curator John Fairbairn during the 1780–1814 period. Fairbairn specialized in growing and cultivating plants from around the world, what remains is a 3.5 acres patch in the heart of London. The present chairman of the trust which operates the garden is Michael Prideaux, Chelsea Physic Garden website London official visitor guide, Retrieved 30 December 2013
7.
British Museum
–
The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
8.
Royal Society
–
Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
9.
Sloane Square
–
The area forms a boundary between the two largest aristocratic estates in London, the Grosvenor Estate and the Cadogan. The square was known as Hans Town, laid out in 1771 to a plan of by Henry Holland Snr. Both the square and Hans Town were named after Sir Hans Sloane, the square lies at the east end of Kings Road and at the south end of the more conventionally smart Sloane Street linking to Knightsbridge. In the early 1980s, it lent its name to the Sloane Rangers, on the northern side of the square is the Sloane Square Hotel. The square has two notable buildings, the building was carefully restored 2003-2007 with internal upgrading in line with the original designs by John McAslan and Partners. This included making the three storey atrium full-height, Peter Jones now operates as part of the employee-owned John Lewis chain. The other is the Royal Court Theatre first opened in 1888 which was important for avant-garde theatre in the 1960s and 1970s when the home of the English Stage Company. 100m from the Square in Sloane Terrace, the former Christian Science Church was built in 1907 and it is now one of Londons leading classical music venues. In 2005 revised landscaping of the square was proposed, involving a change to the layout to make it more pedestrian friendly. One option was to create a central crossroads and two spaces in front of Peter Jones and the Royal Court. The pedestrian area leading to Pavilion Road now houses the flagship stores of many brands including Brora. This option was put out to consultation, and the results in April 2007 showed that over 65% of respondents preferred a renovation of the existing square, since then, independent proposals have been put forward for the square. A short walk down Kings Road from the Square is the National Army Museum, holy Trinity Sloane Street, the Church of England parish church of 1890 is sometimes known as the Cathedral of the Arts & Crafts Movement on account of its fine fittings. These include a set of windows by Sir Edward Burne-Jones. Sloane Square Underground station is at the eastern corner of the square. The River Westbourne is carried over the station platforms in plain view. The Venus Fountain in the centre of the square was constructed in 1953, in 2006, David Lammy put forward a proposal to have the fountain grade II listed, which was successful. This square is mentioned by Morrissey in his song Hairdresser on Fire, in the Doctor Who film Daleks – Invasion Earth,2150 A. D. the Dalek spaceship lands in Sloane Square amidst the ruins of 22nd century London
10.
Hot chocolate
–
Hot chocolate, also known as hot cocoa, drinking chocolate or just cocoa is a heated beverage consisting of shaved chocolate, melted chocolate or cocoa powder, heated milk or water, and often sugar. Hot chocolate may be topped with whipped cream, hot chocolate made with melted chocolate is sometimes called drinking chocolate, characterized by less sweetness and a thicker consistency. The first chocolate beverage is believed to have created by the Maya around 2,000 years ago. The beverage became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then, until the 19th century, hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases. Prepared hot chocolate can be purchased from a range of establishments, including cafeterias, fast food restaurants, powdered hot chocolate mixes, which can be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home, are sold at grocery stores. An early Classic period Mayan tomb from the site of Rio Azul, to make the chocolate drink, which was served cold, the Maya ground cocoa seeds into a paste and mixed it with water, cornmeal, chili peppers, and other ingredients. They then poured the drink back and forth from a cup to a pot until a thick foam developed, Chocolate was available to Maya of all social classes, although the wealthy drank chocolate from elaborately decorated vessels. What the Spaniards then called chocolatl was said to be a beverage consisting of a chocolate flavored with vanilla. Because sugar was yet to come to the Americas, xocolatl was said to be an acquired taste, the drink tasted spicy and bitter as opposed to sweetened modern hot chocolate. As to when xocolatl was first served hot, sources conflict on when, yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolate, at this time, chocolate still only existed in the bitter drink invented by the Mayas. Sweet hot chocolate and bar chocolate were yet to be invented, after its introduction to Europe, the drink slowly gained popularity. The court of King Charles V soon adopted the drink, additionally, cocoa was given as a dowry when members of the Spanish Royal Family married other European aristocrats. At the time, chocolate was very expensive in Europe because the cocoa beans only grew in South America, sweet-tasting hot chocolate was then invented, leading hot chocolate to become a luxury item among the European nobility by the 17th century. Even when the first Chocolate House opened in 1657, chocolate was very expensive. In the late 17th century, Hans Sloane, president of the Royal College of Physicians, there, he tried chocolate and considered it nauseous, but found it became more palatable when mixed with milk. When he returned to England, he brought the recipe with him, in 1828, Coenraad Johannes van Houten developed the first cocoa powder producing machine in the Netherlands. The press separated the greasy cocoa butter from cacao seeds, leaving a purer chocolate powder behind and this powder, much like instant cocoa powder used today, was easier to stir into milk and water
11.
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
12.
Collecting
–
The hobby of collecting includes seeking, locating, acquiring, organizing, cataloging, displaying, storing, and maintaining whatever items are of interest to the individual collector. The scope of collecting is unlimited, which is expressed in the expression, If something exists. The most obvious way to categorise collections is by the type of objects collected, most collections are of manufactured commercial items, but natural objects such as birds eggs, butterflies, rocks, and seashells can also be the subject of a collection. Some collectors may not a specific type of object, but instead objects with specific properties, for example. Among collections of manufactured items, the objects may be antique, antiques are collectible items at least 100 years old, while collectibles can be arbitrarily recent. Collectors and dealers may use the vintage to describe older collectibles. Items which were once everyday objects but may now be collectible since almost all those once produced have been destroyed or discarded are called ephemera, philately, phillumeny, and deltiology are forms of collecting which can be undertaken at minimal expense. Some collectors are generalists with very broad criteria for inclusion, while others focus on a subtopic within their area of interest, the monetary value of objects is important to some collectors but irrelevant to others. Some collectors maintain objects in pristine condition, while others use the items they collect, collecting is for some people a childhood hobby, but for others a lifelong pursuit or one that begins in adulthood. Collectors who begin early in life often modify their aims when they get older, the emergence of the internet as a global forum for different collectors has resulted in many isolated enthusiasts finding each other. Collecting is a practice with an old cultural history. The Egyptian Ptolemaic dynasty collected books from all over the world at the Library of Alexandria. The collecting hobby is a descendant of the cabinet of curiosities which was common among scholars with the means. Planned collecting of ephemeral publications goes back at least to George Thomason in the reign of Charles I, collecting engravings and other prints by those whose means did not allow them to buy original works of art also goes back many centuries. The involvement of larger numbers of people in collecting activities comes with the prosperity and that is when collecting such items as antique china, furniture and decorative items from oriental countries becomes established. The retail price of a collectible is valid only at the moment it was purchased, once the collectible comes into the buyer’s possession, its value is linked to what is called the secondary market. There is no market for an item unless someone is willing to buy it. Depending on various factors, individuals, auctioneers, and secondary retailers may sell a collectible for more and these factors include, but are not limited to, condition, age, supply, and demand
13.
British Library
–
The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom and the second largest library in the world by number of items catalogued. It holds well over 150 million items from many countries, as a legal deposit library, the British Library receives copies of all books produced in the United Kingdom and Ireland, including a significant proportion of overseas titles distributed in the UK. The Library is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. The Librarys collections include around 14 million books, along with holdings of manuscripts. In addition to receiving a copy of every publication produced in the UK and Ireland, the Library adds some three million items every year occupying 9.6 kilometres of new shelf space. Prior to 1973, the Library was part of the British Museum, the Euston Road building is classified as a Grade I listed building, of exceptional interest for its architecture and history. The British Library was created on 1 July 1973 as a result of the British Library Act 1972. Prior to this, the library was part of the British Museum. In 1983, the Library absorbed the National Sound Archive, which holds many sound and video recordings, with over a million discs, the core of the Librarys historical collections is based on a series of donations and acquisitions from the 18th century, known as the foundation collections. From 1997 to 2009 the main collection was housed in this new building. Construction work on the Newspaper Storage Building was completed in 2013, the collection has now been split between the St Pancras and Boston Spa sites. The British Library Document Supply Service and the Librarys Document Supply Collection is based on the site in Boston Spa. Collections housed in Yorkshire, comprising low-use material and the newspaper and Document Supply collections, the Library previously had a book storage depot in Woolwich, south-east London, which is no longer in use. The new library was designed specially for the purpose by the architect Colin St John Wilson, facing Euston Road is a large piazza that includes pieces of public art, such as large sculptures by Eduardo Paolozzi and Antony Gormley. It is the largest public building constructed in the United Kingdom in the 20th century, in December 2009 a new storage building at Boston Spa was opened by Rosie Winterton. The building was Grade I listed on 1 August 2015, in England, Legal Deposit can be traced back to at least 1610. The other five libraries are, the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the University Library at Cambridge, the Trinity College Library at Dublin, in 2003 the Ipswich MP Chris Mole introduced a Private Members Bill which became the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003. The Act extends United Kingdom legal deposit requirements to electronic documents, such as CD-ROMs, the Library also holds the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections which include the India Office Records and materials in the languages of Asia and of north and north-east Africa
14.
Natural History Museum, London
–
The Natural History Museum in London is a museum of natural history that exhibits a vast range of specimens from various segments of natural history. It is one of three major museums on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, the others being the Science Museum, the Natural History Museums main frontage, however, is on Cromwell Road. The museum is home to life and earth science specimens comprising some 80 million items within five main collections, botany, the museum is a world-renowned centre of research specialising in taxonomy, identification and conservation. Given the age of the institution, many of the collections have great historical as well as scientific value, the museum is recognised as the pre-eminent centre of natural history and research of related fields in the world. Although commonly referred to as the Natural History Museum, it was known as British Museum until 1992. Originating from collections within the British Museum, the landmark Alfred Waterhouse building was built and opened by 1881, the Darwin Centre is a more recent addition, partly designed as a modern facility for storing the valuable collections. Like other publicly funded museums in the United Kingdom, the Natural History Museum does not charge an admission fee. The museum is a charity and a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge is a patron of the museum, there are approximately 850 staff at the Museum. The two largest strategic groups are the Public Engagement Group and Science Group and this purchase was funded by a lottery. Sloanes collection, which included dried plants, and animal and human skeletons, was housed in Montagu House, Bloomsbury, in 1756. Most of the Sloane collection had disappeared by the decades of the nineteenth century. Dr George Shaw sold many specimens to the Royal College of Surgeons and had periodic cremations of material in the grounds of the museum and his successors also applied to the trustees for permission to destroy decayed specimens. In 1833 the Annual Report states that, of the 5,500 insects listed in the Sloane catalogue, the inability of the natural history departments to conserve its specimens became notorious, the Treasury refused to entrust it with specimens collected at the governments expense. The huge collection of the conchologist Hugh Cuming was acquired by the museum and that collection is said never to have recovered. The Principal Librarian at the time was Antonio Panizzi, his contempt for the history departments. The general public was not encouraged to visit the Museums natural history exhibits, in 1835 to a Select Committee of Parliament, Sir Henry Ellis said this policy was fully approved by the Principal Librarian and his senior colleagues. Many of these faults were corrected by the palaeontologist Richard Owen and his changes led Bill Bryson to write that by making the Natural History Museum an institution for everyone, Owen transformed our expectations of what museums are for
15.
Hans Place
–
Hans Place is a garden square in central London, immediately south of Harrods in Knightsbridge, SW1. It is named after Sir Hans Sloane, 1st Baronet, PRS, physician and collector, notable for his bequest, which became the foundation of the British Museum. Hans Place dates from the 1770s, when the architect Henry Holland leased 89 acres from Earl Cadogan, the octagonal shape of the square is thought to have been modelled on the Place Vendôme in Paris. Horwood’s Maps of 1799 and 1813 confirm that, with the exception of Nos. 55–56, all of the lots had been developed by the first edition, and that the final two houses were complete by the second. The houses were let on 99-year leases, and apart from modernisation from time to time, numbers 14,16, 17–22 and 23–27 Hans Place are all Grade II listed for their architectural merit. Jane Austen resided at 23 Hans Place, letitia Elizabeth Landon, the poet LEL, lived on the top floor of 22 Hans Place between 1826 and 1837. She was born at No.25 in 1802,22 Hans Place formed the headquarters of the 1921 Irish Treaty delegation. Hans Place was the scene of a murder in 1983, when actor Peter Arne was battered to death in his flat, in the south-east corner at 17 Hans Place is the headmasters office of Hill House School, where Prince Charles and Lily Allen were pupils. Hans Place now represents one of the most sought after addresses in Chelsea. The communal garden is 0.4346 hectares in size and contains mature plane, chesnut, and lime trees, the garden is listed Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. It is not open to the public
16.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
17.
Northern Ireland
–
Northern Ireland is a constituent unit of the United Kingdom in the north-east of Ireland. It is variously described as a country, province, region, or part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 2011, its population was 1,810,863, constituting about 30% of the total population. Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland by an act of the British parliament, Northern Ireland has historically been the most industrialised region of Ireland. After declining as a result of the political and social turmoil of the Troubles, its economy has grown significantly since the late 1990s. Unemployment in Northern Ireland peaked at 17. 2% in 1986, dropping to 6. 1% for June–August 2014,58. 2% of those unemployed had been unemployed for over a year. Prominent artists and sports persons from Northern Ireland include Van Morrison, Rory McIlroy, Joey Dunlop, Wayne McCullough, some people from Northern Ireland prefer to identify as Irish while others prefer to identify as British. Cultural links between Northern Ireland, the rest of Ireland, and the rest of the UK are complex, in many sports, the island of Ireland fields a single team, a notable exception being association football. Northern Ireland competes separately at the Commonwealth Games, and people from Northern Ireland may compete for either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympic Games. The region that is now Northern Ireland was the bedrock of the Irish war of resistance against English programmes of colonialism in the late 16th century, the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland had been declared by the English king Henry VIII in 1542, but Irish resistance made English control fragmentary. Victories by English forces in war and further Protestant victories in the Williamite War in Ireland toward the close of the 17th century solidified Anglican rule in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the victories of the Siege of Derry and their intention was to materially disadvantage the Catholic community and, to a lesser extent, the Presbyterian community. In the context of open institutional discrimination, the 18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in communities in the region and act on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. Following this, in an attempt to quell sectarianism and force the removal of discriminatory laws, the new state, formed in 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was governed from a single government and parliament based in London. Between 1717 and 1775 some 250,000 people from Ulster emigrated to the British North American colonies and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million Scotch-Irish Americans now living in the US. By the close of the century, autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom, in 1912, after decades of obstruction from the House of Lords, Home Rule became a near-certainty. A clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over a controversial budget produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. The House of Lords veto had been the unionists main guarantee that Home Rule would not be enacted, in 1914, they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for use by the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary organisation opposed to the implementation of Home Rule
18.
Earl of Clanbrassil
–
Earl of Clanbrassil was a title that was created twice in the Peerage of Ireland, both times for members of the Hamilton family. On 4 May 1622 Sir James Hamilton was created Viscount Claneboye, in the County of Down and he was succeeded by his only son, James, the second Viscount, who was created Earl of Clanbrassil, in the County of Armagh, on 7 June 1647. The titles became extinct on the death of his only surviving son, Henry. On 13 May 1719, James Hamilton was created Baron Claneboye, in the County of Down, on 24 November 1756 he was further honoured when he was made Earl of Clanbrassil, in the County of Armagh, also in the Irish peerage. He was the great-great-grandson of William Hamilton, brother of the first Viscount Claneboye, the titles became extinct on the death of his son, James, the second Earl, in 1798. The Claneboye title was revived in 1800 when the first Viscount Claneboyes great-great-grandniece Dorcas, Lady Blackwood, was made Baroness Dufferin, the Clanbrassil title was revived in 1821 when Robert Jocelyn, 3rd Earl of Roden, was made Baron Clanbrassil in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. He was the grandson of Lady Anne Hamilton, sister of the second and last Earl of Clanbrassil of the second creation
19.
Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
20.
James VI and I
–
James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
21.
Natural history
–
Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
22.
Materia medica
–
Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing. The term derives from the title of a work by the Ancient Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st century AD, De materia medica, On Medical Material. The term materia medica was used from the period of the Roman Empire until the 20th century, the earliest known writing about medicine was a 110-page Egyptian papyrus. It was supposedly written by the god Thoth in about 16 BC, the Ebers papyrus is an ancient recipe book dated to approximately 1552 BC. It contains a mixture of magic and medicine with invocations to banish disease, the most famous Egyptian physician was Imhotep, who lived in Memphis around 2500 B. C. Imhotep’s materia medica consisted of procedures for treating head and torso injuries, tending of wounds, in India, the Ayurveda is traditional medicine that emphasizes plant-based treatments, hygiene, and balance in the body’s state of being. Indian materia medica included knowledge of plants, where they grow in all season, methods for storage and it also included directions for making juice from vegetables, dried powders from herb, cold infusions and extracts. The earliest Chinese manual of materia medica, the Shennong Bencao Jing, was compiled in the 1st century AD during the Han dynasty and it lists some 365 medicines, of which 252 are herbs. Earlier literature included lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by the Recipes for Fifty-Two Ailments found in the Mawangdui tomb, succeeding generations augmented the Shennong Bencao Jing, as in the Yaoxing Lun, a 7th-century Tang Dynasty treatise on herbal medicine. In Greece, Hippocrates was a philosopher known as the Father of Medicine. He founded a school of medicine focused on treating the causes of disease rather than its symptoms. Disease was dictated by natural laws and therefore could be treated through close observation of symptoms and his treatises, Aphorisms and Prognostics, discuss 265 drugs, the importance of diet and external treatments for diseases. Theophrastus was a disciple of Aristotle and a philosopher of natural history and he wrote a treatise entitled Historia Plantarium about 300 B. C. It was the first attempt to organize and classify plants, plant lore and it provided physicians with a rough taxonomy of plants and details of medicinal herbs and herbal concoctions. Galen was a philosopher, physician, pharmacist and prolific medical writer and he compiled an extensive record of the medical knowledge of his day and added his own observations. He wrote on the structure of organs, but not their uses, the pulse and its association with respiration, the arteries and the movement of blood, and the uses of theriacs. In treatises such as On Theriac to Piso, On Theriac to Pamphilius and his work was rediscovered in the 15th century and became the authority on medicine and healing for the next two centuries. His medicine was based on the regulation of the four humors, the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides, of Anazarbus in Asia Minor, wrote a five-volume treatise concerning medical matters, entitled Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς in Greek or De Materia Medica in Latin
23.
John Ray
–
John Ray was an English naturalist widely regarded as one of the earliest of the English parson-naturalists. Until 1670, he wrote his name as John Wray, from then on, he used Ray, after having ascertained that such had been the practice of his family before him. He published important works on botany, zoology, and natural theology and his classification of plants in his Historia Plantarum, was an important step towards modern taxonomy. He was the first to give a definition of the term species. John Ray was born in the village of Black Notley in Essex and he is said to have been born in the smithy, his father having been the village blacksmith. He was sent at the age of sixteen to Cambridge University, studying at Trinity College and his tutor at Trinity was James Duport, and his intimate friend and fellow-pupil the celebrated Isaac Barrow. Ray was chosen fellow of Trinity in 1649, and later major fellow. Among these sermons were his discourses on The wisdom of God manifested in the works of the creation, Ray was also highly regarded as a tutor. He communicated his own passion for history to several pupils. His religious views were generally in accord with those imposed under the restoration of Charles II of England, from this time onwards he seems to have depended chiefly on the bounty of his pupil Francis Willughby, who made Ray his constant companion while he lived. Willughby arranged that after his death, Ray would have 6 shillings a year for educating Willughbys two sons, from this tour Ray and Willughby returned laden with collections, on which they meant to base complete systematic descriptions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The plants gathered on his British tours had already described in his Catalogus plantarum Angliae. In 1667 Ray was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1669 he, in 1671, he presented the research of Francis Jessop on formic acid to the Royal Society. In this volume, he moved on from the naming and cataloguing of species like his successor Carl Linnaeus, instead, Ray considered species lives and how nature worked as a whole, giving facts that are arguments for Gods will expressed in His creation of all visible and invisible. Ray gave a description of dendrochronology, explaining for the ash tree how to find its age from its tree-rings. In 1673 Ray married Margaret Oakley of Launton, in 1676 he went to Middleton Hall near Tamworth, finally, in 1679, he removed to Black Notley, where he afterwards remained. His life there was quiet and uneventful, although he had poor health, Ray kept writing books and corresponded widely on scientific matters. He lived, in spite of his infirmities, to the age of seventy-seven, Ray was the first person to produce a biological definition of species, in his 1686 History of plants
24.
Robert Boyle
–
Robert William Boyle FRS was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist and inventor born in Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland. Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. He is best known for Boyles law, which describes the proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system. Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a book in the field of chemistry. He was a devout and pious Anglican and is noted for his writings in theology, Boyle was born in Lismore Castle, in County Waterford, Ireland, the seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, and Catherine Fenton. Richard Boyle arrived in Dublin from England in 1588 during the Tudor plantations of Ireland and he had amassed enormous landholdings by the time Robert was born. As a child, Boyle was fostered to a local family, Boyle received private tutoring in Latin, Greek, and French and when he was eight years old, following the death of his mother, he was sent to Eton College in England. His fathers friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then the provost of the college, during this time, his father hired a private tutor, Robert Carew, who had knowledge of Irish, to act as private tutor to his sons in Eton. After spending over three years at Eton, Robert travelled abroad with a French tutor and they visited Italy in 1641 and remained in Florence during the winter of that year studying the paradoxes of the great star-gazer Galileo Galilei, who was elderly but still living in 1641. Boyle returned to England from continental Europe in mid-1644 with a keen interest in scientific research and his father had died the previous year and had left him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorset, England and substantial estates in County Limerick in Ireland that he had acquired. They met frequently in London, often at Gresham College, having made several visits to his Irish estates beginning in 1647, Robert moved to Ireland in 1652 but became frustrated at his inability to make progress in his chemical work. In one letter, he described Ireland as a country where chemical spirits were so misunderstood. In 1654, Boyle left Ireland for Oxford to pursue his work more successfully, an inscription can be found on the wall of University College, Oxford the High Street at Oxford, marking the spot where Cross Hall stood until the early 19th century. It was here that Boyle rented rooms from the apothecary who owned the Hall. An account of Boyles work with the air pump was published in 1660 under the title New Experiments Physico-Mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air, the person who originally formulated the hypothesis was Henry Power in 1661. Boyle in 1662 included a reference to a written by Power. In continental Europe the hypothesis is attributed to Edme Mariotte. In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about oaths and they are extraordinary because all but a few of the 24 have come true
25.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
26.
Montpellier
–
Montpellier is a city in southern France. It is the capital of the Hérault department, Montpellier is the 8th largest city of France, and is also the fastest growing city in the country over the past 25 years. Nearly one third of the population are students from three universities and from three higher education institutions that are outside the university framework in the city. Located on the south coast of France on the Mediterranean Sea, it is the third-largest French city on the Mediterranean coast after Marseille and Nice. Montpellier is one of the few cities in France without any Roman heritage. In the Early Middle Ages, the episcopal town of Maguelone was the major settlement in the area. Montpellier, first mentioned in a document of 985, was founded under a feudal dynasty, the Guilhem. The two surviving towers of the city walls, the Tour des Pins and the Tour de la Babotte, were built later, william VIII of Montpellier gave freedom for all to teach medicine in Montpellier in 1180. This era marked the point of Montpelliers prominence. The city became a possession of the Kings of Aragon in 1204 by the marriage of Peter II of Aragon with Marie of Montpellier, who was given the city and its dependencies as part of her dowry. Montpellier gained a charter in 1204 when Peter and Marie confirmed the traditional freedoms. Under the Kings of Aragon, Montpellier became an important city, a major economic centre. It was the second or third most important city of France at that time, with its importance steadily increasing, the city finally gained a bishop, who moved from Maguelone in 1536, and the huge monastery chapel became a cathedral. In 1432, Jacques Cœur established himself in the city and it became an important economic centre, at the time of the Reformation in the 16th century, many of the inhabitants of Montpellier became Protestants and the city became a stronghold of Protestant resistance to the Catholic French crown. In 1622, King Louis XIII besieged the city surrendered after a two months siege, afterwards building the Citadel of Montpellier to secure it. Louis XIV made Montpellier capital of Bas Languedoc, and the town started to embellish itself, by building the Promenade du Peyrou, the Esplanade, after the French Revolution, the city became the capital of the much smaller Hérault. During the 19th century the city developed into an industrial centre, in the 1960s, its population grew dramatically after French settlers in Algeria were resettled in the city following Algerias independence from France. In the 1980s and 1990s, the city drew attention with a number of redevelopment projects, such as the Corum
27.
Jamaica
–
Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
28.
Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle
–
Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle, KG, PC was an English soldier and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1667 to 1670 when he inherited the Dukedom and sat in the House of Lords. Monck was the son and heir of George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle by his wife Anne Clarges, a daughter of John Clarges, Farrier in the Savoy, of Drury Lane, Westminster. She was the widow of Thomas Radford, milliner, of New Exchange, Strand, Westminster. This left a question concerning Moncks legitimacy, Monck was educated privately and entered Grays Inn in 1662. From 1660 until his fathers death ten years later in 1670, he was known by the title of Earl of Torrington. At the age of 13, Monck entered politics, having been elected Member of Parliament for Devon in January 1667. In 1670 he was elevated to the peerage and thus entered the House of Lords, following the death of his father and he became a Gentleman of the Bedchamber and inherited his fathers great feudal title, Lord of Bowland. He was created a Knight of the Garter, a Privy Councillor and in 1675 Lord Lieutenant of Devon and he became a titular colonel of several horse regiments of the English Army. In 1673 he raised a regiment as part of the Blackheath Army under Marshal Schomberg and it was intended for service in the Dutch Republic, but was disbanded following the Treaty of Westminster before seeing any action. From 1682 until his death, Monck was Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, in 1685 he resigned the Lord Lieutenancy of Devon to fight against the Monmouth Rebellion, but was largely unsuccessful as a military leader. In 1686, Monck was an investor in a treasure-seeking expedition headed by William Phips. Phips returned to London with more than £200,000 worth of treasure, after serving in a few more minor positions, in 1687, Monck was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica. On 6 January 1681, Monck arranged a match between his butler and his butcher. This was the first recorded boxing match in England, in 1675 Monck purchased for £26,000 the very grand London townhouse Clarendon House from the heirs of its builder, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. In 1683 he resold it to a consortium of investors led by Sir Thomas Bond and she gave birth to a son who died soon after his birth, and Monck left no further surviving children. In 1692 his widow remarried to Ralph Montagu, 1st Duke of Montagu and she was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 September 1734. Monck died in Jamaica on 6 October 1688, age 35 and he was buried in Westminster Abbey on 4 July 1689. As the Duke left no children, all his titles became extinct on his death
29.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
30.
Acta Eruditorum
–
Acta Eruditorum was the first scientific journal of the German lands, published from 1682 to 1782. Acta Eruditorum was founded in 1682 in Leipzig by Otto Mencke, who became its first editor and it was published by Johann Friedrich Gleditsch, and patterned after the French Journal des savants and Italian Giornale deletterati. Acta Eruditorum was a publication edited in Latin language and contained excerpts from new writings, reviews, small essays. Most of them were devoted to the sciences and mathematics. Since its inception many eminent scientists published there – apart from Leibniz, although Mencke once exchanged letters and publications with Isaac Newton, Newton was not a correspondent of Acta. In the following acrimonious squabble, Acta by and large acted as a mouthpiece for Leibnizs camp, Mencke tried to tone down the dispute, but rebuttals from both sides were too forceful. Where Mencke was powerless to call the tune, he did his utmost at least to set the tone and this dispute also influenced Acta to express the feelings of national cohesion and defining German scholarship within the international field of influence. After Otto Menckes death Acta Eruditorum were directed by his son, Johann Burckhardt Mencke, the journal changed its name by then and was called Nova Acta Eruditorum. Since 1756 it was led by Karl Andreas Bel. H. Laeven, the History of an International Learned Journal between 1682 and 1707, trans. L. Richards, Amsterdam, APA-Holland University Press,1990, electronic version available through repository of University Library Nijmegen. Laeven-Aretz, The authors and reviewers of the Acta Eruditorum 1682-1735, Molenhoek, identifies and lists all authors and reviewers of individual contributions between 1882 and 1735. Available through repositories of University Library Leipzig and University Library Nijmegen, Acta Eruditorum, table of contents, 1682-1776
31.
George Cadbury
–
George Cadbury was the third son of John Cadbury, a Quaker who founded Cadburys cocoa and chocolate company in Britain. He worked at the school for adults on Sundays for no pay, together with his brother Richard he took over the family business in 1861. In 1878 they acquired 14 acres of land in country, four miles south of Birmingham. He rented Woodbrooke - a Georgian style mansion built by Josiah Mason and he also created a hospital in Normandy called lhopital de Normandy. The Cadbury brothers were concerned with the quality of life of their employees, as more land was acquired and the brothers moved the factory to a new country location, they decided to build a factory town, which was not exclusive to the employees of the factory. This village became known as Bournville after the river and French word for town. The houses were never privately owned, and their value stayed low, Bournville was a marked change from the poor living conditions of the urban environment. Here, families had houses with yards, gardens, and fresh air, to the present, the town offers affordable housing. The brothers cared for their employees, they believed in the social rights of the workers and hence they installed canteens and sport grounds. Nineteen years after brother Richard died, George opened a works committee for each gender which discussed proposals for improving the firm and he also pressed ahead with other ideas, like an annuity, a deposit account and education facilities for every employee. George Cadbury was one of the movers in setting up The Birmingham Civic Society in 1918. Cadbury donated the Lickey Hills Country Park to the people of Birmingham and he also donated a large house in Northfield to the Birmingham Cripples Union that was used as a hospital from 1909. It is now called the Royal Orthopaedic Hospital, in 1890 he, along with a number of other leading Quakers, helped re-establish Grove House School as Leighton Park School in Reading as the leading Quaker school in Britain. He died at his home, Northfield Manor House, on 24 October 1922, in 1872 he married Mary Tylor, daughter of Quaker author Charles Tylor, she died in 1887. She was the mother of George junior, Mary Isabel, Edward, in 1888 he married Elizabeth Mary Taylor. They had six children together, Laurence John, George Norman, Elsie Dorothea, Egbert, Marion Janet, walter Stranz, zoliekah Cadbury ISBN 0-85263-236-3 Claus Bernet. Encyclopaedia Britannica George Cadbury former residence of George Cadbury Letter from George Cadbury in England to William Cooper in Australia,1920
32.
Thomas Sydenham
–
Thomas Sydenham was an English physician. He was the author of Observationes Medicae which became a textbook of medicine for two centuries so that he became known as The English Hippocrates. Among his many achievements was the discovery of a disease, Sydenhams Chorea, Thomas Sydenham was born at Wynford Eagle in Dorset, where his father was a gentleman of property. His brother was Colonel William Sydenham and he completed his Oxford course in 1648, graduating as bachelor of medicine, and about the same time he was elected a fellow of All Souls College. It was not until thirty years later that he graduated as MD, not at Oxford, but at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. In 1655 he resigned his fellowship at All Souls and married Mary Gee in his town of Wynford Eagle. They had two sons, William and Henry, another son, James, apparently died young and this minimum qualification to practice was the single bond between Sydenham and the College of Physicians throughout the whole of his career. He seems to have been distrusted by some members of the faculty because he was an innovator, Sydenham attracted to his support some of the most discriminating men of his time, such as Boyle and John Locke. His religious views have been described as a form of natural theology. In 1682 he published another Dissertatio epistolaris, on the treatment of confluent smallpox and on hysteria, the Tractatus de podagra et hydrope came out in 1683, and the Schedula monitoria de novae febris ingressu in 1686. A fragment on pulmonary consumption was found among his papers and his collected writings occupy about 600 pages 8vo, in the Latin, translated into that language by various scholars. In the series of Harveian Orations at the College of Physicians, Sydenham is first mentioned in the oration of Dr John Arbuthnot, herman Boerhaave, the Leyden professor, was wont to speak of him in his class as Angliae lumen, artis Phoebum, veram Hippocratici viri speciem. Albrecht von Haller also marked one of the epochs in his scheme of medical progress with the name of Sydenham. He is indeed famous because he inaugurated a new method and an ethics of practice. It remains to consider briefly what his innovations were, first and foremost he did the best he could for his patients, and made as little as possible of the mysteries and traditional dogmas of the craft. I therefore ordered him a roast chicken and a pint of canary, of a piece with this is his famous advice to Sir Richard Blackmore. There were cases, he tells us, in his practice where I have consulted my patients safety, in 1679, Sydenham gave Whooping cough the name pertussis, meaning a violent cough of any type. Sydenham was a zealous Puritan and He rejected on religious grounds attempts such as pathological anatomy and he argued God only gave man the ability to perceive the outer nature of things with his senses
33.
Anne, Queen of Great Britain
–
Anne became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702. On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union, two of her realms, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, united as a sovereign state known as Great Britain. She continued to reign as Queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death, Anne was born in the reign of her uncle Charles II, who had no legitimate children. Her father, James, was first in line to the throne and his suspected Roman Catholicism was unpopular in England, and on Charless instructions Anne was raised as an Anglican. Three years after he succeeded Charles, James was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Annes Dutch Protestant brother-in-law and cousin William III became joint monarch with his wife, Annes elder sister Mary II. Although the sisters had been close, disagreements over Annes finances, status and choice of acquaintances arose shortly after Marys accession, William and Mary had no children. After Marys death in 1694, William continued as sole monarch until he was succeeded by Anne upon his death in 1702, as queen, Anne favoured moderate Tory politicians, who were more likely to share her Anglican religious views than their opponents, the Whigs. The Whigs grew more powerful during the course of the War of the Spanish Succession and her close friendship with Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, turned sour as the result of political differences. Anne was plagued by ill health throughout her life, from her thirties onwards, she grew increasingly lame and obese. Despite seventeen pregnancies by her husband, Prince George of Denmark, she died without any surviving children and was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. Anne was born at 11,39 p. m. on 6 February 1665 at St Jamess Palace, London, the child and second daughter of James, Duke of York. At her Anglican baptism in the Chapel Royal at St Jamess, her sister, Mary, was one of her godparents, along with the Duchess of Monmouth. The Duke and Duchess of York had eight children, but Anne, as a child, Anne suffered from an eye condition, which manifested as excessive watering known as defluxion. For medical treatment, she was sent to France, where she lived with her grandmother, Queen Henrietta Maria. Following her grandmothers death in 1669, Anne lived with an aunt, Henrietta Anne, on the sudden death of her aunt in 1670, Anne returned to England. Her mother died the following year, as was traditional in the royal family, Anne and her sister were brought up separated from their father in their own establishment at Richmond, London. On the instructions of Charles II, they were raised as Protestants, placed in the care of Colonel Edward and Lady Frances Villiers, their education was focused on the teachings of the Anglican church. Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was appointed as Annes preceptor, around 1671, Anne first made the acquaintance of Sarah Jennings, who later became her close friend and one of her most influential advisors
34.
George I of Great Britain
–
George I was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 until his death, and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire from 1698. George was born in Hanover and inherited the titles and lands of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from his father, a succession of European wars expanded his German domains during his lifetime, and in 1708 he was ratified as prince-elector of Hanover. At the age of 54, after the death of his second cousin Queen Anne of Great Britain, in reaction, Jacobites attempted to depose George and replace him with Annes Catholic half-brother, James Francis Edward Stuart, but their attempts failed. During Georges reign, the powers of the monarchy diminished and Britain began a transition to the system of cabinet government led by a prime minister. Towards the end of his reign, actual power was held by Sir Robert Walpole. George died of a stroke on a trip to his native Hanover, George was born on 28 May 1660 in Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire. He was the eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Sophia was the granddaughter of King James I of England through her mother, Elizabeth of Bohemia. For the first year of his life, George was the heir to the German territories of his father. In 1661 Georges brother, Frederick Augustus, was born and the two boys were brought up together, after Sophias tour she bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter. In her letters, Sophia describes George as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his brothers and sisters. In 1679 another uncle died unexpectedly without sons and Ernest Augustus became reigning Duke of Calenberg-Göttingen, Georges surviving uncle, George William of Celle, had married his mistress in order to legitimise his only daughter, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, but looked unlikely to have any further children. Under Salic law, where inheritance of territory was restricted to the male line, in 1682, the family agreed to adopt the principle of primogeniture, meaning George would inherit all the territory and not have to share it with his brothers. The same year, George married his first cousin, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, the marriage of state was arranged primarily as it ensured a healthy annual income and assisted the eventual unification of Hanover and Celle. His mother was at first against the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorotheas mother and she was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage. In 1683, George and his brother, Frederick Augustus, served in the Great Turkish War at the Battle of Vienna, and Sophia Dorothea bore George a son, George Augustus. The following year, Frederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture and it led to a breach between father and son, and between the brothers, that lasted until Frederick Augustuss death in battle in 1690. With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state, and the Hanoverians continuing contributions to the Empires wars, Georges prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his fathers electorate and his uncles duchy. Sophia Dorothea had a child, a daughter named after her, in 1687
35.
George II of Great Britain
–
George II was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death. George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain, he was born, after the deaths of Sophia and Anne, Queen of Great Britain, in 1714, his father George I, Elector of Hanover, inherited the British throne. In the first years of his fathers reign as king, George was associated with opposition politicians, as king from 1727, George exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent twelve summers in Hanover, where he had direct control over government policy. He had a relationship with his eldest son, Frederick. During the War of the Austrian Succession, George participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, nine years before his father, and so George II was ultimately succeeded by his grandson, George III. For two centuries after George IIs death, history tended to him with disdain, concentrating on his mistresses, short temper. Since then, most scholars have reassessed his legacy and conclude that he held and exercised influence in foreign policy and military appointments. George was born in the city of Hanover in Germany, and was the son of George Louis, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, both of Georges parents committed adultery, and in 1694 their marriage was dissolved on the pretext that Sophia had abandoned her husband. She was confined to Ahlden House and denied access to her two children, George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, who never saw their mother again. George spoke only French, the language of diplomacy and the court, until the age of four, after which he was taught German by one of his tutors, Johann Hilmar Holstein. In addition to French and German, he was schooled in English and Italian. Georges second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702, consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, Georges father did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he had, and wanted him to have the opportunity of meeting his bride before any formal arrangements were made. Negotiations from 1702 for the hand of Princess Hedvig Sophia of Sweden, Dowager Duchess and regent of Holstein-Gottorp, the English envoy to Hanover, Edmund Poley, reported that George was so taken by the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else. A marriage contract was concluded by the end of July, on 22 August /2 September 1705O. S. /N. S. Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding, which was held the evening in the chapel at Herrenhausen. George was keen to participate in the war against France in Flanders, in early 1707, Georges hopes were fulfilled when Caroline gave birth to a son, Frederick
36.
Royal College of Physicians
–
The Royal College of Physicians is a British professional body dedicated to improving the practice of medicine, chiefly through the accreditation of physicians by examination. Founded in 1518, it set the first international standard in the classification of diseases, the College is sometimes referred to as the Royal College of Physicians of London to differentiate it from other similarly-named bodies. Its home in Regents Park is one of the few buildings to be granted Grade I listed status. In 2016 it was announced that the North of England centre of excellence was to be base at a new building in the Liverpool Knowledge Quarter in Liverpool and this included apothecaries as well as physicians. It was founded as the College of Physicians when it received a Royal Charter in 1518 and it is not known when the name Royal College was first assumed or granted, but it was finally legally confirmed only in 1960. The college has been active in improving the practice of medicine since its foundation. It is a member of the UK Academy of Medical Royal Colleges and it is sometimes referred to as the Royal College of Physicians of London to differentiate it from other similarly-named bodies. It was the first College of Physicians in Britain or Ireland, the College was based at three sites in the City of London near St Pauls Cathedral, before moving to Pall Mall East, and finally on to its current location in Regents Park. The first Harveian Librarian was Christopher Merret, a fellow of the college and he was set up with a lifetime appointment that compensated him with room and board and a small stipend. He eventually lost the case, was expelled from the Fellowship, had to seek private lodgings, throughout its history the College has issued advice across the whole range of medical and health matters. College publications include the first ten editions of the London Pharmacopoeia, the College became the licensing body for medical books in the late seventeenth century, and sought to set new standards in learning through its own system of examinations. The Colleges great tradition of examining continues to this day and it is perhaps how the College is best known to the general public. Holders of the MRCP may also become Collegiate Members of the London College and/or of the other two UK colleges, Affiliate Membership of the Royal College of Physicians is a similar level of membership as Collegiate membership, but is awarded to senior doctors without MRCP. Both Collegiate Members and Affiliate Members may be considered for advancement to Fellowship of the College, the College also has Associate, Medical Student and Foundation Doctor levels of membership. g. Occupational Medicine, Pharmaceutical Medicine, and Forensic and Legal Medicine, there are also Fellows who are elected de jure, and honoris causa. The diploma of Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians is no longer awarded, from 1993 the LRCP was awarded together with the LRCS and LMSSA through the United Examining Board until this pathway to medical registration was abolished in 1999. The library aims to support the learning and information needs of the RCPs members, students, reference access to the library collections is available to all. The reading room is open Monday – Friday,9 –5, the Royal College of Physicians has had a library since its foundation in 1518, although most of the original books were destroyed during the Great Fire of London in 1666
37.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
–
Philosophical Transactions, titled Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society from 1776, is a scientific journal published by the Royal Society. In its earliest days, it was a venture of the Royal Societys secretary. It became an official society publication in 1752 and it was established in 1665, making it the first journal in the world exclusively devoted to science, and therefore also the worlds longest-running scientific journal. The use of the word Philosophical in the title refers to natural philosophy, in 1887 the journal expanded and divided into two separate publications, one serving the physical sciences and the other focusing on the life sciences. Both journals now publish themed issues and issues resulting from papers presented at the Discussion Meetings of the Royal Society, primary research articles are published in the sister journals Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biology Letters, Journal of the Royal Society Interface, and Interface Focus. The first issue, published in London on 6 March 1665, was edited and published by the Societys first secretary, Henry Oldenburg, four-and-a-half years after the Royal Society was founded. Oldenburg published the journal at his own expense and seems to have entered into an agreement with the societys council allowing him to keep any resulting profits. He was to be disappointed, however, since the journal performed poorly from a point of view during his lifetime. Oldenburg put out 136 issues of the Transactions before his death in 1677, the familiar functions of the scientific journal – registration, certification, dissemination and archiving − were introduced at inception by Philosophical Transactions. The printed journal replaced much of Oldenburgs letter-writing to correspondents, at least on scientific matters, Oldenburg also described his journal as one of these philosophical commonplace books, indicating his intention to produce a collective notebook between scientists. The final article of the issue concerned The Character, Lately Published beyond the Seas, of an Eminent Person, not Long Since Dead at Tholouse, the eminent person recently deceased was Pierre de Fermat, although the issue failed to mention his last theorem. In the aftermath of the Interregnum, the potential for censorship was very real, by reporting ongoing and often unfinished scientific work that may otherwise have not been reported, the journal had a central function of being a scientific news service. Foundation, print was heavily regulated, and there was no such thing as a free press, in fact, the first English newspaper, The London Gazette, did not appear until after Phil. Oldenburgs compulsive letter writing to foreign correspondents led to him being suspected of being a spy for the Dutch, a rival took the opportunity to publish a pirate issue of Philosophical Transactions, with the pretense of it being Issue 27. Oldenburg repudiated the issue by publishing the real 27 upon his release, upon Oldenburgs death, following a brief hiatus, the position of Editor was passed down through successive secretaries of the Society as an unofficial responsibility and at their own expense. Robert Hooke changed the name of the journal to Philosophical Collections in 1679 – a name that remained until 1682, the position of editor was sometimes held jointly and included William Musgrave and Robert Plot. By the mid-eighteenth century, the most notable editors, besides Oldenburg, were Hans Sloane, James Jurin, in virtually all cases the journal was edited by the serving secretary of the society. These editor-secretaries carried the burden of publishing the Philosophical Transactions
38.
Isaac Newton
–
His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. Newtons Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists view of the universe for the next three centuries. Newtons work on light was collected in his influential book Opticks. He also formulated a law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound. Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint and his father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a child, his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Newtons mother had three children from her second marriage. From the age of twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The Kings School, Grantham which taught Latin and Greek. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Henry Stokes, master at the Kings School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a bully, he became the top-ranked student. In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge and he started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valets duties—until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M. A. He set down in his notebook a series of Quaestiones about mechanical philosophy as he found it, in 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his B. A. degree in August 1665, in April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. Fellows were required to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years, however, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II. A and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. Newtons work has been said to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied and his work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newtons mathematical papers
39.
Christ's Hospital
–
Christs Hospital, known colloquially as the Bluecoat School, is an English co-educational independent day and boarding school located south of Horsham in West Sussex. It is a charity school whose fees are calculated on a means test, pupils from disadvantaged circumstances are assisted at the charitys expense. Christs Hospital was established as a school in November 1552 at the instigation of King Edward VI, the kings patronage of the school was confirmed by a Royal Charter granted on 26 June 1553, eleven days before his death. The school was founded at Newgate Street, London, on the site of a Grey Friars monastery, with a school in Hertford, Hertfordshire which had supplementary schools at Ware. In 1902 the Newgate Street and Hertford schools relocated to its present location south of Horsham in West Sussex, a new railway station adjacent to the new site was partially sponsored by the school and also opened in 1902. A girls school was founded in Hertford after the school moved to Horsham. The girls school was incorporated into the Horsham site in 1985 when the Hertford site was closed, in 2007 Christs Hospital was separated into two related registered charities, Christs Hospital Foundation and Christs Hospital School. The schools Tudor uniform consists of belted, long coats with knee-breeches, yellow socks. The uniform has been in place since 1553, the nickname Blue-coat School comes from the blue coats worn by the students – however, the nickname used within the school community itself is Housey and the long coat is called a housey coat. By 2011 students and alumni stated that they see the uniform as an important way of giving the school a unique identity, around that time the administrators had discussed the idea of updating the uniform. A few of the schools 800 students voted, over 95% voted in favour of keeping the original uniform, in 2006 19% of children accepting places were assessed as being in very high need, 64% in medium to high need and 17% in low need. Admission of pupils is either by open competitive examination or by show of skills — in either case the suitability of candidates is judged according to criteria of need and parental income. Some of the means of entry are denoted on the uniform by a metal plate sewn on the breast of the housey coat. In late November 2012, Christs Hospital underwent a school inspection carried out by the Independent Schools Inspectorate. The school was rated excellent in the released in January 2013. The optional term Exceptional was not used, the report also noted, The school is advised to make the following improvement. Ensure, through consistent monitoring by its leaders, the highest standards of teaching in all subject areas. An Arts Centre complex was opened in 1974 including a theatre with Tudor style auditorium, music school extension, Octagon rehearsal/performance space and classrooms
40.
Foundling Hospital
–
The Foundling Hospital in London, England was founded in 1739 by the philanthropic sea captain Thomas Coram. It was a home established for the education and maintenance of exposed and deserted young children. The word hospital was used in a general sense than it is today. With their energies focused on maintaining an environment, providing simple clothing and fare. As a result, financial problems would hound the institution for years to come, the first children were admitted to the Foundling Hospital on 25 March 1741, into a temporary house located in Hatton Garden. At first, no questions were asked about child or parent and these were often marked coins, trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses written on scraps of paper. Clothes, if any, were carefully recorded, one entry in the record reads, Paper on the breast, clout on the head. The applications became too numerous, and a system of balloting with red, white, Children were seldom taken after they were twelve months old. On reception, children were sent to wet nurses in the countryside, at sixteen girls were generally apprenticed as servants for four years, at fourteen, boys were apprenticed into variety of occupations, typically for seven years. There was a benevolent fund for adults. In September 1742, the stone of the new Hospital was laid in the known as Bloomsbury, lying north of Great Ormond Street. The Hospital was designed by Theodore Jacobsen as a brick building with two wings and a chapel, built around an open courtyard. The western wing was finished in October 1745, an eastern wing was added in 1752 in order that the girls might be kept separate from the boys. The new Hospital was described as the most imposing monument erected by eighteenth century benevolence. A basket was accordingly hung outside the hospital, the age for admission was raised from two months to twelve, and a flood of children poured in from country workhouses. Of these 15,000, only 4,400 survived to be apprenticed out, the total expense was about £500,000, which alarmed the House of Commons. The hospital, being thrown on its own resources, adopted a system of receiving children only with considerable sums. This practice was stopped in 1801, and it henceforth became a fundamental rule that no money was to be received
41.
Child abandonment
–
Child abandonment is the practice of relinquishing interests and claims over ones offspring in an extralegal way with the intent of never again resuming or reasserting them. Causes include many social and cultural factors as well as mental illness, an abandoned child is called a foundling. Baby dumping refers to parents abandoning or discarding a child younger than 12 months in a public or private place with the intent of disposing of them and it is also known as rehoming in cases of failed adoptions. Poverty is often a cause of child abandonment. People in cultures with poor social welfare systems who are not financially capable of taking care of a child are more likely to abandon them, another common reason for baby dumping is teenage pregnancies. Pregnant teenagers experience problems during and after due to social and psychological distress. Regardless of age, parents may abandon a child because they are unprepared to raise them, other reasons include unpreferred gender, appearance, or other characteristics of the child as well as mental or physical handicaps of the child. Education, family planning, government support, and post-natal services, historically, many cultures practiced abandonment of infants, called infant exposure. Although such children would survive if taken up by others, exposure is considered a form of infanticide—as described by Tertullian in his Apology. By exposure to cold and hunger and dogs, medieval laws in Europe governing child abandonment, as for example the Visigothic Code, often prescribed that the person who had taken up the child was entitled to the childs service as a slave. Conscripting or enslaving children into armies and labor pools often occurred as a consequence of war or pestilence when many children were left parentless, abandoned children then became the ward of the state, military organization, or religious group. When this practice happened en masse, it had the advantage of ensuring the strength and continuity of cultural, the largest migration of abandoned children in history took place in the United States between 1854 and 1929. Over two hundred thousand orphans were forced onto railroad cars and shipped west, where any family desiring their services as laborers, maids, orphan trains were highly popular as a source of free labor. The sheer size of the displacement and degree of exploitation that occurred gave rise to new agencies, eventually, adoption became a quintessential American institution, embodying faith in social engineering and mobility. By 1945, adoption was formulated as an act with consideration of the child’s best interests. Brace feared the impact of the poverty and their Catholic religion, in particular. Reformers during the Progressive Era later carried on this tradition of secrecy when drafting American laws. Today, abandonment of a child is considered to be a crime in many jurisdictions because it can be considered malum in se due to the direct harm to the child
42.
John Michael Rysbrack
–
Johannes Michel or John Michael Rysbrack, original name Jan Michiel Rijsbrack, was an 18th-century Flemish sculptor. His birth-year is sometimes given as 1693 or 1684, Rysbrack was born in Antwerp as the son of the landscape painter Pieter Rijsbraeck. His older brother Pieter Andreas Rijsbrack was a landscape and still life painter and he studied drawings by Italian masters, before settling in London in 1720. Here he quickly established himself as the sculptor, a position he was to retain until the mid-1740s. He produced vivid portraits and monuments of lively baroque composition, rapidly establishing himself as a highly sought-after sculptor, dr Cox Macro commissioned him to make a bust of Flemish painter Peter Tillemans on his death in 1734. In 1733 Rysbrack carved a magnificent marble portrait bust of George Hamilton, Orkney was a distinguished general serving under the Duke of Marlborough. Orkney had taken the surrender of the French at the Battle of Blenheim in 1704, one of Rysbracks greatest works, the bust of Lord Orkney is on display at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Following the battle and pursuit, city after city – including Brussels, Bruges, the arrival in Antwerp of Marlborough’s victorious forces, led by Orkney is an event that Rysbrack, then a boy aged 12, would surely have witnessed. These events must have given sculptor and Lord Orkney a great deal of opportunity for shared reminiscences during the sittings for the bust, in St Michael and All Angels Church, Badminton, there is another splendid monument by Rysbrack, signed and dated 1754. The 2nd and the 3rd Duke of Beaufort are depicted in Roman costume, one standing, decorative, asymmetrical drapery hangs down over the sarcophagus. Rysbrack also cast the equestrian statue of William III in Queen Square, Bristol in 1733. He died in Vere Street, Westminster, London, England, portraits of Rysbrack Model for the tomb of Sir Isaac Newton. John Michael Rysbrack at Find a Grave
43.
Cabinet of curiosities
–
Cabinets of curiosities were encyclopedic collections of objects whose categorical boundaries were, in Renaissance Europe, yet to be defined. Modern terminology would categorize the objects included as belonging to natural history, geology, ethnography, archaeology, religious or historical relics, works of art, the Kunstkammer was regarded as a microcosm or theater of the world, and a memory theater. The Kunstkammer conveyed symbolically the patrons control of the world through its indoor, the term cabinet originally described a room rather than a piece of furniture. The classic cabinet of curiosities emerged in the century, although more rudimentary collections had existed earlier. The earliest pictorial record of a natural history cabinet is the engraving in Ferrante Imperatos DellHistoria Naturale, some of the volumes doubtless represent his herbarium. Every surface of the ceiling is occupied with preserved fishes, stuffed mammals and curious shells. Examples of corals stand on the bookcases, above them, stuffed birds stand against panels inlaid with square polished stone samples, doubtless marbles and jaspers or fitted with pigeonhole compartments for specimens. Below them, a range of cupboards contain specimen boxes and covered jars, two of the most famously described seventeenth-century cabinets were those of Ole Worm, known as Olaus Wormius, and Athanasius Kircher. Often they would contain a mix of fact and fiction, including apparently mythical creatures, Worms collection contained, for example, what he thought was a Scythian Lamb, a woolly fern thought to be a plant/sheep fabulous creature. However he was responsible for identifying the narwhals tusk as coming from a whale rather than a unicorn. The specimens displayed were often collected during exploring expeditions and trading voyages, Cabinets of curiosities would often serve scientific advancement when images of their contents were published. The catalog of Worms collection, published as the Museum Wormianum, used the collection of artifacts as a point for Worms speculations on philosophy, science, natural history. Cabinets of curiosities were limited to those who could afford to create, many monarchs, in particular, developed large collections. A rather under-used example, stronger in art than other areas, was the Studiolo of Francesco I, frederick III of Denmark, who added Worms collection to his own after Worms death, was another such monarch. A third example is the Kunstkamera founded by Peter the Great in Saint Petersburg in 1714, many items were bought in Amsterdam from Albertus Seba and Frederik Ruysch. The fabulous Habsburg Imperial collection included important Aztec artifacts, including the feather head-dress or crown of Montezuma now in the Museum of Ethnology, similar collections on a smaller scale were the complex Kunstschränke produced in the early seventeenth century by the Augsburg merchant, diplomat and collector Philipp Hainhofer. The best preserved example is the one given by the city of Augsburg to King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632, the curio cabinet, as a modern single piece of furniture, is a version of the grander historical examples. In 1714, Michael Bernhard Valentini published an early work, Museum Museorum
. PMID 11420330.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sloane, Sir Hans". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 243.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
