1.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
2.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
3.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
4.
Seating capacity
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Seating capacity is the number of people who can be seated in a specific space, in terms of both the physical space available, and limitations set by law. Seating capacity can be used in the description of anything ranging from an automobile that seats two to a stadium that seats hundreds of thousands of people. The International Fire Code, portions of which have adopted by many jurisdictions, is directed more towards the use of a facility than the construction. It specifies, For areas having fixed seating without dividing arms and it also requires that every public venue submit a detailed site plan to the local fire code official, including details of the means of egress, seating capacity, arrangement of the seating. Once safety considerations have been satisfied, determinations of seating capacity turn on the size of the venue. For sports venues, the decision on maximum seating capacity is determined by several factors, chief among these are the primary sports program and the size of the market area. Seating capacity of venues also plays a role in what media they are able to provide, in contracting to permit performers to use a theatre or other performing space, the seating capacity of the performance facility must be disclosed. Seating capacity may influence the kind of contract to be used, the seating capacity must also be disclosed to the copyright owner in seeking a license for the copyrighted work to be performed in that venue. Venues that may be leased for private functions such as ballrooms and auditoriums generally advertise their seating capacity, seating capacity is also an important consideration in the construction and use of sports venues such as stadiums and arenas. The seating capacity for restaurants is reported as covers, a restaurant that can seat 99 is said to have 99 covers, seating capacity differs from total capacity, which describes the total number of people who can fit in a venue or in a vehicle either sitting or standing. Use of the term public capacity indicates that a venue is allowed to more people than it can actually seat. Again, the total number of people can refer to either the physical space available or limitations set by law
5.
FieldTurf
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FieldTurf is a brand of artificial turf playing surface. It is manufactured and installed by FieldTurf Tarkett, a division of French company Tarkett Inc. headquartered in Calhoun, Georgia, in the late 1990s, the artificial surface changed the industry with a design intended to replicate real grass. The new system quickly began taking market share from AstroTurf, and is now the leader in the industry, the surface is composed of monofilament polyethylene blend fibers tufted into a polypropylene backing. The infill is composed of a layer of silica sand, a middle layer which is a mixture of sand and cryogenic rubber. The fibers are meant to replicate blades of grass, while the acts as a cushion. This cushion is intended to improve safety when compared to earlier artificial surfaces and allows players to plant, each square foot of turf contains approximately 3 kg of sand and 1.5 kg of cryogenic rubber. FieldTurf does not use shock absorbency pads below its infill, the backing of the turf is a combination of woven and non-woven polypropylene. These materials are permeable and allow water to drain through the backing itself, jean Prévost bought the patent of the FieldTurf product in 1988 and originally named his Montreal-based company SynTenni Co. a name which would eventually be dropped in favor of FieldTurf Inc. In 1995, John Gilman, a former Canadian Football League player and coach, in 1997, FieldTurf made its first major installation for a professional team, at the training facility for the English Premierships Middlesbrough F. C. As of 2012, FieldTurf has installed over 7000 athletic fields, in 2005, French flooring manufacturer and minority shareholder Tarkett increased its share in FieldTurf, which led to the integration of the two companies. FieldTurf is now a part of the Tarkett Sports division, part of the holding company Tarkett SA, the FieldTurf head corporate office is located in Calhoun, Georgia. In May 2010, FieldTurf acquired EasyTurf of San Diego, California, by late 2016, press reports were describing the companys product as defective. A number of agencies in New Jersey had joined together to file a lawsuit against the firm. The suits allege that the DuraSpine product it sold was inferior, internal company documents showed the company knew its sales claims were false. There is evidence showing higher player injury on artificial turf, in a study performed by the National Football League Injury and Safety Panel, published in the October 2012 issue of the American Journal of Sports Medicine, Elliott B. Hershman et al. reviewed injury data from NFL games played between 2000 and 2009. the injury rate of knee sprains as a whole was 22% higher on FieldTurf than on natural grass. While MCL sprains did not occur at a significantly higher than on grass. There are conflicting studies of the safety of FieldTurf, a five-year study funded by FieldTurf and published in the American Journal of Sports Medicine found that injury rates for high school sports were similar on natural grass and synthetic turf
6.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
7.
Harvard Crimson
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The Harvard Crimson are the athletic teams of Harvard University. The schools teams compete in NCAA Division I, as of 2013, there were 42 Division I intercollegiate varsity sports teams for women and men at Harvard, more than at any other NCAA Division I college in the country. Like the other Ivy League universities, Harvard does not offer athletic scholarships, the school has won national championships in mens football, golf, mens ice hockey, womens lacrosse, mens soccer, coed sailing, womens sailing, fencing, womens rowing, and mens individual wrestling. Harvards baseball program began competing in the 1865 season and it has appeared in four College World Series. It plays at Joseph J. ODonnell Field and is coached by Bill Decker. Harvard Crimson mens basketball program represents intercollegiate mens basketball at Harvard University, the team currently competes in the Ivy League in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and play home games at the Lavietes Pavilion in Boston, Massachusetts. The teams last appearance in the NCAA Division I Mens Basketball Tournament was in 2014, the Crimson are currently coached by Tommy Amaker. Harvard Crimson womens basketball program represents intercollegiate mens basketball at Harvard University, the team currently competes in the Ivy League in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and play home games at the Lavietes Pavilion in Boston, Massachusetts. The teams last appearance in the NCAA Division I Mens Basketball Tournament was in 2007, representing Harvard Crimson, Benjamin Ungar won Gold in the 2006 Individual Mens Épée event at the NCAA Fencing Championship, and was named Harvard Athlete of The Year. See, Harvard Crimson football and Harvard Stadium The football team has competed since 1873 and they have won ten national championships when the school competed in what is now known as the FBS. They are perhaps best known for their rivalry with Yale, known as The Game, sixteen former players have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. Harvards athletic rivalry with Yale is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax each fall in their annual football meeting, which dates back to 1875. While Harvards football team is no one of the countrys best as it often was a century ago during footballs early days. In 1903, Harvard Stadium introduced a new era into football with the first-ever permanent reinforced concrete stadium of its kind in the country, the stadiums structure actually played a role in the evolution of the college game. Seeking to reduce the number of deaths and serious injuries in the sport. But the state-of-the-art Harvard Stadium was too narrow to accommodate a playing surface. So, other steps had to be taken, Camp would instead support revolutionary new rules for the 1906 season. These included legalizing the forward pass, perhaps the most significant rule change in the sports history, in both 1919 and 1920, headed by All-American brothers Arnold Horween and Ralph Horween, Harvard was undefeated
8.
National Collegiate Athletic Association
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The National Collegiate Athletic Association is a non-profit association which regulates athletes of 1,281 institutions, conferences, organizations, and individuals. It also organizes the programs of many colleges and universities in the United States and Canada. The organization is headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 2014, the NCAA generated almost a billion dollars in revenue. 80 to 90% of this revenue was due to the Division I Mens Basketball Tournament and this revenue is then distributed back into various organizations and institutions across the United States. In August 1973, the current three-division setup of Division I, Division II, under NCAA rules, Division I and Division II schools can offer scholarships to athletes for playing a sport. Division III schools may not offer any athletic scholarships, generally, larger schools compete in Division I and smaller schools in II and III. Division I football was divided into I-A and I-AA in 1978. Subsequently, the term Division I-AAA was briefly added to delineate Division I schools which do not field a football program at all, in 2006, Divisions I-A and I-AA were respectively renamed the Football Bowl Subdivision and Football Championship Subdivision. Inter-collegiate sports began in the US in 1852 when crews from Harvard University, as other sports emerged, notably football and basketball, many of these same concepts and standards were adopted. Football, in particular, began to emerge as a marquee sport, the IAAUS was officially established on March 31,1906, and took its present name, the NCAA, in 1910. For several years, the NCAA was a group and rules-making body, but in 1921, the first NCAA national championship was conducted. Gradually, more rules committees were formed and more championships were created, a series of crises brought the NCAA to a crossroads after World War II. The Sanity Code – adopted to establish guidelines for recruiting and financial aid – failed to curb abuses, postseason football games were multiplying with little control, and member schools were increasingly concerned about how the new medium of television would affect football attendance. The complexity of problems and the growth in membership and championships demonstrated the need for full-time professional leadership. Walter Byers, previously an executive assistant, was named executive director in 1951. Byers wasted no time placing his stamp on the Association, as college athletics grew, the scope of the nations athletics programs diverged, forcing the NCAA to create a structure that recognized varying levels of emphasis. In 1973, the Associations membership was divided into three legislative and competitive divisions – I, II, and III, five years later in 1978, Division I members voted to create subdivisions I-A and I-AA in football. Until the 1980s, the association did not offer womens athletics, instead, the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women, with nearly 1000 member schools, governed womens collegiate sports in the United States
9.
New England Patriots
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The New England Patriots are a professional American football team based in the Greater Boston region. The Patriots compete in the National Football League as a club of the leagues American Football Conference East division. The Patriots are also headquartered at Gillette Stadium, an original member of the American Football League, the Patriots joined the NFL in the 1970 merger of the two leagues. The team changed its name from the original Boston Patriots after relocating to Foxborough in 1971, the Patriots played their home games at Foxboro Stadium from 1971 to 2001, then moved to Gillette Stadium at the start of the 2002 season. The Patriots rivalry with the New York Jets is considered one of the most bitter rivalries in the NFL. The Patriots have appeared in the Super Bowl nine times in franchise history, the Patriots have since become one of the most successful teams in NFL history, winning 14 AFC East titles in 16 seasons since 2001, without a losing season in that period. The team owns the record for most Super Bowls reached and won by a head coach–quarterback tandem, the Patriots are tied with the 49ers and Cowboys for the second most Super Bowl wins with five. The Steelers are in front with six, however, the Patriots are the only team to win five Super Bowls with the same coach and quarterback. On November 16,1959, Boston business executive Billy Sullivan was awarded the eighth, the following winter, locals were allowed to submit ideas for the Boston football teams official name. The most popular choice – and the one that Sullivan selected – was the Boston Patriots, immediately thereafter, artist Phil Bissell of The Boston Globe developed the Pat Patriot logo. The Patriots struggled for most of their years in the AFL, nickerson Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium all served as home fields during their time in the American Football League. They played in only one AFL championship game, following the 1963 season and they did not appear again in an AFL or NFL post-season game for another 13 years. When the NFL and AFL merged in 1970, the Patriots were placed in the American Football Conference East division, the following year, the Patriots moved to a new stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which would serve as their home for the next 30 years. As a result of the move, they announced they would change their name from the Boston Patriots to the Bay State Patriots, the name was rejected by the NFL and on March 22,1971, the team officially announced they would change its geographic name to New England. During the 1970s, the Patriots had some success, earning a berth to the playoffs in 1976—as a wild card team—and in 1978—as AFC East champions and they lost in the first round both times. In 1985, they returned to the playoffs, and made it all the way to Super Bowl XX, following their Super Bowl loss, they returned to the playoffs in 1986, but lost in the first round. The team would not make the playoffs again for eight more years, during the 1990 season, the Patriots went 1–15. They changed ownership three times in the ensuing 14 years, being purchased from the Sullivan family first by Victor Kiam in 1988, who sold the team to James Orthwein in 1992
10.
National Football League
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The National Football League is a professional American football league consisting of 32 teams, divided equally between the National Football Conference and the American Football Conference. The NFL is one of the four professional sports leagues in North America. The NFLs 17-week regular season runs from the week after Labor Day to the week after Christmas, with each team playing 16 games, the NFL was formed in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association before renaming itself the National Football League for the 1922 season. The NFL agreed to merge with the American Football League in 1966, and the first Super Bowl was held at the end of that season, the merger was completed in 1970. Today, the NFL has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and is the most popular sports league in the United States. S. The NFLs executive officer is the commissioner, who has authority in governing the league. The team with the most NFL championships is the Green Bay Packers with thirteen, the current NFL champions are the New England Patriots, who defeated the Atlanta Falcons 34–28 in Super Bowl LI. Another meeting held on September 17,1920 resulted in the renaming of the league to the American Professional Football Association, the league hired Jim Thorpe as its first president, and consisted of 14 teams. Only two of these teams, the Decatur Staleys and the Chicago Cardinals, remain, the first event occurred on September 26,1920 when the Rock Island Independents defeated the non-league St. Paul Ideals 48–0 at Douglas Park. On October 3,1920, the first full week of league play occurred, the following season resulted in the Chicago Staleys controversially winning the title over the Buffalo All-Americans. In 1922, the APFA changed its name to the National Football League, in 1932, the season ended with the Chicago Bears and the Portsmouth Spartans tied for first in the league standings. This method had used since the leagues creation in 1920. The league quickly determined that a game between Chicago and Portsmouth was needed to decide the leagues champion. Playing with altered rules to accommodate the playing field, the Bears won the game 9–0. Fan interest in the de facto championship game led the NFL, beginning in 1933, the 1934 season also marked the first of 12 seasons in which African Americans were absent from the league. The de facto ban was rescinded in 1946, following public pressure, the NFL was always the foremost professional football league in the United States, it nevertheless faced a large number of rival professional leagues through the 1930s and 1940s. Rival leagues included at least three separate American Football Leagues and the All-America Football Conference, on top of regional leagues of varying caliber. Three NFL teams trace their histories to these leagues, including the Los Angeles Rams
11.
Boston Cannons
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The Boston Cannons are a Major League Lacrosse professional mens field lacrosse team based in Boston, Massachusetts. They have played in the MLL since the 2001 season and won the MLL Championship in 2011, from 2006 to 2008, they were in the Eastern Conference. From the leagues inception in 2001 through 2005, they were in the American Division, with the MLL contraction for the 2009 season from 10 to 6 teams, there is currently only one division/conference. The teams home field is Harvard Stadium, but played at Gillette Stadium during the 2015 season, the Boston Cannons is one of the original six teams of Major League Lacrosse. MLL was founded by Jake Steinfeld, Dave Morrow, and Tim Robertson, the Boston Cannons Founder and President is Matt Dwyer. From their inaugural season of 2001 through 2003, the Cannons played their games at Cawley Memorial Stadium in Lowell. In their inaugural 2001 season, the Cannons finished with a record of 3-11, in 2004, they moved to Nickerson Field at Boston University where they played through the 2006 season. Boston qualified for the MLL playoffs 2001-2006, 2009-2011 and 2015, the Cannons won the 2004 and 2005 American Division championships. On March 20,2007, the Cannons completed a trade with the Washington Bayhawks, in the trade, the Cannons gave up Connor Gill and Ryan Curtis and in return they acquired Michael Powell, Ben DeFelice, and a 2008 conditional draft choice. After the 2008 season, Powell left lacrosse to pursue a career as a singer with his band Villains Trust, the Cannons selected Paul Rabil as the first overall pick in the 2008 MLL Draft. The Cannons won the Steinfeld Cup for the first time in 2011, Boston went 9-3 in the regular season, their best record since going 10-2 in 2005. After losing to Chesapeake 13-9 in the 2010 semifinal, the Cannons avenged the Bayhawks by defeating them 14-13 in the 2011 semifinal, Boston became the fifth charter franchise to win a championship. By 2011, the Cannons were one of four charter franchises still in the league started with six teams in 2001. The other three remaining charter franchises (Lizards, Bayhawks, and Rattlers had all won at least one Steinfeld Cup. Head coach Bill Daye stepped down a month after winning the Steinfeld Cup, as of 2016, Daye is still the franchises all-time leader in coaching victories with 43 and the only head coach with multiple playoff victories. The Cannons in 2013 and 2014 finished 5–9 and 6–8 and this included a 1–5 start in 2013 leading to Steve Duffys firing on June 10. John Tucker took his place and played.500 for the rest of the season, after the Cannons missed the playoffs for the fourth time in franchise history in 2014, Tucker led the team back to the postseason in 2015 as the 8–6 fourth seed. They played the New York Lizards and lost 16–15 in overtime, the Lizards went on to win the Steinfeld Cup
12.
Major League Lacrosse
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Major League Lacrosse is a field lacrosse league consisting of nine teams in the United States. Founded in 1999, the inaugural season was in 2001. MLL averaged 4,268 spectators per game during the 2016 season, MLL players reportedly earn annual salaries in the $10, 000–$25,000 range, players and staff generally hold other jobs. Major League Lacrosse was founded in 1998 by Jake Steinfeld, Dave Morrow, Steinfeld is the creator of the Body By Jake line of exercise equipment and videos, Morrow is a former All-American lacrosse player and the president of Warrior Sports. MLL began regular play in June 2001 with six teams in the northeastern U. S. split into two divisions. The American Division included teams in Boston, Bridgeport CT, and Long Island, the National Division included teams in Baltimore, New Jersey, the MLL played a 14-game regular season its first two years, in 2003, the schedule was cut to 12 games. MLL added four teams for the 2006 season, bringing the number of teams up to ten. The league expand to Los Angeles for the 2006 season, with the team playing its games at The Home Depot Center, AEG. Denver, Colorado was also home to a team playing at Invesco Field at Mile High. The league also added teams in the Chicago, Illinois and San Francisco, MLL created a western conference for these four teams, and the MLL Western Conference play began with the 2006 season. In addition the Barrages home game against Boston was played in Boston, at the end of the 2008 season, four teams folded due to financial problems. Several of these teams had suffered from poor average attendance — New Jersey and this contraction forced the remaining six teams to form one conference. At the start of the 2009 season, the Toronto Nationals bought the rights to the Rochester Rattlers, the Toronto team gained the staff and players of the Rochester team, but the Rochester name and the team colors were left in Rochester for the possibility of a future team. The new Rochester franchise played at Sahlens Stadium, the stadium the older Rochester Rattlers used at the end of their tenure in Rochester before relocating to Toronto. During the early years of MLL, the league did not have any teams in the southeast, commissioner David Gross announced on December 9,2010 that two expansion teams would be created for the 2012 season. Charlotte and Columbus were approved in January 2011 to host expansion teams to play in 2012. Gross also stated there would be two more expansion teams for 2013, and that the long-term goal is to have 16 teams by 2020. For the 2011 season, the MLL had an attendance of 6,417
13.
Boston Breakers
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The Boston Breakers are an American professional soccer club based in the Boston neighborhood of Allston. The team competes in the National Womens Soccer League and they replaced the original Breakers, who competed in the defunct Womens United Soccer Association, as the Boston areas professional womens soccer team. The Breakers currently play their games at Jordan Field, in Boston, MA. The original Boston Breakers played in the WUSA from 2001 to 2003, in the final season in the WUSA, the Breakers had their best record and placed first in the regular season before losing to the Washington Freedom in the semifinals. The formation of Womens Professional Soccer was announced on September 4,2007, the Boston Breakers franchise was officially unveiled on October 26,2008. At the time it was the professional womens sports team in Massachusetts. Joe Cummings was named the President and General Manager and he had worked for the Breakers franchise in the WUSA. In September 2007, Tony DiCicco was appointed as the clubs first head coach, during the WPS national team player allocation on September 16,2008 the Breakers acquired Heather Mitts and former Breakers players, Kristine Lilly and Angela Hucles. The club acquired Amy Rodriguez as the first overall pick in the 2009 WPS Soccer Draft in St. Louis on January 30,2009, the Breakers played their debut match in the inaugural season of Womens Professional Soccer against FC Gold Pride in Santa Clara, California losing 2–1. Its first home match was against St. Louis Athletica on April 11,2009, the Breakers finished the season in fifth place with a 7–9–4 record. On January 16,2012, the Breakers announced that they signed United States U-23 national team defender, australian national team forward, Kyah Simon, was acquired by the Breakers in anticipation of the 2012 season as well. Simon scored two goals against Norway in the 2011 World Cup, which advanced Australia to the quarter-finals and her goals made her the first ever Aboriginal to score a goal in a World Cup tournament. The league announced on January 30,2012 that the 2012 Womens Professional Soccer season was suspended. On February 9,2012 the club announced it would compete in the newly formed WPSL Elite for the 2012 season, the semi-pro league has no restrictions on the types of players, whether they be professional or amateur. After the WPS suspension, goalkeeper Alyssa Naeher returned to her club, Turbine Potsdam. In 2012, the Boston Breakers joined the Womens Premier Soccer League Elite, the team finished in first place clinching the regular season title with an 11–3–0 record, the best season in the franchise history. They lost 3–1 against the Chicago Red Stars in the WPSL Elite semifinals, the other players assigned to the Breakers were Anisa Guajardo, Adriana Leon, Sydney Leroux, Cecilia Santiago, and Rhian Wilkinson. The 2013 Boston Breakers season was the eighth overall year of existence, fourth consecutive year
14.
Women's Professional Soccer
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Womens Professional Soccer was the top level professional womens soccer league in the United States. It began play on March 29,2009, the league was composed of seven teams for its first two seasons and fielded six teams for the 2011 season, with continued plans for future expansion. The WPS was the highest level in the United States soccer pyramid for the womens game, on January 30,2012, the league announced suspension of the 2012 season, citing several internal organization struggles as the primary cause. Some of these included an ongoing legal battle with magicJack owner Dan Borislow. On May 18,2012 WPS announced the league folded and would not return in 2013, after the WPS folded, the National Womens Soccer League formed in 2013 and took WPSs place as the top professional womens soccer league. After the folding of Womens United Soccer Association, which played its third and final season in 2003. Attempts to relaunch WUSA in full fell through in 2004 and 2005, in June 2006, WSII announced the relaunch of the league for the 2008 season. In December 2006, the announced that it reached an agreement with six owner-operators for teams based in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, St. Louis, Washington, DC. Later, Boston and New York/New Jersey were announced as other markets to have teams, on May 27,2008, the league announced that it would expand to Philadelphia for the 2010 season, with the franchise likely sharing facilities with MLSs Philadelphia Union. Despite being the eighth named team, the league still considered adding a team to play in the leagues inaugural season. An eighth team for the season was tentatively announced as being located in San Diego. Still, despite the time given to the original five cities for preparations. Thus the league began with seven teams, the new name of the league, Womens Professional Soccer, was announced on January 17,2008, along with the logo, which featured the silhouette of retired player Mia Hamm. Most players were matched with teams they had some connection to, such as hometown, college, WUSA. All of the allocated Americans played in the 2009 season except for Kate Markgraf, a week later, the league held the 2008 WPS International Draft, in which the seven teams selected four international players each. Four of the first five selections, first pick Formiga, Marta, Daniela, and Cristiane were Brazilian, englands Kelly Smith and Japans Homare Sawa, and Australias Sarah Walsh rounded out the first round. The draft order was based on a ranking determined by a vote of league coaches following the U. S. womens national team allocation. A general draft was held in October, followed by a combine for college seniors and undrafted players in December, a draft in January
15.
National Women's Soccer League
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The National Womens Soccer League is a professional womens soccer league, run by the United States Soccer Federation. At the top of the United States league system, it represents the sports highest level in the United States, the NWSL was established in 2012 as a successor to Womens Professional Soccer which was the successor to Womens United Soccer Association. The league began play in 2013 with eight teams, four of which were members of Womens Professional Soccer. With the addition of two teams in Houston and Orlando since the leagues founding, it now has 10 teams based throughout the United States. Since the leagues inaugural 2013 season, three clubs have been crowned NWSL Champions and three clubs have claimed the NWSL Shield, the current shield winner is Portland Thorns FC, who finished first in the 2016 season. The NWSL season runs from April–September with each scheduled for 20 regular season games,10 each of home. At the end of the season, the team with the highest point total is awarded the regular season title. Compared to WPS, the teams would have a low salary cap of $500,000. The three federations would pay for the salaries of their national players to aid the teams in creating world-class rosters while staying under the salary cap. The players would be distributed evenly among the eight teams in an allocation process, USSF would run the league offices and set the schedule. On November 29,2012, it was announced that Cheryl Bailey had been named Executive Director in the new league. The first NWSL game was held on April 13,2013, as the Portland Thorns visited FC Kansas City, renae Cuellar scored the first goal in league history. The 2013 season saw regular-season attendance average 4,270, with a high of 17,619 on August 4 for Kansas City at Portland, ten NWSL teams are spread across the United States. Each club is allowed a minimum of 18 players on their roster, in addition, each team has three spots available for international players. The remaining roster spots must be filled by players from the United States. Teams fill their rosters via a number of drafts and 4–6 discovery player signings, western New York Flash — 2013–2016 Soon after launch, the league reportedly planned to expand to ten teams for 2014. During the inaugural season, there were rumors of expansion interest from MLS teams Toronto FC, NWSL team owners hinted that expansion for 2014 was not a question of if but how many. By early December, NWSL approved a new run by the Dynamo organization for expansion in 2014
16.
Boston Brawlers
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The Boston Brawlers were a professional American football team based in Boston, Massachusetts. Their primary colors were red, midnight blue and white, similar to Major League Baseballs Boston Red Sox, the team never found an owner willing to keep the team in Boston. The Brawlers would have been the first outdoor professional football team to call the Mahoning Valley home since the Youngstown Patricians, the team had hired Montreal Alouettes offensive coordinator Rick Worman to be head coach for the 2015 season. However, on September 28,2015, a week before the first scheduled game, the Scrappers indicated, while not revealing any details, that the league did not have enough money to operate four teams for the 2015 season. Official Mahoning Valley Brawlers website Official Twitter page
17.
Fall Experimental Football League
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The Fall Experimental Football League was a professional football minor league that played two seasons in 2014 and 2015. This leagues stated goal was to become a feeder system for the National Football League. In the summer of 2013, Brian Woods began work on a plan for a future football development league. The Fall Experimental Football League was announced by Woods on May 7,2014, original targeted markets for teams were New York, Boston, Omaha, Orlando, Portland, and either San Antonio or Memphis with Wednesday games. The league is expected to own two teams outright and four franchised teams, cities in which interest in franchises came from Columbus, Ohio, and Springfield, Missouri. The Miami team became a traveling team, the FXFL debuted on time with the inaugural game in Omaha on October 8,2014 between the Omaha Mammoths and the Boston Brawlers at TD Ameritrade Park with the Mammoths winning 41-18. By Week 3 of the 2014 season, Nivea had become a sponsor of the league, with sponsor logo on the shoulder and helmets, additionally. The inaugural 2014 season was cut short after the November 7 contest, with one regular season game, the decision was made that the Bolts, the team with the best record at 4-0, would be declared the first FXFL Champions, according to ESPN3. Woods also expected Brooklyn and Omaha to return, Woods later backed off plans for expansion and said that 2015 would most likely only have five teams at most. WYTV in Niles, Ohio reported on July 10,2015 that the league was expected to place a franchise in city for the 2015 season. The 2015 season also ended prematurely, with the league office canceling the last regular season game days before it was scheduled to be played. Since the abrupt end of the 2015 season in October, there were no official statements made by the league, the league announced a suspension of operations on September 2,2016. Commissioner Brian Woods has reportedly expressed interest possibly using a former FXFL teams brand in a football league. As its name implies, the league adopted several rule changes differing from those at other levels of the game with some at the request of the NFL. Initial plans for the league had punting, the PAT and kickoffs taken out of the game, extra points were attempted from 35 yards out. Both the NFL and Canadian Football League later adopted similar rules in 2015, all kicks originated at a wide hash mark for a greater difficulty. Kickoffs were taken from the kicking teams 25-yard line, in order to decrease touchbacks, in addition, eight players on the receiving team lined up between the kicking teams 35- and 45-yard lines for the possibility of decreasing high-impact collisions. Once a kickoff passes the 45 yard line, fielding rules became similar to punts in that the team is not allowed to recover
18.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
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National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
20.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
21.
College football
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It was through college football play that American football rules first gained popularity in the United States. No minor league farm organizations exist in American football and it is in college football where a players performance directly impacts his chances of playing professional football. The best collegiate players will declare for the professional draft after 3 to 4 years of collegiate competition. Those not selected can still attempt to land an NFL roster spot as a free agent. Even after the emergence of the professional National Football League, college football remained extremely popular throughout the U. S, in many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests. This allows them to more fans in a given amount of space than the typical professional stadium. College athletes, unlike players in the NFL, are not permitted by the NCAA to be paid salaries, colleges are only allowed to provide non-monetary compensation such as athletic scholarships that provide for tuition, housing, and books. Modern North American football has its origins in various games, all known as football, by the 1840s, students at Rugby School were playing a game in which players were able to pick up the ball and run with it, a sport later known as Rugby football. The game was taken to Canada by British soldiers stationed there and was soon being played at Canadian colleges, the first documented gridiron football match was a game played at University College, a college of the University of Toronto, November 9,1861. One of the participants in the game involving University of Toronto students was William Mulock, a football club was formed at the university soon afterward, although its rules of play at this stage are unclear. In 1864, at Trinity College, also a college of the University of Toronto, F. Barlow Cumberland, modern Canadian football is widely regarded as having originated with a game played in Montreal, in 1865, when British Army officers played local civilians. The game gradually gained a following, and the Montreal Football Club was formed in 1868, early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional mob football played in England. The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century, when games of football began to be played on college campuses. Each school played its own variety of football, Princeton University students played a game called ballown as early as 1820. A Harvard tradition known as Bloody Monday began in 1827, which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes, in 1860, both the town police and the college authorities agreed the Bloody Monday had to go. The Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a figure called Football Fightum. The authorities held firm and it was a dozen years before football was again played at Harvard. Dartmouth played its own version called Old division football, the rules of which were first published in 1871, all of these games, and others, shared certain commonalities
22.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Allston
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Allston is a neighborhood of Boston, located in the western part of the city. It was named after the American painter and poet Washington Allston and it comprises the land covered by the zip code 02134. For the most part, Allston is administered collectively with the adjacent neighborhood of Brighton, the two are often referred to together as Allston–Brighton. Boston Police Department District D-14 covers the Allston-Brighton area and a Boston Fire Department Allston station is located in Union Square which houses Engine 41, Engine 41 is nicknamed The Bull to commemorate the historic stockyards of Allston. Lower Allston, across the Massachusetts Turnpike from the rest of Allston, the estimated population of Allston is 29,196, according to the 2010 Census. The median home cost is $317,000, a decline of 0. 97% in the last year, the cost of living is 9. 81% higher than the national average. The population density is 18, 505/mi2, about 50% higher than the average of 12,166. 76. 45% of residents list status as single, Allston is home to many immigrant populations, the largest groups being from Russia, East Asia, South Asia, and South America. Young adults make up 78. 3% of the neighborhoods population, in addition to nightly dancing and live music at area bars, house parties abound on surrounding streets, particularly during the school year. This has long been a point among other Allston residents. The largest religious affiliation is Catholic, followed by Protestant, unspecified Christian, Jewish, Baptist, the neighborhood of Allston is almost completely cut off from the main body of the city of Boston by the town of Brookline, which borders Allston on the south and southeast. It is connected to the rest of Boston only by a portion of its eastern border that is shared with the Fenway/Kenmore neighborhood. Allston is bordered on the east and north by the Charles River, separating it from the city of Cambridge, the area north of the turnpike near the Charles river is North Allston. It consists of north of Cambridge Street and the Turnpike. It extends westward to Everett Street and eastward to the Charles River, in its center is Allston Square at the crossroads of Western Avenue and North Harvard Street. Allston is named for the painter and 1800 Harvard graduate, Washington Allston. Allston Square is appropriately located halfway between Harvard Square in the North and Allston Village, Bostons Greenwich Village in the South, Allston is the only community in America named for an artist. North Allston is a neighborhood that consists of a mix of young professionals, blue-collar tradesmen, members of the educational community, homeowners
24.
Harvard Crimson football
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The Harvard Crimson football program represents Harvard University in college football at the NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision. Harvards football program is one of the oldest in the world, Harvard is the eighth winningest team in NCAA Division I football history. The Harvard Crimson was one of the dominant forces in the days of intercollegiate football. In both 1919 and 1920, headed by All-American brothers Arnold Horween and Ralph Horween, Harvard was undefeated, the team won the 1920 Rose Bowl against the University of Oregon, 7–6. It was the bowl appearance in Harvard history. In the forty-year period from 1889 to 1928, Harvard had more than 80 first-team All-American selections, under head coach Percy Haughton, Harvard had three consecutive undefeated seasons from 1912 to 1914, including two perfect seasons in 1912 and 1913. Harvard claims the national championships, The NCAA decided to split Division I into two subdivisions in 1978, then called I-A for larger schools, and I-AA for the smaller ones. In 1982, the NCAA created a rule that stated an average attendance must be at least 15,000 to qualify for I-A membership. This forced the hand, as only some of the member schools met the attendance qualification. The Crimson are behind Penn and Dartmouths 18 Ivy League Football Championships, Harvard and Yale have been competing against each other in football since 1875. The annual rivalry game between the two schools, known as The Game, is played in November at the end of the football season, as of 2015, Yale led the series 65-59-8. The Game is the second oldest continuing rivalry and also the third most-played rivalry game in football history, after the Lehigh–Lafayette Rivalry. Sports Illustrated On Campus rated the Harvard–Yale rivalry the sixth-best in college athletics in 2003, ted Kennedy played football for Harvard and caught a touchdown pass in the 1955 Harvard/Yale game. In 2006, Yale ended a losing streak against Harvard. That Harvard winning streak was third longest in the history of the series, after Yales 1902–1907 six-game winning streak, Harvard has since beaten Yale in 2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014 and 2015. The Game is significant for historical reasons as the rules of The Game soon were adopted by other schools. Footballs rules, conventions, and equipment, as well as elements of such as the mascot and fight song, include many elements pioneered or nurtured at Harvard. Harvard Stadium is a football stadium in the Allston neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts
25.
Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
26.
Foxboro Stadium
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Foxboro Stadium, originally Schaefer Stadium and later Sullivan Stadium, was an outdoor stadium located in Foxborough, Massachusetts, United States. The stadium was the site of several games in both the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the 1999 FIFA Womens World Cup, Foxboro Stadium was demolished in 2002 and replaced by Gillette Stadium and the Patriot Place shopping center. The stadium opened in August 1971 as Schaefer Stadium, primarily as the venue for the renamed New England Patriots of the National Football League. The team was known as the Boston Patriots for its first eleven seasons 1960–70, for six seasons, 1963–1968, the Patriots played in Fenway Park, home of baseballs Boston Red Sox. Like most baseball stadiums, Fenway was poorly suited as a football venue and its seating capacity was inadequate—only about 40,000 for football—and many seats had obstructed views. The Boston Patriots played the 1969 season at Alumni Stadium at Boston College in Chestnut Hill, the site was selected when the owners of Bay State Raceway donated the land, midway between Boston and Providence, Rhode Island. The general contractor who built the stadium was a Massachusetts-based company named J. F White Contracting Co, ground was broken in September 1970. It cost $7.1 million —only $200,000 over budget, even allowing for this modest cost overrun, it was still a bargain price for a major sports stadium even by 1970s standards. The original field was Poly-Turf, succeeded by AstroTurf, a natural grass field was installed before the start of the 1991 season. The original name in 1971 was Schaefer Stadium for the brewery of that name in an example of the sale of naming rights. When this agreement expired in 1983, Anheuser-Busch took over the rights, instead of putting the name of one of its brands of beer on the stadium, Anheuser-Busch agreed to name it Sullivan Stadium in honor of the Sullivan family, majority owners of the Patriots. After the family sold their majority interest in the team to Victor Kiam, although the official spelling of the towns name is Foxborough, the shorter spelling was used for the stadium. The venue hosted numerous significant soccer matches, including six games in the 1994 FIFA World Cup, Sullivan Stadium hosted The Whos 25th anniversary tour on July 12 and 14,1989. Metallica and Guns N Roses brought the Guns N Roses/Metallica Stadium Tour to the stadium on September 11,1992, madonna performed her Whos That Girl tour there on July 9,1987, to a sell-out crowd. Bob Dylan and the Grateful Dead recorded a portion of their live album, entitled Dylan & the Dead. Pink Floyd played a two-night stand in May 1988 and they also played a three-night sold-out stand in May 1994 on their The Division Bell Tour which was recorded and readily available on bootleg. The Dave Matthews Band played seven shows at the stadium from 1998 to 2001, the Rolling Stones played three nights on September 27 and 29 and October 1,1989, and on September 4 and 5,1994. Additionally, in 1994, the Drum Corps International World Championships were held in the stadium, by the late 1990s, Foxboro Stadium had become functionally obsolete by modern NFL standards
27.
Foxborough, Massachusetts
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Foxborough is a town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States, about 22 miles southwest of Boston and 18 miles northeast of Providence, Rhode Island. The population was 16,865 at the 2010 census, Foxborough is the official spelling of the town name, although the alternative spelling Foxboro is also frequently used. This alternative spelling is used by the United States Postal Service as the form by which to address mail to recipients in the town although both can be processed by their system. The sign on the post office reads Foxboro, the town is best known as the site of Gillette Stadium, home of the New England Patriots of the National Football League and the New England Revolution of Major League Soccer. The town was home to the worlds largest straw hat factory. Carpenter, the Union Straw Works burned to the ground in the early 20th century, the town post office now stands on the site. Foxborough was composed of neighborhood communities until the early 1900s. These included Foxvale/Paineburgh, which remained semi-independent until the mid-twentieth century, Quaker Hill in South Foxborough, schaefer Stadium opened in 1971 as the home of the New England Patriots, after the football team spent its first eleven seasons playing at various stadiums in Boston. The family of Billy Sullivan owned both the Patriots and the stadium until they sold the team in 1988, the stadium, however, lapsed into bankruptcy and was then bought by paper magnate Robert Kraft. With Kraft in control of Foxboro Stadium, he prevented the Patriots from relocating to St. Louis in 1994 by refusing to let the team break their lease, Kraft then founded the New England Revolution, one of the charter clubs of Major League Soccer, in 1996. Gillette Stadium opened in 2002 as a replacement for Foxboro Stadium, the Patriot Place shopping plaza, built on land surrounding the stadium bought by Kraft, completed construction in 2009. The plaza includes a variety of restaurants, clothing stores, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 20.9 sq mi, of which 20.1 sq mi is land and 0.81 sq mi is water. Foxborough is located at 42°3′54″N 71°14′52″W, foxboroughs climate is humid continental with four distinct seasons, which is the predominant climate for Massachusetts and New England. Summers are typically warm to hot, rainy, and humid, while winters are cold, windy, spring and fall are usually mild, but conditions are widely varied, depending on wind direction and jet stream positioning. The warmest month is July, with a high temperature of 83 °F. The coldest month is January, with a high temperature of 36 °F. Periods exceeding 90 °F in summer and below 10 °F in winter are not uncommon but rarely extended, because of the towns relatively short distance from the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures tend to remain warmer than locations further inland. Like the rest of the seaboard, precipitation is distributed fairly evenly throughout the entire year
28.
1971 New England Patriots season
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The 1971 season New England Patriots season was the teams twelfth, and second in the National Football League. The Patriots finished the season with a record of six wins and eight losses and it was the first season the Patriots played in Schaeffer Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts after playing in three different stadiums the previous three seasons in Boston. During training camp, the Dallas Cowboys traded disgruntled running back Duane Thomas to the Patriots for Carl Garrett and Halvor Hagen. Thomas became embroiled in a conflict with coach John Mazur, prompting Patriots general manager Upton Bell to request that Commissioner Pete Rozelle void the trade three days after it had been made. Rozelle granted Bells request, and the players returned to where they had been prior to the deal. Note, Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972, all of the following players appeared in at least one game for the 1971 New England Patriots
29.
Alumni Stadium
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Alumni Stadium is a football stadium located on the lower campus of Boston College in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, approximately six miles west of downtown Boston. The stadium lies within the city limits of Boston, although its address is Chestnut Hill. It is the home of the Boston College Eagles and its present seating capacity is 44,500. The original grandstands, which could accommodate 2,200 spectators in 1915, were enlarged over the subsequent years to 25,000. Nonetheless Alumni Field often proved too small for BC football games which were held at Fenway Park. On September 21,1957, Alumni Stadium opened on Boston Colleges lower campus, the new stadium incorporated a football field encircled by a regulation track with a seating capacity of 26,000. The dedication game, a match-up with the Midshipmen of the U. S. Naval Academy, was orchestrated with the help of BC benefactor and then-Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy. Alumni Stadium has hosted numerous intellectual and cultural luminaries, religious leaders, in addition to being the permanent home of the Boston College football team, Alumni Stadium hosted the Boston Patriots of the American Football League during the 1969 season. The stadium underwent a renovation before the 1994 season which eliminated the track. Since 1998, a 65-foot -high bubble of inflatable vinyl has covered the stadium from December to March, the field surface itself was converted to FieldTurf before the 2004 season. For the 2012 season, Alumni Stadium was outfitted with new FieldTurf, as the home of the Boston College Eagles, Alumni Stadium has been the site of numerous notable moments in Boston College football history. On September 17,2005, Alumni Stadium hosted BCs inaugural game as a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference
30.
Fenway Park
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Fenway Park is a baseball park located in Boston, at 4 Yawkey Way near Kenmore Square. Since 1912, it has been the home for the Boston Red Sox and it is the oldest ballpark in MLB. It is the fourth-smallest among MLB ballparks by seating capacity, second-smallest by total capacity, Fenway has hosted the World Series ten times, with the Red Sox winning five of them, and the Boston Braves winning one. The first, in the inaugural season, was the 1912 World Series. April 20,2012, marked Fenway Parks centennial, on March 7 of that year, the park was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Former pitcher Bill Lee has called Fenway Park a shrine and it is a pending Boston Landmark which will regulate further changes to the park. Today, the park is considered to be one of the most well-known sports venues in the world, the Red Sox moved to Fenway Park from the old Huntington Avenue Grounds. In 1911, owner John I. Taylor purchased the land bordered by Brookline Avenue, Jersey Street, Van Ness Street and Lansdowne Street and developed it into a larger baseball stadium. However, given that Taylors family also owned the Fenway Realty Company, like many classic ballparks, Fenway Park was constructed on an asymmetrical block, with consequent asymmetry in its field dimensions. The General Contractor was the Charles Logue Building Company, the first game was played April 20,1912, with mayor John F. Fitzgerald throwing out the first pitch and Boston defeating the New York Highlanders, 7-6 in 11 innings. Newspaper coverage of the opening was overshadowed by continuing coverage of the Titanic sinking a few days earlier, Fenway Park has historically drawn low attendance, its lowest occurring late in the 1965 season with two games having paid attendance under 500 spectators. On Wednesday, June 17,2009, the park celebrated its 500th consecutive Red Sox sellout, according to WBZ-TV, the team joined three NBA teams which achieved 500 consecutive home sellouts. The sellout streak ended on April 11,2013, in all the Red Sox sold out 794 regular season games, the parks address was originally 24 Jersey Street. In 1977, the section of Jersey Street nearest the park was renamed Yawkey Way in honor of longtime Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey, and the parks address is now 4 Yawkey Way. Some of the include, In 1934, a hand-operated scoreboard was added, with what was then considered high-technology lights to indicate balls. The scoreboard is updated by hand today from behind the wall. The National League scores were removed in 1976, but restored in 2003, in 1946, upper deck seats were installed, Fenway Park is essentially the first double-tiered ballpark in Boston since the South End Grounds of the 1880s. In 1947, arc lights were installed at Fenway Park, the Boston Red Sox were the third-to-last team out of 16 major league teams to have lights in their home park
31.
1963 Boston Patriots season
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The 1963 Boston Patriots season was the fourth season for the team in the American Football League. The 35–3 road loss to the defending champion Kansas City Chiefs allowed the Buffalo Bills catch up, the teams split their two games during the regular season, with the home team winning, and the host Bills were slight favorites. With the win, Boston became Eastern Division champions, while the Western champion San Diego Chargers were idle, the AFL championship game was played the next week in southern California on January 5, where San Diego routed the Patriots 51–10 at Balboa Stadium. Note, Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972
32.
Nickerson Field
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Nickerson Field is an outdoor athletic stadium in the Northeastern United States, on the campus of Boston University in Boston. Parts of Braves Field, such as the gate and right-field pavilion. The old Braves Field ticket office at Harry Agganis Way also remains, the stadium is now owned by Boston University, and is the home field for some of its Terriers athletics programs, including soccer and lacrosse. It was also the home of the BU football team until the program was discontinued 20 years ago, from the mid-1980s to 1995, the stadium hosted the New England Scholastic Band Associations marching band field show championships. Since its reconfiguration in the 1950s, seven professional sports franchises have used this stadium, in 1975 the Boston Minutemen of the North American Soccer League called Nickerson home. In 1983, the Boston Breakers of the United States Football League played their games here. From 1988 to 1990, the American Soccer Leagues Boston Bolts used the stadium, from 2001 to 2003, the Womens United Soccer Associations Boston Breakers used the stadium. The Boston Cannons of Major League Lacrosse used the stadium as their home from 2004 through 2006, the 2004 and 2005 MLL championships were played at the stadium. The Boston Thirteens of USA Rugby League have played at Nickerson since 2009, Boston University purchased the former home of the Braves on July 30,1953 and renamed it Boston University Field. The stadium inherited its current name from the previous athletic field. That field was taken by eminent domain in 1955 for construction of Route 128, according to the previously referenced article, Nickerson was an MIT graduate who was the principal inventor of the machinery used to manufacture the first Gillette safety razor. In 1955, the Braves Field Grandstand, Left Field Pavilion, the existing Right Field Pavilion was squared off on the west side and filled in on the east side where a section had been removed to accommodate the Braves Field right field foul pole and bullpens. The three buildings overlooking the field coincidentally suggest the outline of the main grandstand section. The stadium has been the home of BU teams longer than it was the home of the Braves, in 1968, the field underwent a renovation. The four Braves Field light towers were dismantled and that year BU became the second college in the United States to install Astroturf. The following year, not only did the BU football team practice on that field, so did the Boston College football team, both used the field to prepare for away games they would play on Astroturf fields. In 2001 antiquated turf was replaced with a newer, more player-friendly artificial surface as part of a deal with the Womens United Soccer Association to host the Boston Breakers games. With a professional team playing at Nickerson the football lines
33.
1960 Boston Patriots season
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The team played their home games at Boston Universitys Nickerson Field. In 1960, the season for both the Boston Patriots and the American Football League, the team played in several important firsts. The first ever AFL exhibition pre-season game was played between the Patriots and the Bills, which the Patriots won. The Patriots also played in the regular season game, a loss to the Broncos on September 9,1960. The field ran from the line to right field. The Patriots started the year going 2–2, before running into a losing streak. They played a home stand, winning three of them to return their record to 5–5, before ending the season on a four-game slide. They finished the year with a 5–9 record, worst in the AFLs Eastern Division, Butch Songin was the leading passer, and Alan Miller the leading rusher. Gino Cappelletti was a back and placekicker the first year. Just before the game, a receiver was slow getting back to the huddle. He was impressive, and would be a receiver for the rest of his career, game 1, The Patriots lost to the Broncos 13–10 in the AFL season opener. The Patriots struck first, with a 34-yard field goal in the first quarter, on the first play of the second quarter, Denver receiver Al Carmichael caught a pass in the flats and scampered 41 yards for a touchdown. In the third quarter, Bronco Gene Mingo took a punt 76 yards for a touchdown, later in the quarter Patriot receiver Jim Colclough lost a fumble on the Denver 38. In the fourth quarter, the Patriots seemed to be on a drive until an interception at the Denver 2. The Broncos then ran 16 plays to run out the clock, game 2, The Patriots won a thriller at the Polo Grounds against the Titans, 28–24. The Patriots dug themselves into a hole, down 24 to 7 in the fourth quarter and they were down 24–21 on the last play of the game. The center, Mike Hudock, gave a low snap to the Titans punter, game 3, The Patriots were shut out 13–0 against the Bills, the highlight being a 58-yard touchdown pass from Tommy OConnell to Carl Smith. Game 4, The Patriots won their first decisive win of the season against the Los Angeles Chargers in Los Angeles and it began with an 11-play drive capped by a Gino Cappelletti field goal
34.
Henry Lee Higginson
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Henry Lee Higginson was the founder of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Higginson was born in New York City on November 18,1834 and he was a distant cousin of Thomas Wentworth Higginson. When he was four years old his family moved to Boston, George jointly founded a brokerage as a junior partner, was extremely patriotic, and never owned a house or a horse of his own until within a few years of his death. Henry’s mother died of tuberculosis, from which she suffered for some time, Henry graduated from Boston Latin School in 1851, only after withdrawing twice due to eye fatigue problems. He began studies at Harvard College, but withdrew after 4 months when he again experienced eye fatigue, Henry Lee Higginson entered the Union Army on May 11,1861, as second lieutenant of Company D in Colonel George H. Gordons 2nd Massachusetts Regiment. In the First Battle of Bull Run, his regiment was ordered to hold the town of Harpers Ferry. Higginson was commissioned major in the cavalry on March 26,1862, on June 17,1863, the 1st Massachusetts Cavalry engaged the soldiers of General J. E. B. Stuart and General Fitzhugh Lees cavalry at the Battle of Aldie, during this battle, Higginson crossed sabers with one of the enemy and was knocked out of his saddle with three saber cuts and two pistol wounds. As his wounds slowly healed in Boston, he married Ida Agassiz, daughter of Harvard professor Louis Agassiz, on December 5,1863. Though he retired from the military with the title of Colonel, after the war, he worked as an agent for the Buckeye Oil Company in Ohio from January to July 1865, purchasing equipment and contracting laborers to work in the oil fields. In October 1865, he and friends paid $30,000 for five acres of cotton-farming land in Georgia. This failed philanthropic adventure left him more than $10,000 in debt and his father had been a junior partner until 1858 and worked until his death in 1889 at age 85. This brokerage and banking company eventually became very profitable, Henry Lee Higginson was eventually a senior partner. The methods in use to-day are very much better than they were years ago. Men dealing with the Exchange are better protected and he allowed that there were still rascals and a good many men who still need watching, but not so many as there have been in years past. He advised his first music director, George Henschel, to only local musicians for the first year so as to avoid creating bad blood in local musical circles. For the first seasons series of 20 concerts, prices were set at $10 or $5 for the whole series, single ticket prices were set at 75 and 25 cents. For the weekly afternoon public rehearsal, seats were unreserved and all priced at 25 cents, tours to more distant cities followed, starting with Philadelphia and then New York
35.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
36.
Panathenaic Stadium
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The Panathenaic Stadium also known as Kallimarmaro, is a multi-purpose stadium in Athens, Greece. One of the attractions of Athens, it is the only stadium in the world built entirely of marble. A stadium was built on the site of a simple racecourse by the Athenian statesman Lykourgos c. 330 BC and it was rebuilt in marble by Herodes Atticus, an Athenian Roman senator, by 144 AD and had a capacity of 50,000 seats. After the rise of Christianity in the 4th century it was largely abandoned, the stadium was excavated in 1869 and hosted the Zappas Olympics in 1870 and 1875. After being refurbished, it hosted the opening and closing ceremonies of the first modern Olympics in 1896 and was the venue for 4 of the 9 contested sports and it was used for various purposes in the 20th century and was once again used as an Olympic venue in 2004. It is the point for the annual Athens Classic Marathon. It is also the last venue in Greece from where the Olympic flame handover ceremony to the host nation takes place, the stadium is built in what was originally a natural ravine between the two hills of Agra and Ardettos, south of the Ilissos river. Up to the 1950s, the River ran in front of the entrance, and the spring of Kallirrhoe, the sanctuary of Pankrates. Originally, since the 6th century BC, a racecourse existed at the site of the stadium and it hosted the Panathenaic Games, a religious and athletic festival celebrated every 4 years in honor of the goddess Athena. The racecourse had no seating and the spectators sat on the natural slopes on the side of the ravine. In the 4th century BC the Athenian statesman Lykourgos built a 850-foot long stadium of Poros limestone, tiers of stone benches were arranged around the track. The track was 669 feet long and 110 feet wide, IG II²351, records that Eudemus of Plataea gave 1000 yoke of oxen for the construction of the stadium and theater. The stadium of Lykourgos is believed to have completed for the Panathenaic Games of 330/329 BC. Donald Kyle suggests that it is possible that Lykourgos did not built, according to Richard Ernest Wycherley the stadium probably had stone seating only for a privileged few. Herodes Atticus, an Athenian who rose to the highest echelons of power in Rome, was responsible for numerous structures in Greece, in Athens he is best known for the reconstruction of the Panathenaic Stadium. Tobin suggests that Herodes built the stadium soon after Atticuss death, the first Greater Panathenaia following his fathers demise was 139/40, and it is probable that at that time Herodes promised the refurbishment of the stadium. According to Philostratus, it was completed four years later, which would have been in 143/4 and these dates are now widely cited as construction dates of the stadium of Herodes Atticus. Welch writes that the stadium was completed by 143 in time for Panathenaic festival, the new stadium was built completely of ashlar masonry in Pentelic marble, using minimal concrete
37.
American football
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The offense must advance at least ten yards in four downs, or plays, or else they turn over the football to the opposing team, if they succeed, they are given a new set of four downs. Points are primarily scored by advancing the ball into the teams end zone for a touchdown or kicking the ball through the opponents goalposts for a field goal. The team with the most points at the end of a game wins, American football evolved in the United States, originating from the sports of association football and rugby football. The first game of American football was played on November 6,1869, during the latter half of the 1870s, colleges playing association football switched to the Rugby Union code, which allowed carrying the ball. American football as a whole is the most popular sport in the United States, Professional football and college football are the most popular forms of the game, with the other major levels being high school and youth football. As of 2012, nearly 1.1 million high school athletes and 70,000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually, almost all of them men, in the United States, American football is referred to as football. The term football was established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season. The terms gridiron or American football are favored in English-speaking countries where other codes of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, American football evolved from the sports of association football and rugby football. What is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6,1869 between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams, the game was played between two teams of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or batted with the feet, hands, head or sides, Rutgers won the game 6 goals to 4. Collegiate play continued for years in which matches were played using the rules of the host school. Representatives of Yale, Columbia, Princeton and Rutgers met on October 19,1873 to create a set of rules for all schools to adhere to. Teams were set at 20 players each, and fields of 400 by 250 feet were specified, Harvard abstained from the conference, as they favored a rugby-style game that allowed running with the ball. An 1875 Harvard-Yale game played under rugby-style rules was observed by two impressed Princeton athletes and these players introduced the sport to Princeton, a feat the Professional Football Researchers Association compared to selling refrigerators to Eskimos. Princeton, Harvard, Yale and Columbia then agreed to play using a form of rugby union rules with a modified scoring system. These schools formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, although Yale did not join until 1879, the introduction of the snap resulted in unexpected consequences. Prior to the snap, the strategy had been to punt if a scrum resulted in bad field position, however, a group of Princeton players realized that, as the snap was uncontested, they now could hold the ball indefinitely to prevent their opponent from scoring. In 1881, both teams in a game between Yale-Princeton used this strategy to maintain their undefeated records, each team held the ball, gaining no ground, for an entire half, resulting in a 0-0 tie
38.
Track and field
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Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running, jumping, and throwing. The name is derived from the sports venue, a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and jumping events take place. Track and field is categorised under the sport of athletics, which also includes road running, cross country running. The foot racing events, which include sprints, middle- and long-distance events, the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who achieves the greatest distance or height. Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also combined events or multi events, such as the pentathlon consisting of five events, heptathlon consisting of seven events, in these, athletes participate in a combination of track and field events. Most track and field events are individual sports with a victor, the most prominent team events are relay races. Events are almost exclusively divided by gender, although both the mens and womens competitions are held at the same venue. It is one of the oldest sports, in ancient times, it was an event held in conjunction with festivals and sports meets such as the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece. The ancient Olympic Games began in the year 776 BC, when Koroibos, a cook from the city of Elis, won the stadium race. According to some traditions, this was the only athletic event of the games for the first 13 Olympic festivals. In modern times, the two most prestigious track and field competitions are athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the governing body. Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, however, if athletes are deemed to have violated the events rules or regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased. In North America, the track and field may be used to refer to other athletics events, such as the marathon. The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory, Track and field-style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested, Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC
39.
Brown Bears football
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The team competes in the NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision and are members of the Ivy League. Browns first football team was fielded in 1878, the team plays its home games at the 20,000 seat Brown Stadium in Providence, Rhode Island. The Bears are coached by Phil Estes, in the middle of the 1926 season, the “Iron Men” came into being when the same 11 players played against Yale for 60 minutes and a 7-0 win. The next week the same 11 players played without substitution against Dartmouth, two weeks later the Iron Men played 58 minutes against Harvard, but in the last two minutes the substitutes came in to earn their letters. Brown won all its games that year until the Thanksgiving game against Colgate ended in a 10-10 tie, in the 1948 season, Brown fans were the originators of the popular de-fense. Chant that spread to the NFL in the 1950s, Brown has 607 wins making them tied for 72nd all time in wins amongst division one football programs. John W. Heisman Tuss McLaughry Frederick D. Pollard Eddie N, the Bears have won the Ivy League title four times in their history. The Bears won their first Ivy League title in 1976, sharing it with Yale while finishing 8-1 on the season, in 1999, the Bears went 9-1, while beating Columbia 23-6 to share the Ivy League title with Yale. In 2005, the Bears finished 9-1, beating Columbia 52-21 in their game in order to clinch their first ever outright Ivy League title. In 2008, the Bears finished 7-3, beating Columbia 41-10 to clinch a share of the Ivy League title, their fourth conference title. The first game in the series occurred in 1893, browns record versus Harvard is 30-84-2. During recent decades the respective squads meet annually the first weekend of the Ivy League football season, Brown has a 31-57-4 record versus Dartmouth. Beginning in 2018 Brown will play New England Ivy League rival Dartmouth in their final game
40.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
41.
Forward pass
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In several forms of football a forward pass is a throwing of the ball in the direction that the offensive team is trying to move, towards the defensive teams goal line. In some football codes, such as football, the kicked forward pass is used so ubiquitously that it is not thought of as a distinct kind of play at all. In these sports, the concept of offside is used to regulate who can be in front of the play or be nearest to the goal, however, this has not always been the case. Some earlier incarnations of football allowed unlimited forward passing, while others had strict offside rules similar to rugby, the development of the forward pass in American football shows how the game has evolved from its rugby roots into the distinctive game it is today. Illegal and experimental forward passes had been attempted as early as 1876, another change in rules occurred on January 18,1951, which established that no center, tackle, or guard could receive a forward pass. Today, the only linemen who can receive a forward pass are the ends, current rules regulate who may throw and who may receive a forward pass, and under what circumstances, as well as how the defensive team may try to prevent a pass from being completed. In American and Canadian football, a pass, usually referred to simply as a pass. This is permitted only once during a scrimmage down by the team before team possession has changed, provided the pass is thrown from in or behind the neutral zone. An illegal forward pass can incur a penalty and the loss of a down, although it may be legally intercepted by the opponents. If an eligible receiver on the passing team legally catches the ball, the pass is completed, if an opposing player legally catches the ball it is an interception. That players team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his opponents goal, if no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an incomplete pass and the ball becomes dead the moment it touches the ground. It will then be returned to the line of scrimmage for the next down. If any player interferes with an eligible receivers ability to catch the ball it is pass interference which draws a penalty of varying degree. The person passing the ball must be a member of the team. The moment that a forward pass begins is important to the game, the pass begins the moment the passers arm begins to move forward. If the passer drops the ball before this moment it is a fumble, in this case anybody can gain possession of the ball before or after it touches the ground. If the passer drops the ball while his arm is moving forward it is a pass, regardless of where the ball lands or is first touched. The quarterback generally either starts a few paces behind the line of scrimmage or drops back a few paces after the ball is snapped
42.
United States Olympic Trials (track and field)
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The United States Olympic Trials for the sport of Track and Field is the quadrennial meet to select the United States representatives at the Olympic Games. Since 1992, the meet has also served as the years USA Outdoor Track, because of the depth of competition in some events, this has been considered by many to be the best track meet in the world. The event is shown on domestic U. S. Television and covered by a members of the worldwide media. As with all Olympic sports, the meet is conducted by the governing body for the sport, currently USA Track and Field. Previous to the formation of TAC in 1979, the governing body for most amateur sports was the Amateur Athletic Union. All countries are allowed to enter a maximum of three athletes into any of the Track and Field events in the Olympics, provided all three athletes have achieved a verifiable A standard performance, a country may enter one athlete in an event having achieved a B standard. Or, insignificant to the U. S. team, a country is allowed one single if it has no athletes who have achieved a B standard. The standards are published well in advance of the meet and provides approximately a year and these were the standards for 2008. These were the standards for the 2012 Olympics and these are the standards in 2016, entry to the United States Olympic Trials is open to any U. S. Citizen who has achieved the A standard, and based on superior performance, since 1972 there have been a minimum of 24 entries in any event, with the popular sprint events 100 meters,200 meters,400 meters and 110 meter hurdles having a minimum of 32 entries. Since 1992, athletes achieving the A standard are funded to attend the Olympic Trials, unlike many other countries, who have a selection committee, the selection to the United States Olympic Team is exclusively by results on the track. Its do or die in the prescribed event, if fewer than two athletes in an event final have met the A standard, then the best finisher in the Trials who has met the B standard is on the Olympic team, with the second-best being an alternate. Should no athletes who competed in an event meet the B standard, prior to 1908, the United States Olympic team was selected. The 1908 and 1912 teams were selected based on regional trials, there were no Olympic Trials in 1916 due to World War I, nor 1940 and 1944 due to World War II, though Olympic marathon team members were named in 1940. The mens trials in 1968 were held at high elevation in northern California at Echo Summit, until 1972 the Womens Olympic Trials were held separately. Also until 1972, the Mens Olympic trials conducted semi-final trials earlier in the season, some events, including the Marathon and Racewalk frequently have separate Olympic Trials. The 1980 Olympic team was named but did not participate due to the 1980 Olympic Boycott declared by President Jimmy Carter
43.
Music festival
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A music festival is a festival oriented towards music that is sometimes presented with a theme such as musical genre, nationality, or locality of musicians, or holiday. They are commonly held outdoors, and are inclusive of other attractions such as food and merchandise vending, performance art. Many festivals are annual, or repeat at some other interval, some, including many rock festivals, are held only once. Some festivals are organized as for-profit concerts and others are benefits for a specific cause, another type of music festival is the educative type, organized annually in local communities, regionally, or nationally, for the benefit of amateur musicians of all ages and grades of achievement. The Pythian Games at Delphi included musical performances, and may be one of the earliest festivals known, during the Middle Ages, festivals were often held as competitions. Entrants perform prepared pieces in front of an audience which includes competitors and they also usually receive a certificate, classified according to merit, and some may win trophies. The competitive element is played down, however, as the important aspect is that participants can learn from one another. Such festivals aim to provide a friendly and supportive platform for musicians to share in the excitement of making music, for many, they provide a bridge from lessons and examinations to performing confidently in public. Milwaukee, Wisconsins 11-day event, Summerfest, promotes itself as The Worlds Largest Music Festival, operating annually since 1968, the festival attracts between 800,000 and 1,000,000 people each year, and hosts over 800 musical acts. The Woodstock Festival in 1969 drew nearly 500,000 attendees, the largest annual greenfield music festival in the world is Roskilde Festival in Denmark, which attracts about 135,000 spectators each year. Glastonbury Festival has a capacity of about 175,000 spectators, for a more complete listing of active and defunct festivals by region, see Category, Music festivals by country. Some sections may also have links to related lists of music festivals by country, L. my.1 Festival, Biddinghuizen Dekmantel, Amsterdam Festival Mundial, Tilburg Incubate, Tilburg Le Guess Who. Born 1985 Salas Principales Auditorio Alfredo Kraus, Las Palmas y Auditorio Adán Martin, Tenerife. com – The most extensive music festival listings
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