1.
USS Noble (APA-218)
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USS Noble was a Haskell-class attack transport which saw service with the US Navy in World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. She was later transferred to the Spanish Navy in the 1964 under a mutual assistance agreement,2, Richmond, California, as a modified Victory ship, completed by the Kaiser Shipyard at Richmond, launched 18 October 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Maxine C. Jones, acquired by the Navy 27 November 1944, and commissioned the same day, Commander, later Rear Admiral, nobles primary mission was to transport to a combat area the men and some of the material necessary for an assault on an enemy shore. Her main armament, her group, was designed to deliver her troops and cargo to the beach in a planned. After discharging troops and equipment, she could evacuate casualties or prisoners of war, in January 1945, Noble steamed westward to participate in the Okinawa campaign. Upon termination of the war, she assisted in the delivery of released allied prisoners of war from Korea to the Philippines and she also participated in Operation Magic Carpet, returning servicemen from the Pacific to the United States. Noble was attached to the US Atlantic Fleet from 1946 through 1949, operating out of Norfolk, Noble returned to San Diego 13 September 1949, and was undergoing overhaul at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, San Francisco, when war broke out in Korea in June 1950. In August, she steamed to Korea to participate in the September Inchon amphibious assault, thereafter, she assisted in the transport of US and foreign troops and equipment to and from the Korean combat zone. In July 1953, she participated in Operation Big Switch, moving Communist North Korean prisoners from Koje Do to Inchon pursuant to the armistice agreement, subsequent to the Korean War, Noble conducted training operations in both the eastern and western Pacific areas. In 1955, she assisted in the evacuation of Chinese civilians, at the outset of the Cuban Missile Crisis 27 October 1962, Noble embarked 1,400 Marines with their equipment and steamed for the Caribbean in company with other Pacific Fleet amphibious units. She returned to San Diego in December, then deployed to WestPac in March 1963 for a tour with the 7th Fleet Amphibious Ready Group, Noble returned to San Diego in December 1963, and conducted upkeep and training operations until she decommissioned 1 July 1964. She then entered the Mare Island Naval Shipyard for preparation for transfer to Spain under the Mutual Assistance Program, the transfer ceremony took place 19 December, at San Francisco. Renamed attack transport Aragón, by the Spanish Navy, the ship served until being laid up and she was sold for scrap in 1987. ^Noble Noble County, Indiana, was named for Noah Noble, citations Photo gallery of USS Noble at NavSource Naval History
2.
Attack transport
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Attack transport is a United States Navy ship classification for a variant of ocean-going troopship adapted to transporting invasion forces ashore. Unlike standard troopships – often drafted from commercial shipping fleets – that rely on either a quay or tenders and they are not to be confused with landing ships, which beach themselves to bring their troops directly ashore, or their general British equivalent, the Landing ship, infantry. A total of 388 APA and AKA attack transports were built for service in World War II in at least fifteen classes, depending on class they were armed with one or two 5-inch guns and a variety of 40 mm and 20 mm anti-aircraft weapons. Some of these were outfitted with heavy boat davits and other arrangements to enable them to handle landing craft] for amphibious assault operations. In 1942, when the AP number series had extended beyond 100. Therefore, the new classification of attack transport was created and numbers assigned to fifty-eight APs then in commission or under construction, the actual reclassification of these ships was not implemented until February 1943, by which time two ships that had APA numbers assigned had been lost. Another two transports sunk in 1942, USS George F. Elliott and USS Leedstown, were configured as attack transports. In addition, as part of the 1950s modernization of the Navys amphibious force with faster ships, as a result, only attack transport ships were assigned for the assault, without support from any companion attack cargo ships. This created extreme logistics burdens for the force because it resulted in considerable overloading of the transports with both men and equipment. To compound problems, these forces were not able to assemble or train together before executing the Aleutian invasion on 11 May 1943, lack of equipment and training subsequently resulted in confusion during the landings on Attu. By the end of the 1950s, it was clear that boats would soon be superseded by amphibious tractors and helicopters for landing assault troops. These could not be supported by attack transports in the numbers required, by 1969, when the surviving attack transports were redesignated LPA, only a few remained in commissioned service. The last of these were decommissioned in 1980 and sold abroad, the APA/LPA designation may, therefore, now be safely considered extinct. Nearly identical ships used to transport vehicles, supplies and landing craft, Landing Ship Infantry This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. APA/LPA -- Attack Transports by the US Naval Historical Center
3.
California Shipbuilding
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California Shipbuilding Corporation built 467 Liberty and Victory ships during World War II, including Haskell-class attack transports. California Shipbuilding Corporation was often referred to as Calship, the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships sometimes refers to this shipyard as California Shipbuilding Co. but Co appears to be an error. The Calship shipyard was created at Terminal Island in Los Angeles, California, bechtel Co. was given sponsorship and executive direction of Calship. As of 1940, Los Angeles shipyards had not built a ship in 20 years. By late 1941 though, shipbuilding had become the second largest manufacturing industry in the Los Angeles area, Calship was created from scratch and began production of Liberty Ships in May 1941. In the early 1940s, contracts from the U. S. Department of Maritime Commission, the yard was located on 175 acres on the north side of Terminal Island, north of Dock Street, near present-day berths 210-213. It initially had 8 ways, and later increased this to 14,40,000 men and women worked under the military contract to construction of 467 vessels over 5 years. The combination of ships were known as the Liberty Fleet. These cargo ships were designed for construction with lower costs for them. Thirteen months after commencing production, the broke the record by delivering 15 Liberty Ships in June 1942. It delivered 111 ships in 1942, more than any other yard in the United States, in June 1943, it broke the record again by delivering 20 ships for the month, and yet again in December 1943, delivering 23 ships. Large Navy contracts developed shipbuilding in California, as a result of that, many workers migrated to the work area. Many shipyards sprang up from San Francisco to San Diego, at the peak of shipbuilding in California were involved 282000 persons. Shipbuilding became an efficient wartime industry. The building of vessels and the number of jobs in the shipbuilding peaked in mid-1943, the Kaiser Steel plant in Fontana, California was completed in August 1943, which enabled further production increases at Calship. Between September 27,1941 and September 27,1945, the yard launched 467 ships, the Calship yard was known as the city built on invisible stilts. It was situated on ground, and was built on artificial earth supported by 57,000 piles driven into the mud. Shipbuilding commenced before the docks were even completed
4.
Kaiser Shipbuilding
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Henry John Kaiser was an American industrialist who became known as the father of modern American shipbuilding. He established the Kaiser Shipyards, which built Liberty ships during World War II, after which he formed Kaiser Aluminum, Kaiser organized Kaiser Permanente health care for his workers and their families. He led Kaiser-Frazer followed by Kaiser Motors, automobile companies known for the safety of their designs, Kaiser was involved in large construction projects such as civic centers and dams, and invested in real estate. With his wealth, he established the Kaiser Family Foundation, a nonprofit, non-partisan, Kaiser was born on May 9,1882, in Sprout Brook, New York, the son of Franz and Anna Marie Kaiser, ethnic German immigrants. Kaisers first job was as a boy in an Utica, New York. He worked as an apprentice photographer early in life, and was running the studio in Lake Placid by the age of twenty. He used his savings to move to Washington state on the west coast of the United States in 1906, where he started a construction company that fulfilled government contracts. Kaiser met his wife, Bess Fosburgh, the daughter of a Virginia lumberman. They married on April 8,1907, and had two children, Edgar Kaiser, Sr and Henry Kaiser, Jr, in 1914 Kaiser founded a paving company, Henry J. Kaiser Co. Ltd. one of the first to use heavy construction machinery. His firm expanded significantly in 1927 when it received a contract to build roads in Camagüey Province. In 1931 his firm was one of the contractors in building the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River. Henry Kaiser was an advocate of bringing American aid to those suffering from Nazi aggression in Europe. S. Still fretted over preserving its isolationism, many leading industrialists, such as Henry Ford, were pro-Fascist and adamantly against the US entering that conflict until December 7,1941. These ships became known as Liberty ships and were supplemented in the mid-war by improved. He became world-renowned when his teams built a ship in four days, the previous record had been 10 days for the Liberty ship Joseph M. Teal. A visit to a Ford assembly plant by one of his associates led to the decision to use welding instead of riveting for shipbuilding. Welding was advantageous in that it took less strength and it was easier to teach thousands of employees, mostly unskilled laborers, Kaiser adopted the use of subassemblies in ship construction, formerly, hundreds of laborers crowded together to complete a ship. Though this practice had been tried on the East Coast and in Britain, other Kaiser Shipyards were located in Ryan Point on the Columbia River in Washington state and on Swan Island in Portland, Oregon
5.
Gilliam-class attack transport
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The Gilliam-class attack transport was a class of attack transport built for service with the US Navy in World War II. Like all the transports, the Gilliam-class was heavily armed with antiaircraft weaponry to protect itself. The Gilliam-class utilized the Maritime Commission s Type S4-SE2-BD1 hull, all 32 vessels of the class were built under MARCOM contracts by the Consolidated Steel Corporation of Wilmington, California. The first of the ships, the USS Gilliam, rolled off the Wilmington ways on 28 March 1944 and was commissioned on 1 August 1944, the rest rapidly followed, a new Gilliam-class vessel rolling of the shipways at an average of roughly one per week until April 1945. As they arrived late in the war, Gilliam-class ships did not get much chance to see combat. Regardless, all of them spent a part of their time on troop transport, cargo. At the end of the war, the US Navy found itself with far more ships than it required in peacetime, some of these ships were dispensed with in Operation Crossroads, the atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll in the summer of 1946. These tests were designed to assess the effects of nuclear detonations on shipping, for the purpose, the Navy collected somewhere between 70 and 90 unwanted ships to use as targets, some captured from the enemy and some of the Navys own. Since the Gilliam-class had a transport and cargo capacity to many of the other attack transport classes. 17 of the Gilliam-class were duly selected to act as targets in the tests, in the event, one - USS Appling - was reprieved, so exactly half of the class 32 ships were designated as targets. A few were found to have escaped the radioactive fallout and were taken back to the United States. These survivors, along with the rest of the class, were decommissioned in late 1946-early 1947, the sole exception was the USS Burleson, which although decommissioned along with the remainder of the class, remained in use with the Navy as a training ship until 1 September 1968. Other than this one vessel, it appears the entire class of ships saw barely more than two years service of any description before being scrapped, see the individual ship entries at DANFS Online. Information on those vessels missing at this site can be found at Navsource Online, an alternative reference for dates and basic information is the Attack Transport Index page of Navsource Online
6.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1886)
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The Westinghouse Electric Corporation was an American manufacturing company. It was founded on January 8,1886, as Westinghouse Electric Company and later renamed Westinghouse Electric Corporation by inventor, George Westinghouse had previously founded the Westinghouse Air Brake Company. The corporation purchased CBS broadcasting company in 1995 and became CBS Corporation in 1997, Westinghouse Electric was founded by George Westinghouse in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1886. The firm became active in developing electric infrastructure throughout the United States, in addition to George Westinghouse, early engineers working for the company included Frank Conrad, Benjamin Garver Lamme, Oliver B. Shallenberger, William Stanley, Nikola Tesla, Stephen Timoshenko and Vladimir Zworykin, early on Westinghouse was a rival to Thomas Edisons electric company. In 1892 Edison was merged with Westinghouses chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, making even bigger competitor, Westinghouse changed its name to Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1945. Westinghouse purchased CBS in 1995 and became CBS Corporation in 1997, in 1998, CBS established a brand licensing subsidiary Westinghouse Licensing Corporation. In 1997/1998 the Power Generation Business Unit, headquartered in Orlando, Florida, was sold to Siemens AG, a year later, CBS sold all of its nuclear power businesses to British Nuclear Fuels Limited. Soon after, BNFL gained license rights on the Westinghouse trademarks and that company was sold to Toshiba in 2007. The first commercial Westinghouse steam turbine generator, a 1,500 kW unit. The machine, nicknamed Mary-Ann, was the first steam turbine generator to be installed by a utility to generate electricity in the US. George Westinghouse had based his original steam turbine design on designs licensed from the English inventor Charles Parsons. or were built overseas under Westinghouse license. Major Westinghouse licensees or joint venture partners included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries of Japan and Harbin Turbine Co. Westinghouse boasted 50,000 employees by 1900, and established a formal research and development department in 1906. While the company was expanding, it would experience internal financial difficulties, during the Panic of 1907, the Board of Directors forced George Westinghouse to take a six-month leave of absence. Westinghouse officially retired in 1909 and died years later in 1914. Under new leadership, Westinghouse Electric diversified its business activities in electrical technology and it acquired the Copeman Electric Stove Company in 1914 and Pittsburgh High Voltage Insulator Company in 1921. Westinghouse also moved into broadcasting by establishing Pittsburghs KDKA, the first commercial radio station. Westinghouse expanded into the business, establishing the Westinghouse Elevator Company in 1928
7.
Joshua Hendy
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The Joshua Hendy Iron Works was an American engineering company that existed from the 1850s to the late 1940s. It was at one time a leader in mining technology and its equipment was used to build the Panama Canal. The company was named for its founder Joshua Hendy, born in Cornwall, England in 1822, Hendy at the age of 13 migrated with two brothers to South Carolina in the United States. Hendy built Californias first redwood lumber mill, the Benicia Sawmill, in 1856, he established the Joshua Hendy Iron Works in San Francisco to supply equipment to Gold Rush placer miners. The Hendy plant supplied various equipment to the mining industry, Hendy giant hydraulic crushers were used to excavate the Panama Canal. After Joshua Hendy died in 1891, management of the company was taken over by his nephews Samuel, in 1906 a fire devastated the original San Francisco factory, and the company was re-established in Sunnyvale, California after the local government enticed the company with free land. During World War I, the Hendy plant gained its first experience building marine engines by supplying 11 triple expansion engines for cargo ships built by Western Pipe & Steel. Each engine weighed about 137 tons and stood 24½ feet high, although the first marine engines built by Hendy, they proved to be reliable, with most providing many years of service. Essentially the same engine was used for production of US Liberty ship engines in World War II. In the early 1920s, Hendys hydraulic mining equipment was used in the regrading of Seattle, with the onset of the Great Depression however, and hampered by indifferent management, the Hendy Iron Works - like many other heavy equipment manufacturers of the era - fell on hard times. The company adapted by finding new markets, for example by contracting for the building of giant gates and valves for the schemes of the Hoover, Boulder. During this period it also produced equipment as diverse as crawler tractors, freight car wheel pullers, parts for internal combustion engines, some of the ornate street lamps built by the company can still be seen in San Franciscos Chinatown district today. By the late 1930s the company was in difficulties and had shrunk to a shadow of its former self. The company was in the process of being taken over by the Bank of California in 1940 when businessman Charles E. Moore, with the support of the Six Companies. By 1942, with the US governments wartime Emergency Shipbuilding Program getting underway, the company was then contracted to build 118 triple expansion steam engines for the Liberty ships. As the war progressed and the shipbuilding program continued to expand. Moore responded by streamlining production at the Joshua Hendy plant and he introduced more advanced assembly line techniques, standardizing on more production parts and enabling less skilled workers to accomplish tasks formerly carried out by skilled machinists. By 1943, the company had reduced the required to manufacture a marine steam engine from 4,500 hours to 1,800 hours
8.
Allis-Chalmers
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Allis-Chalmers was a U. S. manufacturer of machinery for various industries. It was reorganized in 1912 as the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company, in the 1980s and 1990s a series of divestitures transformed the firm and eventually dissolved it. Its successors today are Allis-Chalmers Energy and AGCO, author-photographer Randy Leffingwell aptly summarized the firms origins and character. He observed that it grew by acquiring and consolidating the innovations of various firms and building upon them. Financial successes and failures brought them together, former marketing executive Walter M. Buescher said that Allis-Chalmers was a conglomerate before the word was coined. Edward P. Allis was an entrepreneur who in 1860 bought a bankrupt firm at an auction, the Reliance Works of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Decker & Seville were millwrights who made equipment for flour milling, under Alliss management, the firm was reinvigorated and began producing steam engines and other mill equipment just at the time that many sawmills and flour mills were converting to steam power. Although the financial panic of 1873 caught Edward Allis overextended and forced him into bankruptcy, his own reputation saved him and reorganization came quickly, forming the Edward P. Allis Company. Allis died in 1889, but under his sons and the principals, the firm continued to prosper. Thomas Chalmers was a Scottish immigrant to America who came to the U. S. about 1842, by 1844 he was at Chicago, Illinois and had found work with P. W. Gates, whose foundry and blacksmithing shops produced plows, wagons, and flour-milling equipment. The Gates firm built the first steam-operated sawmill in the country at a time when Chicago was the producer of milled lumber in the country. In 1872, Thomas Chalmers founded the Fraser & Chalmers firm to manufacture mining machinery, boilers, by 1880 steam engines were part of the product line and by 1890, the firm had become one of the worlds largest manufacturers of mining equipment. Thomas Chalmerss son, William James Chalmers, was president of the company from circa 1890 to 1901, meanwhile, the Gates Iron Works, with Chalmers family involvement, had become a manufacturer of crushers, pulverizers, and other rock and cement milling equipment. Another Scottish immigrant family, the Dickson family, came to Canada, by 1852, they had organized a small machine shop and foundry in Scranton, Pennsylvania. In 1856 Thomas Dickson became its president, and in 1862 the firm incorporated as the Dickson Manufacturing Company, by 1900 they were building boilers, steam engines, locomotives, internal combustion engines, blowers, and air compressors. By 1901 the principals of the Edward P. Allis, Fraser & Chalmers, edwin Reynolds believed Allis could control the industrial engine business. In May 1901 the Allis-Chalmers Company was formed and it acquired Dicksons industrial engine business. Dicksons locomotive business was rolled into the new consolidation, the American Locomotive Company
9.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
10.
Babcock & Wilcox
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Babcock & Wilcox Enterprises is an American power generation company headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. The company was founded in 1867 in Providence, Rhode Island by partners Stephen Wilcox and George Babcock as Babcock, Wilcox & Company to manufacture, built nuclear-powered surface ship, NS Savannah. B&Ws boilers supply more than 300,000 megawatts of installed capacity in over 90 countries around the world, a reactor from B&W was destroyed by a nuclear meltdown in the Three Mile Island accident. During World War II, over half of the US Navy fleet was powered by Babcock & Wilcox boilers, the company has its headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. B&W also has joint major joint venture companies in Beijing and the Indian city of Pune, on June 30,2015, Babcock & Wilcox completed a spinoff from BWX Technologies, its former parent which is now headquartered in Lynchburg, Virginia. The two companies began trading separately on July 1, B&W employs approximately 5,700 people, in addition to several thousand joint venture employees. B&W PGG and its subsidiaries have facilities in Ohio, Wisconsin, Arona, Italy, Beijing, China, Esbjerg, Denmark, Babcock & Wilcox MEGTEC LLC B&W SPIG Diamond Power International, Inc. The boilers more safely generated higher pressure steam and was more efficient than existing designs, in 1891, Babcock & Wilcox Ltd is established as a separate United Kingdom company, to be responsible for all sales outside the US and Cuba. In 1902 the New York Citys first subway is powered by B&W boilers, during 1907 and 1909 Theodore Roosevelts Great White Fleet were powered by B&W Boilers. In 1929 B&W installs the worlds first commercial size recovery boiler using the magnesium bisulfite process in Quebec, between 1941 and 1945 B&W designed and delivered 4,100 marine boilers for combat and merchant ships, including 95 percent of the US fleet in Tokyo Bay at Japanese surrender. In 1942, the developed the cyclone furnace. Between 1943 and 1945 B&W provided components, materials and process development for Manhattan Project, between 1949 and 1952 B&W provided the 8 boilers for the SS United States, the fastest ocean liner ever constructed. Between 1953 and 1955 B&W designed and fabricated components for USS Nautilus, in 1961 B&W designed and supplied reactors for world’s first commercial nuclear ship NS Savannah. In 1962 B&W designed and furnished reactor systems for B&Ws first commercial reactor, Indian Point, in 1975 B&W designed and built components for liquid metal fast breeder reactors. In 1975 the long term agreements with the British Babcock & Wilcox Ltd were ended. Subsequently, the British company was renamed Babcock International Group plc, in 1978 B&W designed and built the nuclear reactor that was involved in the Three Mile Island accident. In 1999 B&W was awarded the contract to develop fuel cells, on February 22,2000, B&W filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in part as a result of thousands of claims for personal injury due to prolonged exposure to asbestos and asbestos fibers. Claims included asbestosis, lung cancer, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, as a condition of emerging from bankruptcy, B&W created a trust fund to compensate victims, but for amounts far less than settlements paid in individual personal injury lawsuits
11.
Combustion Engineering
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Originally headquartered in New York City, C-E moved its corporate offices to Stamford, Connecticut in 1973. C-E owned over three other companies including Lummus Company, National Tank Company and the Morgan Door Company. Former workers have gone on to leadership positions in major engineering firms. The company was acquired by Asea Brown Boveri in early 1990, the boiler and fossil fuel businesses were purchased by Alstom in 2000, and the nuclear business was purchased by Westinghouse Electric Company also in 2000. Combustion Engineering was organized in 1912 through the merger of the Grieve Grate Company, the company was originally headquartered on 11 Broadway and at 43 -5 -7 Broad Street, both in Lower Manhattan. The city block was leased from the Alliance Realty Company in April 1920, in May of the same year the firm began construction of an eight story office building on the same site. During the 1920s, C-Es signature boiler equipment was the English designed Type-E stoker, C-E also offered several other types of underfeed stokers in addition to the Type-E. During the 1920s, all of C-Es stokers were fabricated in manufacturing plants along the Monongahela River south of Pittsburgh, in 1925 C-E entered the steam boiler business, beginning with a steam boiler installed at the Ford Motor Companys River Rouge Plant in Dearborn, MI. C-E also acquired two companies in Chattanooga, TN to augment its manufacturing capabilities. In the 1970s C-E acquired the first Recycling Wire Granulation System from a young entrepreneur/inventor, the stripped alloy would go into a containment device and the dross would go into another. Both to be recycled, therefore avoiding the rapidly overflowing landfills, during the Great Depression, C-E formed a partnership with the Superheater Company. The Locomotive Superheater Company was founded in 1910 to further the use of superheated steam in locomotives, the Superheater Companys primary manufacturing facility was located in East Chicago, Indiana. In December 1948 stockholders approved a merger between the Combustion Engineering Company and Superheater Company, following consolidation the corporation was called Combustion Engineering-Superheater Inc. In September 1950 the firm announced plans to build a large high-pressure generating unit for Virginia Electric & Power Company in Chester, in 1953, the name Superheater was eliminated and the company took the more familiar name - Combustion Engineering, Inc. At this time, C-E primarily designed and built boiler assemblies for conventional power plants, in the mid-1950s, C-E also expanded its operations into oil and gas exploration, production, refining, and petrochemicals with the acquisition of the Lummus Company located in Bloomfield, NJ. Lummus also supplied small industrial steam systems for oil field enhanced recovery. C-E was one of the suppliers of boilers for US Navy steam-powered warships. Amongst many other warships, all of the 46 Knox class frigates built during the 1960s and 1970s were equipped with a 1200 PSI C-E power plant, C-E also was a leader in the development of large coal utility steam supply systems which were used worldwide
12.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
13.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
14.
Landing Craft Mechanized
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The landing craft mechanized also landing craft mechanical is a landing craft designed for carrying vehicles. They came to prominence during the Second World War when they were used to land troops or tanks during Allied amphibious assaults. There was no design of LCM used, unlike the landing craft, vehicle, personnel or landing craft assault landing craft made by the US. There were several different designs built by the UK and US, the British motor landing craft was conceived and tested in the 1920s and was used from 1924 in exercises. It was the first purpose built landing craft. It was the progenitor of all subsequent LCM designs, the landing craft, mechanised Mark I was an early British model. It was able to be slung under the davits of a liner or on a cargo ship boom with the result that it was limited to a 16-ton tank, the LCM Mark I was used during the Allied landings in Norway, and at Dieppe and some 600 were built. Displacement,35 tonnes Length,13.6 m Width,4.27 m Draught,1.22 m Machinery, approximately 150 were built by American Car & Foundry and Higgins Industries. A Higgins LCM-3 is on display at the Battleship Cove maritime museum in Fall River, outwardly, the LCM was almost completely identical to a late model LCM - the difference lay inside the pontoon. Here special bilge pumps and special ballast tanks allowed the LCM to alter trim to increase stability when partially loaded, British model of LCM An LCM extended by 6 feet amidships. Many were later adapted as armoured troop carriers for the Mobile Riverine Force in the Vietnam War, power plant,2 Detroit 6-71 diesel engines,348 hp sustained, twin shaft, or 2 Detroit 8V-71 diesel engines,460 hp sustained, twin shaft Length,56
15.
LCVP (United States)
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The landing craft, vehicle, personnel or Higgins boat was a landing craft used extensively in amphibious landings in World War II. The craft was designed by Andrew Higgins based on boats made for operating in swamps, more than 20,000 were built, by Higgins Industries and licensees. Typically constructed from plywood, this shallow-draft, barge-like boat could ferry a platoon-sized complement of 36 men to shore at 9 knots. Men generally entered the boat by climbing down a cargo net hung from the side of their troop transport, they exited by charging down the boats bow ramp. Satisfactory in most respects, the major drawback appeared to be that equipment had to be unloaded. However, it was put into production and service as the craft, personnel. The LCP had two gun positions at the bow. The LCP, commonly called the U-boat or the Higgins boat, was supplied to the British, to whom it was known as the R-boat. Within one month, tests of the ramp-bow Eureka boat in Lake Pontchartrain showed conclusively that successful operation of such a boat was feasible and this boat became the Landing Craft, Personnel or LCP. The machine gun positions were still at the front of the boat, the design was still not ideal, because the ramp was a bottleneck for the troops, as was the case with the British Landing Craft Assault of the year before. The next step was to fit a full-width ramp, now troops could leave en masse and a small vehicle such as a Jeep could be carried, this new version became the LCVP, or simply, the Higgins boat. The machine gun positions were moved to the rear of the boat, at just over 36 ft long and just under 11 ft wide, the LCVP was not a large craft. Powered by a 225-horsepower Diesel engine at 12 knots, it would sway in choppy seas, since its sides and rear were made of plywood, it offered limited protection from enemy fire. The Higgins boat could hold either a 36-man platoon, a jeep and its shallow draft enabled it to run up onto the shoreline, and a semi-tunnel built into its hull protected the propeller from sand and other debris. The steel ramp at the front could be lowered quickly and it was possible for the Higgins boat to swiftly disembark men and supplies, reverse itself off the beach, and head back out to the supply ship for another load within three to four minutes. If Higgins had not designed and built those LCVPs, we never could have landed over an open beach, the whole strategy of the war would have been different. Only a few Higgins boats have survived, often with modifications for post-War use. A remarkably preserved Higgins boat, with the original Higgins motor, was discovered in a yard in Valdez, Alaska
16.
LCPL
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Lance corporal is a military rank, used by many armed forces worldwide, and also by some police forces and other uniformed organizations. It is below the rank of corporal, and is typically the lowest non-commissioned officer and it can be translated as one who has broken a lance in combat, and is therefore a leader. Lance or lances fournies was also a used in Medieval Europe to denote a unit of soldiers. In Commonwealth forces, a corporal is usually the second in command of a section. Lance corporals are commonly addressed as corporal, with lance jack or half-screw being common colloquialisms for the rank, much like the use of bombardier instead of corporal in artillery units, lance corporals are known as lance-bombardiers in the UK, Australia and New Zealand. The badge of rank is a 1-bar chevron worn on both sleeves or on an epaulette, Lance corporal is the lowest of the non-commissioned officer ranks in the Australian Army and New Zealand Army, falling between private and corporal. It is the appointed rank, and thus demotion is easier than with other ranks. A lance corporal is usually the second in command of a section, there is no equivalent rank within the Royal Australian Air Force or Royal Australian Navy. Second corporal was formerly used in Australia in the same way that it was used in the British Army. The Canadian Forces abolished the Canadian Army rank of corporal on their creation as a unified force in 1968. The rank of trained private equates to OR-3 and wears the single chevron, Lance corporal is the lowest ranking non-commissioned officer in the British Army and Royal Marines, between private and corporal. The badge of rank is a one-bar chevron worn on both sleeves, or on an epaulette on the front of the Combat Soldier 95 dress standard, the Royal Artillery uses the term lance-bombardier instead. The designation chosen man, used during the Napoleonic Wars, was a precursor to the rank, the date of introduction of lance corporals to the British Army is unclear. The first reference to a corporal in the London Gazette is in 1831. However, the first mention of the rank in The Times is in 1819, the first mention in the London Gazette of a lance corporal in the Royal Marines is in 1838. The Royal Engineers and Army Ordnance Corps also used the rank of second corporal. Until 1920, bombardiers in the Royal Artillery were equivalent to second corporals, in the infantry, a lance corporal usually serves as second-in-command of a section and commander of its delta fire team. It is also a commonly held by specialists such as clerks, drivers, signallers, machine-gunners
17.
5"/38 caliber gun
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The Mark 12 5/38 caliber gun was a US naval gun. The gun was installed into Single Purpose and Dual Purpose mounts used primarily by the US Navy, the 38 caliber barrel was a mid-length compromise between the previous United States standard 5/51 low-angle gun and 5/25 anti-aircraft gun. The increased barrel length provided greatly improved performance in both anti-aircraft and anti-surface roles compared to the 5/25 gun, however, except for the barrel length and the use of semi-fixed ammunition, the 5/38 gun was derived from the 5/25 gun. Both weapons had power ramming, which enabled rapid fire at high angles against aircraft, the 5/38 entered service on USS Farragut, commissioned in 1934. The base ring mount, which improved the rate of fire, entered service on USS Gridley. Even this advanced system required nearly 100 rounds of ammunition expenditure per aircraft kill, however, the planes were normally killed by shell fragments and not direct hits, barrage fire was used, with many guns firing in the air at the same time. Base ring mounts with integral hoists had a rate of fire of 15 rounds per minute per barrel, however. On pedestal and other mounts lacking integral hoists,12 to 15 rounds per minute was the rate of fire, useful life expectancy was 4600 effective full charges per barrel. The 5/38 cal gun was mounted on a large number of US Navy ships in the World War II era. It was backfitted to many of the World War I-era battleships during their wartime refits and it has left active US Navy service, but it is still on mothballed ships of the United States Navy reserve fleets. It is also used by a number of nations who bought or were given US Navy surplus ships, each mount carries one or two Mk 12 5/38cal Gun Assemblies. The gun assembly shown is used in single mounts, and it is the gun in twin mounts. It is loaded from the left side, the left gun in twin mounts is the mirror image of the right gun, and it is loaded from the right side. The Mk12 gun assembly weighs 3,990 lb, the major Mk12 Gun Assembly characteristics are,158 Semi-automatic During recoil, some of the recoil energy is stored in the counter-recoil system. That stored energy is used during counter-recoil to prepare the gun for the next round, the firing pin is cocked, the breech is opened, the spent powder case is ejected, and the bore is air cleaned. Hand loaded A Projectile-Man and a Powder-Man are stationed at each gun assembly and their job is to move the round, consisting of a projectile and a powder case, from the hoists to the rammer tray, and then start the ram cycle. The hydraulically driven Rammer Spade, called the Power Spade in that picture, is at the back of the Rammer Tray, if the multiple names of the Spade is confusing, look at this footnote. Vertical sliding-wedge breech block The breech block closes the chamber behind the powder case and it also holds the firing pin assembly
18.
Bofors 40 mm gun
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The Bofors 40 mm gun, often referred to simply as the Bofors gun, is an anti-aircraft/multi-purpose autocannon designed in the 1930s by the Swedish arms manufacturer AB Bofors. It was one of the most popular medium-weight anti-aircraft systems during World War II, a small number of these weapons remain in service to this day, and saw action as late as the Gulf War. In the post-war era the original design was not suitable for action against jet powered aircraft, so Bofors introduced a new model of more power. In spite of sharing almost nothing with the design other than the calibre and the distinctive conical flash hider. Although not as popular as the original L/60 model, the L/70 remains in service to this day, especially as a weapon for light armored vehicles. Bofors itself has been part of BAE Systems AB since March 2005, the Swedish Navy purchased a number of 2 pounder Pom-Poms from Vickers as anti-aircraft guns in 1922. The Navy approached Bofors about the development of a capable replacement. Bofors signed a contract in late 1928, Bofors produced a gun that was a smaller version of a 57 mm semi-automatic gun developed as an anti-torpedo boat weapon in the late 19th century by Finspong. Their first test gun was a re-barreled Nordenfelt version of the Finspong gun, testing of this gun in 1929 demonstrated that a problem existed feeding the weapon in order to maintain a reasonable rate of fire. A mechanism that was enough to handle the stresses of moving the large round was too heavy to move quickly enough to fire rapidly. One attempt to solve this problem used zinc shell cases that burned up when fired and this proved to leave heavy zinc deposits in the barrel, and had to be abandoned. This seemed to be the solution they needed, improving firing rates to a level. During this period Krupp purchased a share of Bofors. Krupp engineers started the process of updating the Bofors factories to use equipment and metallurgy. The prototype was completed and fired in November 1931, and by the middle of the month it was firing strings of two and three rounds. Changes to the mechanism were all that remained, and by the end of the year it was operating at 130 rounds per minute. Continued development was needed to turn it into a suitable for production. Since acceptance trials had been passed the year before, this known as the 40 mm akan M/32
19.
Oerlikon 20 mm gun
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The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
20.
Amphibious assault ship
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An amphibious assault ship is a type of amphibious warfare ship employed to land and support ground forces on enemy territory by an amphibious assault. The design evolved from aircraft carriers converted for use as helicopter carriers, coming full circle, some amphibious assault ships now have a secondary role as aircraft carriers, supporting V/STOL fixed-wing aircraft. Most of these ships can carry or support landing craft. The largest fleet of these types is operated by the United States Navy, including the Tarawa class dating back to the 1970s and this does not include the amphibious transport dock, and dock landing ship. In the Pacific theater of World War II, escort carriers would often escort the landing ships, in this role, they would provide air cover for the troopships as well as fly the first wave of attacks on the beach fortifications in amphibious landing operations. In addition, they would also transport aircraft and spare parts from the US to the remote island airstrips, despite all the progress that was seen during World War II, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be free of obstacles, and have the right tidal conditions. However, the development of the helicopter fundamentally changed the equation, the first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the invasion of Egypt during the Suez War in 1956. In this engagement, two British light fleet carriers, Ocean and Theseus, were converted to perform an airborne assault with helicopters. The techniques were developed further by American forces during the Vietnam War, the modern amphibious assault can take place at virtually any point of the coast, making defending against them extremely difficult. Most early amphibious assault ships were converted from small aircraft carriers and their sister ship HMS Hermes was also converted to a commando carrier in the early 1970s, but was restored to aircraft carrier operations before the end of the 1970s. Later amphibious assault craft were constructed for the role, the United States Navy is also designing a new class of assault ships, the first America-class ship entered service in October 2014. The first British ship to be constructed specifically for the assault role was HMS Ocean. Most modern amphibious assault ships have a deck, allowing them to launch landing craft in rougher seas than a ship that has to use cranes or a stern ramp. Due to their aircraft carrier heritage, all amphibious assault ships resemble aircraft carriers in design, landing craft are also carried, either on deck-mounted davits, or in an internal well deck
21.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
22.
Landing craft
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Landing craft are boats and seagoing vessels used to convey a landing force from the sea to the shore during an amphibious assault. Most renowned are those used to storm the beaches of Normandy, the Mediterranean and this was the high point of the landing craft, with a significant number of different designs produced in large quantities by the United Kingdom and United States. Because of the need to run up onto a beach, World War II landing craft were flat-bottomed. This made them difficult to control and very uncomfortable in rough seas, the control point was normally at the extreme rear of the vessel, as were the engines. In all cases, they were known by a derived from the official name rather than by the full title. In the days of sail, the boats were used as landing craft. They transported 1,200 men in the first landing and took on board 600 men in less than 2 hours for the second landing, during World War I, the mass mobilization of troops equipped with rapid-fire weapons quickly rendered such boats obsolete. Initial landings during the Gallipoli campaign took place in unmodified rowing boats that were vulnerable to attack from the Turkish shore defenses. In February 1915, orders were placed for the design of purpose built landing craft, a design was created in four days resulting in an order for 200 X Lighters with a spoon-shaped bow to take shelving beaches and a drop down frontal ramp. The first use took place after they had been towed to the Aegean and performed successfully in the 6 August landing at Suvla Bay of IX Corps, commanded by Commander Edward Unwin. X Lighters, known to the soldiers as Beetles, carried about 500 men, displaced 135 tons and were based on London barges being 105 feet 6 inches long,21 feet wide, the engines mainly ran on heavy oil and ran at a speed of approximately 5 knots. The sides of the ships were bulletproof, and was designed with a ramp on the bow for disembarkation, a plan was devised to land British heavy tanks from pontoons in support of the Third Battle of Ypres, but this was abandoned. Despite this outlook, the British produced the Motor Landing Craft in 1920, the craft could put a medium tank directly onto a beach. From 1924, it was used with landing boats in annual exercises in amphibious landings, a prototype motor landing craft, designed by J. Samuel White of Cowes, was built and first sailed in 1926. It weighed 16 tons and had an appearance, having a square bow. To prevent fouling of the propellers in a craft destined to spend time in surf and possibly be beached, a crude waterjet propulsion system was devised by Whites designers. A Hotchkiss petrol engine drove a pump which produced a jet of water, pushing the craft ahead or astern. Speed was 5-6 knots and its capacity was good
23.
Asiatic-Pacific Theater
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The Asiatic-Pacific Theater, was the area of operations of U. S. forces during World War II in the Pacific War during 1941-45. From mid-1942 until the end of the war in 1945, there were two U. S. operational commands in the Pacific. The Pacific Ocean Areas, divided into the Central Pacific Area, the North Pacific Area, the South West Pacific Area, including New Guinea, Philippines, Borneo, and the Dutch East Indies, was commanded by General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific Area. During 1945, the United States added the U. S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, commanded by General Carl Spaatz. Because of the roles of the United States Army and the United States Navy in conducting war in the Pacific Theater. There was no command, rather, the Asiatic-Pacific Theater was divided into the SWPA, the POA. The Official Chronology of the U. S. Navy in World War II, in the Service of the Emperor, Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Kafka, Roger, Pepperburg, Roy L. Warships of the World, the Campaigns of the Pacific War. A History of Us, War, Peace and all that Jazz, joint Operational Warfare, Theory and Practice. Newport, Rhode Island, United States Naval War College, the Battle for Leyte,1944, Allied and Japanese Plans, Preparations, and Execution
24.
USMC
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
25.
US Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
26.
Battle of Iwo Jima
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The Battle of Iwo Jima was a major battle in which the United States Marine Corps landed on and eventually captured the island of Iwo Jima from the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II. This five-week battle comprised some of the fiercest and bloodiest fighting of the War in the Pacific of World War II, after the heavy losses incurred in the battle, the strategic value of the island became controversial. It was useless to the U. S. Army as a staging base, however, Navy Seabees rebuilt the landing strips, which were used as emergency landing strips for USAAF B-29s. The Imperial Japanese Army positions on the island were heavily fortified, with a network of bunkers, hidden artillery positions. The American ground forces were supported by naval artillery, and had complete air supremacy provided by U. S. Navy. Japanese combat deaths numbered three times the number of American deaths, although uniquely among Pacific War Marine battles, American total casualties exceeded those of the Japanese. Of the 21,000 Japanese soldiers on Iwo Jima at the beginning of the battle, only 216 were taken prisoner, despite the bloody fighting and severe casualties on both sides, the Japanese defeat was assured from the start. Joe Rosenthals Associated Press photograph of the raising of the U. S. flag on top of the 169 m Mount Suribachi by six U. S, Marines became an iconic image of the battle and the American war effort in the Pacific. All indications pointed to an American drive toward the Mariana Islands, in March 1944, the Japanese 31st Army, commanded by General Hideyoshi Obata, was activated to garrison this inner line. The commander of the Japanese garrison on Chichi Jima was placed nominally in command of Army, after the American conquest of the Marianas, daily bomber raids from the Marianas hit the mainland as part of Operation Scavenger. Iwo Jima served as an early warning station that radioed reports of incoming bombers back to mainland Japan and this allowed Japanese air defenses to prepare for the arrival of American bombers. At the same time, with reinforcements arriving from Chichi Jima and the home islands, in addition, it was used by the Japanese to stage air attacks on the Mariana Islands from November 1944 through January 1945. The capture of Iwo Jima would eliminate these problems and provide an area for Operation Downfall – the eventual invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The distance of B-29 raids could be cut in half, American intelligence sources were confident that Iwo Jima would fall in one week. In light of the intelligence reports, the decision was made to invade Iwo Jima. American forces were unaware that the Japanese were preparing a complex and deep defense, by June 1944, Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi was assigned to command the defense of Iwo Jima. While drawing inspiration from the defense in the Battle of Peleliu, takeichi Nishis armored tanks were to be used as camouflaged artillery positions. This network of bunkers and pillboxes favored the defense, for instance, The Nanpo Bunker, which was located east of Airfield Number 2, had enough food, water and ammo for the Japanese to hold out for three months
27.
Battle of Okinawa
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The 82-day-long battle lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945. The Tenth was unique in that it had its own air force. The battle has been referred to as the typhoon of steel in English, the nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese kamikaze attacks, and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the Pacific, with an total of over 82,000 direct casualties on both sides,14,009 Allied deaths and 77,417 Japanese soldiers. Allied grave registration forces counted 110,071 dead bodies of Japanese soldiers,149,425 Okinawans were killed, committed suicide or went missing, a significant proportion of the estimated pre-war 300,000 local population. As part of the operations surrounding the battle, the Japanese battleship Yamato was sunk. After the battle, Okinawa provided an anchorage, troop staging areas. Expeditionary Troops under Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. with Tenth Army, TF56 was the largest force within TF50 and was built around the 10th Army. The army had two corps under its command, III Amphibious Corps, consisting of 1st and 6th Marine Divisions, the 2nd Marine Division was an afloat reserve, and Tenth Army also controlled the 27th Infantry Division, earmarked as a garrison, and 77th Infantry Divisions. In all, the Army had over 102,000 soldiers, at the start of Battle of Okinawa 10th Army had 182,821 men under its command. It was planned that General Buckner would report to Turner until the phase was completed. Although Allied land forces were composed of U. S. units. Although all the carriers were provided by Britain, the carrier group was a combined British Commonwealth fleet with British, Canadian, New Zealand and Australian ships. Their mission was to neutralize Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, most of the air-to-air fighters and the small dive bombers and strike aircraft were U. S. Navy carrier-based airplanes. The Japanese land campaign was conducted by the 67, 000-strong regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku naval base, supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people. The Japanese had used kamikaze tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major kamikaze attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes. The 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th, and 62nd Divisions, the 9th Division was moved to Taiwan prior to the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lt. General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one
28.
Allies of World War II
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The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese, at the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland was a minor factor after its defeat in 1939, France was a minor factor after its defeat in 1940. China had already been into a war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942, however, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the Big Three – the UK, the Soviet Union, in 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I, Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republics legitimacy became shaken, by the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German-populated Austria. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement, in Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933, after four quiet years, the Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japans actions and initiated sanctions on Japan, the United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country, also, the French had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the powers. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, a Polish government-in-exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini
29.
Tokyo Bay
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Tokyo Bay is a bay located in the southern Kantō region of Japan, and spans the coasts of Tokyo, Kanagawa Prefecture, and Chiba Prefecture. Tokyo Bay is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Uraga Channel and its old name was Edo Bay. The Tokyo Bay region is both the most populous and largest industrialized area in Japan, in ancient times, Japanese knew Tokyo Bay as the uchi-umi or inner sea. By the Azuchi-Momoyama period the area had become known as Edo Bay, the bay took its present name of Tokyo Bay in modern times, after the Imperial court moved to Edo and renamed that city as Tokyo in 1868. Tokyo Bay juts prominently into the Kantō Plain and it is surrounded by the Bōsō Peninsula in Chiba Prefecture to the east and the Miura Peninsula in Kanagawa Prefecture to the west. The shore of Tokyo Bay consists of a plateau and is subject to rapid marine erosion. Sediments on the shore of the bay make for a smooth, in a narrow sense, Tokyo Bay is the area north of the straight line from Cape Kannon on the west of Miura Peninsula to Cape Futtsu on the east Bōsō Peninsula. This area covers about 922 square kilometres, in a broader sense, Tokyo Bay includes the Uraga Channel. By this definition the bay opens from a north of the straight line from Cape Tsurugisaki on the east of Miura Peninsula to Cape Sunosaki on the west of the Boso Peninsula. This area covers about 1,100 square kilometres, the area of Tokyo Bay combined with the Uraga Channel covers 1,500 square kilometres. The shoal between Cape Futtsu in Chiba Prefecture and Cape Honmaku in Yokohama is known as Nakanose, and has a depth of 20 metres, north of this area the bay has a depth of 40 metres and an uncomplicated submarine topography. Areas south of Nakanose are significantly deeper moving towards the Pacific Ocean, the only natural island in Tokyo Bay is Sarushima at Yokosuka, Kanagawa Prefecture. Sarushima was one of the locations fortified with coastal artillery during the Bakumatsu period and was incorporated into the Tokyo Bay Fortress during the Meiji period. The Imperial Japanese Navy maintained a station on the island until the end of World War II. The island is now uninhabited and is a marine park, many artificial islands were built as naval fortifications in the Meiji and Taishō period. After World War II these islands were converted to residential or recreational use, Odaiba, also known as Daiba, was one of six artificial islands constructed in 1853 as a fortification to protect the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo, and was known as the Shinagawa Daiba. After World War II Odaiba was incorporated into Tokyo and redeveloped for commercial and recreational use, after World War II Yumenoshima was planned as a solution to dispose of the large quantities of garbage from the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. The island was constructed between 1957 and 1967 and hosts numerous recreational facilities, hakkei Island, formerly Landfill Number 14, was constructed in 1985 and is home to Yokohama Hakkeijima Sea Paradise
30.
Yokosuka
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Yokosuka is a city in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. As of June 2012, the city has an population of 414,960. The total area is 100.7 km2, Yokosuka is the 11th most populous city in Greater Tokyo, and the 12th in the Kantō region. Yokosuka occupies most of Miura Peninsula, and is bordered by the mouth of Tokyo Bay to the east, kanazawa-ku, Yokohama Miura Hayama Zushi The area around present-day Yokosuka city has been inhabited for thousands of years. Archaeologists have found tools and shell middens from the Japanese Paleolithic period and ceramic shards from the Jōmon. During the Heian period, local warlord Muraoka Tamemichi established Kinugasa Castle in 1063 and he became the ancestor of the Miura clan, which subsequently dominated eastern Sagami Province for the next several hundred years. The Miura clan supported Minamoto no Yoritomo in the foundation of the Kamakura shogunate, following the defeat of the Late Hōjō clan at the Battle of Odawara, Toyotomi Hideyoshi transferred Tokugawa Ieyasu to take control over the Kantō region, including Yokosuka in 1590. The adventurer William Adams, the first Briton to set foot in Japan, in 1612, he was granted the title of samurai and a fief in Hemi within the boundaries of present-day Yokosuka, due to his services to the Tokugawa shogunate. A monument to William Adams is a landmark in Yokosuka. During the Edo period, Yokosuka tenryō territory controlled directly by the Tokugawa shogunate, due to its strategic location at the entrance to Tokyo Bay, the Shogunate established the post of Uraga Bugyō in 1720, and all shipping into the bay was required to stop for inspection. The Kanrin Maru sailed from Yokosuka in 1860 with the first Japanese diplomatic embassy to the United States in 1860, Yokosuka Naval Arsenal became the first modern arsenal to be created in Japan. The construction of the arsenal was the point of a global modern infrastructure. Modern buildings, the Hashirimizu waterway, foundries, brick factories, Yokosuka Village was elevated to town status in 1878 and was made the capital of Miura District. In 1889, the Yokosuka Line railway was opened, connecting Yokosuka to Yokohama, Yokosuka was elevated to city status on February 15,1907. Yokosuka Naval Arsenal also continued to expand in the early 20th century, and its production included such as Yamashiro. Smaller warships were constructed at the privately owned Uraga Dock Company, Yokosuka Naval District was the home port of the IJN 1st Fleet. The Great Kantō earthquake of 1923 caused severe damage to Yokosuka, the city continued to expand in 1933 with the annexation of neighboring Kinugasa Village and Taura Town in 1933 and Kurihama Village in 1937. In 1943, the city annexed the neighboring towns and villages of Uraga, Kitashimoura, Okusu, Nagai and Takeyama
31.
Operation Magic Carpet
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Hundreds of Liberty ships, Victory ships, and troop transports began repatriating soldiers from Europe in June 1945. Beginning in October 1945, over 370 navy ships were used for duties in the Pacific. Warships, such as carriers, battleships, hospital ships. The European phase of Operation Magic Carpet concluded in February 1946 while the Pacific phase continued until September 1946, as early as mid-1943, the United States Army had recognized that, once victory was won, bringing the troops home would be a priority. More than 16 million Americans were in uniform, and more than eight million of them were scattered across all theaters of war worldwide, Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall established committees to address the logistical problem. Eventually organization of the operation was given to the War Shipping Administration, eligibility for repatriation was determined by the Advanced Service Rating Score. The Navy was excluded from the initial European sealift, as the Pacific War was far from over, the WSA ordered the immediate conversion of 300 Liberty and Victory cargo ships into transports. Adequate port and docking facilities were also serious considerations along with the necessary to take the veterans to demobilization camps after they reached Americas shores. The first homeward-bound ships left Europe in late June 1945, and by November, in mid-October 1945 the United States Navy donated the newly commissioned carrier USS Lake Champlain – fitted with bunks for 3,300 troops – to the operation. She was joined in November by the battleship USS Washington, the European lift now included more than 400 vessels. Some would carry as few as 300 while the large liners often squeezed 15,000 aboard, the WSA and the army also converted 29 troopships into special carriers for war brides, for the almost half a million European women who had married American servicemen. The Magic Carpet fleet also included 48 hospital ships, these more than half a million wounded. Nor was this a one-way stream, returned to Europe were more than 450,000 German prisoners of war, in addition to 53,000 Italian ex-POWs. Between May and September 1945,1,417,850 were repatriated, between October 1945 to April 1946, another 3,323,395 were repatriated. By the end of February, the ETO phase of Magic Carpet was essentially completed, with the surrender of Japan, the navy also began bringing home sailors and marines. Stopping at Okinawa, they embarked thousands more Tenth United States Army troops, the navy fleet of 369 ships included 222 assault transports,6 battleships,18 cruisers,57 aircraft carriers and 12 hospital ships. By October 1945, Magic Carpet was operating worldwide with the Army, Navy, december 1945 became the peak month with almost 700,000 returning home from the Pacific. With the final arrival of 29 troop transports carrying more than 200,000 soldiers and sailors from the China-Burma-India theater in April 1946, the last of the troops to return from the Pacific war zone arrived home in September 1946
32.
Sealift
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Sealift is a term used predominantly in military logistics and refers to the use of cargo ships for the deployment of military assets, such as weaponry, vehicles, military personnel, and supplies. It complements other means of transport, such as strategic airlifters, Sealift shipping falls into three broad categories, dry cargo freighters, liquid tankers, and passenger or troop ships. Sealift can also be divided into strategic and tactical sealift, strategic sealift is the transportation of vehicles and equipment to a staging area equipped with port facilities, with personnel arriving by other methods. Tactical sealift occurs when a ship is carrying personnel along with vehicles and equipment, some smaller navies have built multi-role vessels that combine sealift with other capabilities, such as those of a patrol frigate or a command-and-control vessel. The Royal Danish Navys Absalon-class and the Royal New Zealand Navys multi-role vessel HMNZS Canterbury being two examples, Sealift refers to the re-supply of isolated communities with fuel, building materials, foodstuffs, vehicles and other goods. This is the most common used for the coastal communities of northern Canada due to the lower cost. An annual occurrence in the Arctic, the sealift is usually performed between July and October, when the sea is ice free, typically two types of ships are used, the older, less-seen cargo ship and the more usual tugboat. While both types also haul barges, the ship also carries cargo on deck. Most Arctic communities do not have a port and cranes to unload the supplies, where the community does not have a dock, the ship either must ground itself or the barges. Supplies are then removed by forklift truck which is carried on board. The interior of the barges are used to fuel and other supplies are carried in containers on deck. Power projection United States Navy Military Sealift Command Royal Navys Royal Fleet Auxiliary Littoral warfare Loss of Strength Gradient Seabasing Over-the-beach capability U. S, merchant Marine Academy This article incorporates public domain text from the United States Department of Defense Joint Publication 4-01
33.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
34.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
35.
Maritime Commission
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It also formed the United States Maritime Service for the training of seagoing ships officers to man the new fleet. The purpose of the Maritime Commission was multifold as described in the Merchant Marine Acts Declaration of Policy. S, Merchant Marine prior to the Act. Another function given to the Commission involved the formation of the U. S. Maritime Service for the training of seagoing ships officers to man the new fleet, the actual licensing of officers and seamen still resided with the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation. President Roosevelt nominated Joseph P. Kennedy first head of the Commission, Kennedy held that position until February 1938 when he left to become US Ambassador to Great Britain. The other four members of the Commission in the years before the beginning of World War II were a mix of retired officers and men from disciplines of law. The man most notable in the group Land brought to the Commission was Commander Howard L. Vickery, USN, as a symbol of the rebirth of the U. S. Upon the U. S. entry into World War II, America was requisitioned by the U. S. Navy and became USS West Point. Most of the C2s and C3s were converted to Navy auxiliaries, notably attack cargo ships, attack transports, the Commission also was tasked with the construction of many hundred military type vessels such as Landing Ship, Tank s and Tacoma-class frigates and large troop transports. By the end of the war, U. S. shipyards working under Maritime Commission contracts had built a total of 5,777 oceangoing merchant, in early 1942 both the training and licensing was transferred to the U. S. S. With the end of World War II, both the Emergency and Long Range shipbuilding programs were terminated as there were far too many merchant vessels now for the Nations peacetime needs. In 1946, the Merchant Ship Sales Act was passed to sell off a portion of the ships previously built during the war to commercial buyers. Although not sold outright to nations that were enemies during the war, for the next 25 years, in ports all around the world one could find dozens of ships which had been built during the war but which now were used in peace. Ships not disposed of through the Ship Sales Act were placed one of eight National Defense Reserve Fleet sites maintained on the Atlantic, Pacific. On several occasions in the postwar years ships in the fleets were activated for both military and humanitarian aid missions. The last major mobilization of the NDRF came during the Vietnam War, since then, a smaller fleet of ships called the Ready Reserve Force has been mobilized to support both humanitarian and military missions. The Maritime Commission was abolished on 24 May 1950, and its functions were divided between the U. S. S. Merchant Marine Academy which had built and opened during World War II. 1936, Merchant Marine Act abolishes Shipping Board and establishes Maritime Commission,1937, Joseph P. S. merchant shipping has been held by many agencies since 1917
36.
Victory ship
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The Victory ship was a class of cargo ship produced in large numbers by North American shipyards during World War II to replace losses caused by German submarines. A total of 531 Victory ships were built, one of the first acts of the United States War Shipping Administration upon its formation in February 1942 was to commission the design of what came to be known as the Victory class. The design was an enhancement of the Liberty ship, which had successfully produced in extraordinary numbers. Victory ships were larger than Liberty ships,14 feet longer at 455 feet,6 feet wider at 62 ft. Displacement was up just under 1,000 tons, to 15,200, with a raised forecastle and a more sophisticated hull shape to help achieve the higher speed, they had a quite different appearance from Liberty ships. To make them vulnerable to U-boat attacks, Victory ships made 15 to 17 knots,4 to 6 knots faster than the Libertys. The extra speed was achieved through more modern, efficient engines, most used steam turbines, which had been in short supply earlier in the war and reserved for warships. All were oil-fired, but for a handful of Canadian vessels completed with both coal bunkers and oil tanks, another improvement was electrically powered auxiliary equipment, rather than steam-driven machinery. To prevent the hull fractures that a few Liberty ships developed and these were manned by United States Navy Armed Guard personnel. The VC2-S-AP5 Haskell-class attack transports were armed with the 5-inch stern gun, one quad 40 mm Bofors cannon, four dual 40 mm Bofors cannon, the Haskells were operated and crewed exclusively by U. S. Navy personnel. The Victory ship was noted for good proportion of cubic between holds for a ship of its day. A Victory ships cargo hold one, two and five hatches are a single rigged with a capacity of 70,400,76,700, and 69,500 bale cubic feet respectively. Victory ships hold three and four hatches are double rigged with a capacity of 136,100 and 100,300 bale cubic feet respectively. Victory ship have built in mast, booms and derrick cranes, the first vessel was SS United Victory launched at Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation on 12 January 1944 and completed on 28 February 1944, making her maiden voyage a month later. American vessels frequently had a name incorporating the word Victory, the British and Canadians used Fort and Park respectively. Although initial deliveries were slow—only 15 had been delivered by May 1944—by the end of the war 531 had been constructed, because the Atlantic battle had been won by the time that the first of the Victory ships appeared none were sunk by U-boats. Three were sunk by Japanese kamikaze attack in April of 1945, many Victory ships were converted to troopship to bring US soldiers home at the end of World War II as part of Operation Magic Carpet. A total of 97 Victory ships were converted to carry up to 1,600 soldiers
37.
War Shipping Administration
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The War Shipping Administration was a World War II emergency war agency of the US government, tasked to purchase and operate the civilian shipping tonnage the US needed for fighting the war. Both shipbuilding under the Maritime Commission and ship allocation under the WSA to Army, land who continued as head of the Maritime Commission while also heading the WSA. A shortage of vessels further complicated by requirements to take out of service for conversion and armament was of concern at the highest levels. Harry Hopkins reporting directly to the President, differences between the organizations and lack of decisive authority short of the President limited the boards effectiveness. Upon establishment of the WSA the Strategic Shipping Board continued in existence in a diminished role under the Joint Chiefs of Staff. On February 7,1942, the WSA was established by President Franklin Delano Roosevelts Executive Order No.9054, February 7,1942 as the U. S. had entered the war. The WSA was administratively split off from the United States Maritime Commission, established in 1936 and those included the production of Liberty ships and Victory ships among other types. The U. S. fleet expanded to some 3,500 dry cargo vessels, on a practical level The Maritime Commission and the WSA worked closely together under the administration of Vice Admiral Emory S. Land at the head of each and it became apparent immediately when this Nation entered the war that a special agency to deal with the operational problems peculiar to war was necessary to supplement the Maritime Commission. Thus WSA became the Governments ship operating agency and the Maritime Commission its shipbuilding agency, under that authority cargo hulls were allocated to either commerce, Army or Navy. Many of the Armys ships and Naval transports were allocated by WSA, WSA, through its agents, directly operated ships in support of the services and civilian requirements. After the war, WSA vessels were used to home the huge number of armed personnel overseas, as part of Operation Magic Carpet. Over 3,500,000 men were brought home from overseas areas by December 1,1945, on September 1,1946, the WSA functions were returned to the Maritime Commission. Combined Shipping Adjustment Board United States Merchant Marine Victory ship Ships for Victory, A History of Shipbuilding under the U. S. Maritime Commission in World War II, ISBN 0-8018-6752-5 LCCN2001018657 United States Government Manual,1945 War Shipping Administration section American Merchant Marine at War
38.
Emergency Shipbuilding program
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The Emergency Shipbuilding Program was a United States government effort to quickly build simple cargo ships to carry troops and material to allies and foreign theatres during World War II. Run by the U. S. Maritime Commission, the program built almost 6,000 ships, by the fall of 1940, the British Merchant Navy was being sunk in the Battle of the Atlantic by Germanys U-Boats faster than the United Kingdom could replace them. Led by Sir Arthur Salter, a group of men called the British Merchant Shipping Mission came to North America from the UK to enlist U. S. and Canadian shipbuilders to construct merchant ships. As all existing U. S. shipyards capable to constructing ocean-going merchant ships were occupied by either work of building ships for the U. S. Navy or for the U. S. S. Ship repairer Todd Shipyards which had its headquarters in New York City in league with the shipbuilder Bath Iron Works located in Bath and that yard was to be called the Todd-California Shipbuilding Corp. It was slated to be built on the flats of Richmond on the east side of the Bay. Kaiser, who headed the Kaiser Companies, and John A. McCone, contracts for both yards and the ships was signed on December 20,1940. The first of these vessels, the SS Ocean Vanguard was launched at the Todd-California yard on October 15,1941, immediately the Commission authorized that the two yards building for the British build ships for the U. S. upon completion of their current contracts. S. In this first wave of seven additional yards were added to those in Maine and California. One of the new yards planned for construction was to be in Baltimore and that facility became known as the Bethlehem-Fairfield shipyard for the Fairfield section of Baltimore where it was located. On the West Coast it had yards in San Pedro and San Francisco and that yard was to be called the North Carolina Shipbuilding Company. On the West Coast, one yard was contracted to be built in Los Angeles at Terminal Island and that yard would be called the California Shipbuilding Corporation or CalShip for short. The Kaiser Corporation itself received a contract to build a new yard on the Columbia River at Portland, in 1941, the manufacturers of steam turbines in the U. S. With that, the Liberty ship was adopted as the emergency type to be built. As 1941 progressed, the construction of the emergency yards accelerated rapidly, the ships ordered this second wave included 112 emergency type, the remainder were standard type vessels and tankers. After this time the original Kaiser yard became known as Richmond #1, after the May 27 Declaration of Unlimited National Emergency by the President, the Emergency Program was further expanded in a third wave. To accommodate the addition of ships to be built, additional ways were added to the yards in the program. In total this increase raised the output of all merchant shipbuilders to approximately 500 ships for 1942 and 700 ships in 1943
39.
Captain's gig
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The captains gig /ˈɡɪɡ/ is a boat used on naval ships as the captains taxi. In general, during the era of wooden ships, it was smaller and lighter than the longboat and it was usually crewed by four oarsmen, and a coxswain. Generally the oarsmen sat one to a seat, but each only rowed a single oar on alternating sides, the gig was not as sea kindly as the longboat, but was used mostly in harbors. The gigs generally had a high wineglass transom, full skeg, full keel, straight stem, there was in general very little rocker in the keel. The gunwales on many were nearly straight from bow to stern and it appears to be the precursor to the Whitehall Rowboat. Some wooden captains gigs were quite large and were powered by sail, with the coming of metal ships and combustion engines the size of the captains gig increased and the boats could transport more sailors swiftly. Some modern built craft with sails have been named captains gig as well and these boats were typically painted with a white superstructure and gray hull with a red waterline stripe and black hull below the waterline. They would also frequently have the parent ships hull number marked on the port, in early 2008, in an economy move, Captains Gigs were eliminated from all U. S. Navy aircraft carriers. In science fiction, the term is used to refer to a small auxiliary spacecraft. In Star Trek, the craft are referred to as a captains yacht, cornish pilot gig, a larger boat which used to be used to transport pilots out to ships
40.
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
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USS St. Mary's (APA-126)
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USS St. Marys was a Haskell-class attack transport of the US Navy. She was built and used during World War II and she was of the VC2-S-AP5 Victory ship design type. St. Marys was named for St. Marys County, Maryland and she is the fourth of four US Navy ships to bear that name. Arriving in Seeadler Harbor on the 21st, she offloaded her cargo and steamed to Humboldt Bay, New Guinea, during the remainder of February and most of March, she trained with units of the 77th Division for Operation Iceberg, the assault on Okinawa. On 21 March, she cleared Leyte Gulf with TG51.1, five days later, she landed some of her troops on Kerama Retto, then stood by to take on casualties. On 26 April, St. Marys departed the kamikaze target area, on 24 May, she steamed for Guam, exchanged landing boats, and got underway to return to the Philippines. From 31 May to 26 June, she remained in the Subic Bay-Manila Bay areas, in July, she trained with units of the 81st Infantry Division at Leyte, and, in early August, trained with other troops off Iloilo. St. Marys embarked occupation troops and sailed for Japan, arriving in Tokyo Bay on 2 September, two days later, she disembarked troops of the 1st Cavalry Division at Yokohama, then returned to the Philippines. From Mindanao, she lifted troops to Kure, then steamed to Okinawa, whence, as a unit of the “Magic Carpet” fleet, in December, the APA returned to Okinawa for a second group of returning servicemen. Departing Buckner Bay on the 19th, she developed engine trouble on 3 January 1946,450 miles from her destination, nashville, however, took her in tow, and she reached San Francisco on 6 January 1946. Six days later, St. Marys reported for inactivation, on 15 February, she was decommissioned and returned to the Maritime Commission. She was placed in the National Defense Reserve Fleet at Suisun Bay the same day and her name was struck from the Navy list on 21 February. In 1956 St. Marys was withdrawn from the Reserve Fleet as part of a Repair Program, GAA-Pacific Far East Lines, on 18 April 1975 she was sold to Nicolai Joffe Corp. for $219,489.78, to be scrapped. At 1235 PDT, on 3 June 1975 she was withdrawn from the Reserve Fleet, list of Victory ships Liberty ship Type C1 ship Type C2 ship Type C3 ship St. Marys earned one battle star for World War II service. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
42.
San Francisco Bay
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San Francisco Bay is a shallow estuary in the U. S. state of California. It is surrounded by a region known as the San Francisco Bay Area, dominated by the large cities San Francisco, Oakland. San Francisco Bay drains water from approximately 40 percent of California and it then connects to the Pacific Ocean via the Golden Gate strait. However, this group of interconnected bays is often called the San Francisco Bay. The bay was designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance on February 2,2013, the bay covers somewhere between 400 and 1,600 square miles, depending on which sub-bays, estuaries, wetlands, and so on are included in the measurement. The main part of the bay measures 3 to 12 miles wide east-to-west and it is the largest Pacific estuary in the Americas. Later, wetlands and inlets were filled in, reducing the Bays size since the mid-19th century by as much as one third. Recently, large areas of wetlands have been restored, further confusing the issue of the Bays size, despite its value as a waterway and harbor, many thousands of acres of marshy wetlands at the edges of the bay were, for many years, considered wasted space. As a result, soil excavated for building projects or dredged from channels was often dumped onto the wetlands, from the mid-19th century through the late 20th century, more than a third of the original bay was filled and often built on. The idea was, and remains, controversial, there are five large islands in San Francisco Bay. Alameda, the largest island, was created when a shipping lane was cut in 1901 and it is now predominantly a bedroom community. Angel Island was known as Ellis Island West because it served as the point for immigrants from East Asia. It is now a park accessible by ferry. Mountainous Yerba Buena Island is pierced by a tunnel linking the east and west spans of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, attached to the north is the artificial and flat Treasure Island, site of the 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition. From the Second World War until the 1990s, both served as military bases and are now being redeveloped. Isolated in the center of the Bay is Alcatraz, the site of the federal penitentiary. The federal prison on Alcatraz Island no longer functions, but the complex is a popular tourist site, despite its name, Mare Island in the northern part of the bay is a peninsula rather than an island. During the last ice age, the now filled by the bay was a large linear valley with small hills
43.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
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USS Haskell (APA-117)
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The USS Haskell was the lead ship of her class of attack transports, built for the United States Navy during World War II. She was of the VC2-S-AP5 Victory ship design type, Haskell was named for the Haskell Counties of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Haskell was launched 13 June 1944 by California Shipbuilding Corp, Wilmington, California, under Maritime Commission contract, sponsored by Mrs. W. L. Friedell, wife of the Commandant of the 11th Naval District, and commissioned 11 September 1944, Comdr. Following her shakedown cruise, Haskell arrived San Francisco 19 October and began loading troops, underway 28 October, she set course for Finschafen, New Guinea, and arrived 15 November 1944. Four days later the transport anchored at Biak Island to unload her troops, Haskell sailed via Mios Woendi to Noemfoor Island,23 November-2 December, where preparations were underway for the important landings at Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. At staging areas throughout the western Pacific ships such as Haskell loaded troops, after exercises at Japen Island, Haskell departed in convoy for the Philippines 4 January 1945. A part of Rear Admiral Conollys reinforcement echelon, Haskell and the transports arrived off Lingayen Gulf 11 January 2 days after the initial landings. Haskells group escaped attack while sailing the route through the Philippines. After unloading her troops and cargo, Haskell departed the next day, the transport sailed to Leyte Gulf 15 January 1945, loaded troops, and took part in a practice landing at Tacloban, Leyte. The ship departed with Rear Admiral Strubles amphibious group 26 January for the Zambales landing north of Subic Bay and this unopposed landing was carried out 3 days later and helped to cut off the Bataan Peninsula and hasten the fall of Manila. Haskell returned to Leyte Gulf 1 February 1945, with control of the Philippines secured, Haskell was next assigned to the giant Okinawa operation. She completed loading troops and supplies at Leyte 13 March 1945 and this massive invasion, climax of the Pacific island-hopping campaign, began 1 April. Haskell was a member of Rear Admiral Halls Southern Attack Force, during the first days of the bitter struggle she also served as an emergency hospital ship and cared for many casualties at her off shore anchorage. After unloading her troops and cargo, the transport sailed 6 April for Saipan, Marianas, stopping at Saipan only briefly, Haskell steamed independently via Eniwetok and Pearl Harbor to San Francisco, where she arrived 1 May. The ship underwent needed repairs and embarked Navy and Coast Guard personnel for the Pacific, arriving 9 June 1945, the ship began a series of transport voyages to various ports in the Pacific, providing men and cargo at Guadalcanal, Eniwetok, and Guam. She arrived Apra Harbor, Guam,1 July and embarked 83 Japanese prisoners of war for transfer to Pearl Harbor, from Pearl Harbor Haskell sailed to San Francisco 22 July and Seattle 12 August. While Haskell loaded at Seattle the war ended, and she assumed a new role and she sailed 20 August for Okinawa and after stops at Eniwetok and Ulithi arrived 11 September and unloaded her troops. Soon afterward,16 September, the ship was forced to put to sea to ride out the giant typhoon which swept the area, Haskells role was as a transport for over 1,400 allied prisoners of war released from enemy prison camps
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Lead ship
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The lead ship, name ship, or class leader is the first of a series or class of ships all constructed according to the same general design. The term is applicable to ships and larger civilian craft. Large ships are complicated internally and may take as much as five to ten years to construct, any changes or advances that are available when building a ship are likely to be included, so it is rare to have two that are identical. Constructing one ship is likely to reveal better ways of doing things. The second and later ships are often started before the first one is completed, launched and tested, the improvements will sometimes be retrofitted to the lead ship. Larger civilian craft, such as Sun Princess, the ship of the Sun-class cruise ships. The same custom is followed in fiction, the Constitution-class cruiser is the basis for the Enterprise of Star Trek. Example of a lead ship announcement from US Navy USS Pennsylvania BB-38
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Hospital ship
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A hospital ship is a ship designated for primary function as a floating medical treatment facility or hospital. Most are operated by the forces of various countries, as they are intended to be used in or near war zones. Although attacking a ship is a war crime, belligerent navies have the right to board such ships for inspections. In the nineteenth century redundant warships were used as moored hospitals for seamen, Hospital ships possibly existed in ancient times. The Athenian Navy had a ship named Therapia, and the Roman Navy had a ship named Aesculapius, their names indicating that they may have been hospital ships. The earliest British hospital ship may have been the vessel Goodwill, however this experiment in medical care was short-lived, with Goodwill assigned to other tasks within a year and her complement of convalescents simply left behind at the nearest port. It was not until the mid-seventeenth century that any Royal Navy vessels were designated as hospital ships. In addition to their crew, these seventeenth century hospital ships were staffed by a surgeon. The standard issue of supplies were bandages, soap, needles. Patients were offered a beds or rug to rest upon, the quality of food was very poor. Hospital ships were used for the treatment of wounded soldiers fighting on land. An early example of this was during an English operation to evacuate English Tangier in 1683, an account of this evacuation was written by Samuel Pepys, an eyewitness. One of the concerns was the evacuation of sick soldiers. The hospital ships Unity and Welcome sailed for England on 18 October 1683 with 114 invalid soldiers and 104 women and children, arriving at The Downs on 14 December 1683. A1705 amendment provided for a further five male nurses, on 8 December 1798, unfit for service as a warship, HMS Victory was ordered to be converted to a hospital ship to hold wounded French and Spanish prisoners of war. According to Edward Hasted in 1798, two hospital ships, were moored in Halstow Creek in Kent. The creek is an inlet from the River Medway and the River Thames, the crew of these vessels watched over ships coming to England, which were forced to stay in the creek under quarantine to protect the country from infectious diseases including the plague. From 1821 to 1870 the Seamens Hospital Society provided HMS Grampus, HMS Dreadnought, in 1866 HMS Hamadryad was moored in Cardiff as a seamens hospital, replaced in 1905 by the Royal Hamadryad Seamens Hospital
