1.
Allium
–
Allium is a genus of monocotyledonous flowering plants that includes the cultivated onion, garlic, scallion, shallot and leek as well as chives and hundreds of other wild species. The generic name Allium is the Latin word for garlic, some sources refer to Greek αλεω by reason of the smell of garlic. The cooking and consumption of parts of the plants is due to the variety of flavours. The inclusion of a species to the genus Allium is taxonomically difficult, estimates of the number of species have been as low as 260, and as high as 979, but are most likely about 800–850. The type species for the genus is Allium sativum, Allium species occur in temperate climates of the Northern Hemisphere, except for a few species occurring in Chile, Brazil, and tropical Africa. They vary in height between 5 cm and 150 cm, the flowers form an umbel at the top of a leafless stalk. The bulbs vary in size between species, from small to rather large, some species develop thickened leaf-bases rather than forming bulbs as such. Plants of the Allium genus produce chemical compounds that give them a characteristic onion or garlic taste, many are used as food plants, though not all members of the genus are equally flavorous. In most cases, both bulb and leaves are edible and the taste may be strong or weak, depending on the species, in the rare occurrence of sulfur-free growth conditions, all Allium species lose their usual pungency altogether. In the APG III classification system, Allium is placed in the family Amaryllidaceae, in some of the older classification systems, Allium was placed in Liliaceae. Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown this circumscription of Liliaceae is not monophyletic, Allium is one of about fifty-seven genera of flowering plants with more than 500 species. It is by far the largest genus in the Amaryllidaceae, the genus Allium is characterised by herbaceous geophyte perennials with true bulbs, some of which are borne on rhizomes and an onion or garlic odor and flavor. A small number of species have tuberous roots, the bulbs outer coats are commonly brown or grey, with a smooth texture, and are fibrous, or with cellular reticulation. The inner coats of the bulbs are membranous, many alliums have basal leaves that commonly wither away from the tips downward before or while the plants flower, but some species have persistent foliage. Plants produce from one to 12 leaves, most species having linear, the leaf blades are straight or variously coiled, but some species have broad leaves, including A. victorialis and A. tricoccum. The leaves are sessile, and very rarely narrowed into a petiole, the flowers, which are produced on scapes are erect or in some species pendent, having six petal-like tepals produced in two whorls. The flowers have one style and six stamens, the anthers. The ovaries are superior, and three-lobed with three locules, the fruits are capsules that open longitudinally along the capsule wall between the partitions of the locule
Allium
–
Allium
Allium
–
Allium flavum (yellow) and
Allium carinatum (purple)
Allium
–
Capsule of
Allium oreophilum.
Allium
–
Allium ursinum (wild garlic) in a
Bristol,
England, woodland
2.
Cruciferous vegetables
–
The family takes its alternate name from the shape of their flowers, whose four petals resemble a cross. Numerous other genera and species in the family are also edible, cruciferous vegetables are one of the dominant food crops worldwide. They are high in vitamin C and soluble fiber and contain multiple nutrients, extensive selective breeding has produced a large variety of cultivars, especially within the genus Brassica. One description of factors involved in the breeding of Brassica species is the Triangle of U. Cruciferous vegetables contain glucosinolates which are under research for their potential properties of affecting some types of cancer. Glucosinolates are hydrolyzed to isothiocyanates by the action of myrosinase, ITCs, possibly a bioactive component in cruciferous vegetables, are being investigated for their chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects. As one example in research, ITCs such as phenethyl isothiocyanate reduced levels of the oncoprotein MCL1. Other in vitro research indicates ITCs may affect levels of the BCR-ABL fusion protein, chemicals contained in cruciferous vegetables induce the expression of the liver enzyme CYP1A2. Furthermore, some such as haloperidol and theophylline are metabolized by CYP1A2. Consequently, consumption of vegetables may decrease bioavailability and half-life of these drugs. Brassicaceae contain a number of compounds under preliminary research for their potential hepato-protective properties, high consumption of cruciferous vegetables has potential risk from allergies, interference with drugs like warfarin and genotoxicity. People who can taste phenylthiocarbamide, which is either bitter or tasteless, are likely to eat cruciferous vegetables. Cruciferous vegetables can potentially be goitrogenic and they contain enzymes that interfere with the formation of thyroid hormone in people with iodine deficiency. Cooking for 30 minutes significantly reduces the amount of goitrogens and nitriles, at high intake of crucifers, the goitrogens inhibit the incorporation of iodine into thyroid hormone and also the transfer of iodine into milk by the mammary gland. Brassica species may cause baby colic in breast-feeding, although the evidence for this is not strong
Cruciferous vegetables
–
Cabbage plants
3.
Health
–
Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt, other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction. The definition of health has evolved over time, although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time it was set aside as an impractical ideal, just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, the 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living, it is a concept, emphasizing social and personal resources. Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults, since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health. Progress has been limited for many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches, a new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years. Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences, studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health. Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of importance for both his health status and quality of their life. The concept of the field, as distinct from medical care. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individuals health, the maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the health triangle. The WHOs 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. Health and illness can co-exist, as people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy
Health
–
Donald Henderson as part of the CDC's
smallpox eradication team in 1966.
Health
–
Postage stamp,
New Zealand, 1933. Public health has been promoted – and depicted – in a wide variety of ways.
Health
–
A lady washing her hands c. 1655
4.
Nutrition
–
Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism, the diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the availability, the processing and palatability of foods. A healthy diet includes preparation of food and storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and they also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at work places, schools and similar institutions. Government regulation especially in terms of licensing, is less universal for the CCN than that of RD or RDN. Another advanced Nutrition Professional is a Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS and these Board Certified Nutritionists typically specialize in obesity and chronic disease. In order to become certified, potential CNS candidate must pass an examination. This exam covers specific domains within the health sphere including, Clinical Intervention, a poor diet can cause the wasting of kwashiorkor in acute cases, and the stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition. The first recorded dietary advice, carved into a Babylonian stone tablet in about 2500 BC, scurvy, later found to be a vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500 BC in the Ebers Papyrus. According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC, in China, the concept of Qi developed, a spirit or wind similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into hot and cold in China, India, Malaya, humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements, the first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects is found in the Bibles Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel, selected as court servants, they were to share in the kings fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions, the kings chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for ten days and were compared to the kings men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet, around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains homeomerics, suggesting the existence of nutrients. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, who recognized and was concerned with obesity, the works that are still attributed to him, Corpus Hippocraticum, called for moderation and emphasized exercise. Salt, pepper and other spices were prescribed for various ailments in various preparations for example mixed with vinegar, in the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder believed that cabbage could cure digestive diseases, ulcers, warts, and intoxication. Living about the turn of the millennium, Aulus Celsus, an ancient Roman doctor, believed in strong and weak foods
Nutrition
–
Hippocrates lived about 400 BC, and Galen and the understanding of nutrition followed him for centuries.
Nutrition
–
The "Nutrition Facts" table indicates the amounts of
nutrients that experts recommend to limit or consume in adequate amounts.
Nutrition
–
Followed for a millennium and a half,
Galen (1st century) created the first coherent (although mistaken) theory of nutrition.
Nutrition
–
James Lind conducted in 1747 the first controlled
clinical trial in modern times, and in 1753 published Treatise on Scurvy.
5.
Amino acid
–
Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine and carboxyl functional groups, along with a side chain specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. About 500 amino acids are known and can be classified in many ways, in the form of proteins, amino acids comprise the second-largest component of human muscles, cells and other tissues. Outside proteins, amino acids perform critical roles in such as neurotransmitter transport. In biochemistry, amino acids having both the amine and the acid groups attached to the first carbon atom have particular importance. They are known as 2-, alpha-, or α-amino acids and they include the 22 proteinogenic amino acids, which combine into peptide chains to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all L-stereoisomers, although a few D-amino acids occur in bacterial envelopes, as a neuromodulator, twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as standard amino acids. The other two are selenocysteine, and pyrrolysine, pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons, for example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element. N-formylmethionine is generally considered as a form of methionine rather than as a separate proteinogenic amino acid, codon–tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to expand the genetic code and create novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids. Many important proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids also play critical roles within the body. Nine proteinogenic amino acids are called essential for humans because they cannot be created from other compounds by the human body, others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also differ between species, because of their biological significance, amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements, fertilizers, and food technology. Industrial uses include the production of drugs, biodegradable plastics, the first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century. In 1806, French chemists Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine, cystine was discovered in 1810, although its monomer, cysteine, remained undiscovered until 1884. Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820, usage of the term amino acid in the English language is from 1898. Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis, in the structure shown at the top of the page, R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. The carbon atom next to the group is called the α–carbon. Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as amino acids
Amino acid
–
The structure of an alpha amino acid in its un-ionized form
6.
Protein
–
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
Protein
–
Proteins in different
cellular compartments and structures tagged with
green fluorescent protein (here, white)
Protein
–
A representation of the 3D structure of the protein
myoglobin showing turquoise
alpha helices. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by
X-ray crystallography. Towards the right-center among the coils, a
prosthetic group called a
heme group (shown in gray) with a bound oxygen molecule (red).
Protein
–
Constituent amino-acids can be analyzed to predict secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure, in this case hemoglobin containing
heme units
Protein
–
John Kendrew with model of myoglobin in progress
7.
Fatty acid
–
In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuel for animals because, many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. Fatty acids that have double bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids without double bonds are known as saturated and they differ in length as well. Fatty acid chains differ by length, often categorized as short to very long, short-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 carbons, long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons. Very long chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons, unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms in the chain that are next to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. Cis A cis configuration means that the two atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend, the more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations, for example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a kink in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linolenic acid, with three bonds, favors a hooked shape. Trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on opposite sides of the chain, as a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the configuration are not found in nature and are the result of human processing. Fatty acids that are required by the body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates
Fatty acid
–
Three-dimensional representations of several fatty acids
Fatty acid
–
Comparison of the
trans isomer Elaidic acid (top) and the cis isomer
oleic acid (bottom).
8.
Vitamin
–
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present, Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each vitamin refers to a number of compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin generic descriptor title, such as vitamin A, which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the form of the vitamin in the body. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as cofactors or the precursors for them. In this role, vitamins may be bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups, For example. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, for example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins best-known function, study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology. Each vitamin is typically used in reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs and it requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, if there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage, for the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume, examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan. In those who are healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease
Vitamin
–
A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin supplement pills.
Vitamin
–
500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with vitamin D, made from
calcium carbonate,
maltodextrin,
mineral oil,
hypromellose,
glycerin,
cholecalciferol,
polyethylene glycol, and
carnauba wax.
Vitamin
–
The
Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a person
liver would help cure
night blindness.
9.
Dietary element
–
In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
Dietary element
–
Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by
mass above the scale and by
molarity below.
10.
Human nutrition
–
Human nutrition refers to the provision of essential nutrients necessary to support human life and health. Generally, people can survive up to 40 days without food, poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, poor nutrition understanding and practices, and deficient sanitation and food security. Malnutrition and its consequences are immense contributors to deaths and disabilities worldwide, promoting good nutrition helps children grow, promotes human development and eradication of poverty. The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids and these compounds consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All the chemical compounds and elements contained in the body occur in various forms and combinations such as hormones, vitamins, phospholipids. These compounds may be found in the body as well as in the various types of organisms that humans consume. Comparing food to waste material can help determine the specific compounds, the effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period of time, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive. The seven major classes of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, proteins, vitamins and these nutrient classes are categorized as either macronutrients or micronutrients. The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins, the micronutrients are minerals and vitamins. The macronutrients provide structural material, and energy, some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, a third class of dietary material, fiber, seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear. For all age groups, males need to consume higher amounts of macronutrients than females, in general, intakes increase with age until the second or third decade of life. Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides to complex polysaccharides. Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone, some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet, they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, the fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the acids are convertible to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally and this occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during periods of starvation
Human nutrition
–
Grain products: rich sources of complex and simple carbohydrates
Human nutrition
–
Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common
bodybuilding supplement.
11.
Toxicity
–
Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on an organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism. By extension, the word may be used to describe toxic effects on larger and more complex groups. Sometimes the word is more or less synonymous with poisoning in everyday usage, toxicity is species-specific, making cross-species analysis problematic. Newer paradigms and metrics are evolving to bypass animal testing, while maintaining the concept of toxicity endpoints, disease-causing microorganisms and parasites are toxic in a broad sense, but are generally called pathogens rather than toxicants. The biological toxicity of pathogens can be difficult to measure because the dose may be a single organism. Theoretically one virus, bacterium or worm can reproduce to cause a serious infection, in some cases, e. g. cholera, the disease is chiefly caused by a nonliving substance secreted by the organism, rather than the organism itself. Such nonliving biological toxicants are generally called toxins if produced by a microorganism, plant, or fungus, Physical toxicants are substances that, due to their physical nature, interfere with biological processes. Examples include coal dust, asbestos fibers or finely divided silicon dioxide, corrosive chemicals possess physical toxicity because they destroy tissues, but theyre not directly poisonous unless they interfere directly with biological activity. Water can act as a physical toxicant if taken in high doses because the concentration of vital ions decreases dramatically if theres too much water in the body. Asphyxiant gases can be considered physical toxicants because they act by displacing oxygen in the environment but they are inert, as already mentioned, radiation can have a toxic effect on organisms. Toxicity can be measured by its effects on the target, one such measure is the LD50. When such data does not exist, estimates are made by comparison to known similar toxic things, then, safety factors are added to account for uncertainties in data and evaluation processes. Similarly, an extra protection factor may be used for individuals believed to be susceptible to toxic effects such as in pregnancy or with certain diseases. Obviously, this approach is approximate, but such protection factors are deliberately very conservative. In addition, it is possible that a single cell transformed into a cell is all it takes to develop the full effect. Common mixtures include gasoline, cigarette smoke, and industrial waste, even more complex are situations with more than one type of toxic entity, such as the discharge from a malfunctioning sewage treatment plant, with both chemical and biological agents. The preclinical toxicity testing on various biological systems reveals the species-, organ-, the toxicity of substances can be observed by studying the accidental exposures to a substance in vitro studies using cells/ cell lines in vivo exposure on experimental animals
Toxicity
–
Patch test
Toxicity
–
The
skull and crossbones is a common symbol for toxicity.
12.
Exercise
–
Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system and helps prevent diseases of such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes. Childhood obesity is a global concern, and physical exercise may help decrease some of the effects of childhood. Some care providers call exercise the miracle or wonder drug—alluding to the variety of benefits that it can provide for many individuals. Aside from the advantages, these benefits may include different social rewards for staying active while enjoying the environment of one’s culture. Many individuals choose to exercise publicly outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, in the United Kingdom two to four hours of light activity are recommended during working hours. The goal of aerobic exercise is to increase cardiovascular endurance, examples of aerobic exercise include cycling, swimming, brisk walking, skipping rope, rowing, hiking, playing tennis, continuous training, and long slow distance training. Anaerobic exercise, which includes strength and resistance training, can firm, strengthen, and tone muscles, as well as improve bone strength, balance, examples of strength moves are push-ups, pull-ups, lunges, and bicep curls using dumbbells. Anaerobic exercise also include training, functional training, eccentric training, Interval training, sprinting. Flexibility exercises stretch and lengthen muscles, activities such as stretching help to improve joint flexibility and keep muscles limber. The goal is to improve the range of motion which can reduce the chance of injury, Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on accuracy, agility, power, and speed. Sometimes the terms dynamic and static are used, dynamic exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the diastolic blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise can cause the pressure to rise significantly. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the quality of life. People who participate in moderate to high levels of exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active. Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential, the majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent minutes per week. A lack of physical activity causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer. Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide, individuals can increase fitness following increases in physical activity levels
Exercise
–
A
U.S. Marine participates in a
triathlon at
Catoctin Mountain in 2005
Exercise
–
Indian wrestler exercising near
Varanasi
Exercise
–
A common
elliptical training machine
Exercise
–
US Marines exercising on the
USS Bataan
13.
List of nutrition guides
–
This is a list of nutrition guides. A nutrition guide is a reference that provides advice for general health, typically by dividing foods into food groups. Nutrition guides can be presented in written or visual form, and are published by government agencies, health associations. Most countries also have nutrition facts labels which are not listed here, the Hippocratic Corpus of Ancient Greece contains one of the earliest known nutrition guides. For winter, it advises eating a diet of bread and roasted meat and fish, while avoiding vegetables and restricting liquids to. It then recommends a lighter summer diet of soft barley cake, vegetables, boiled meat, gradual transitions between these two diets are advised in the intervening months. During the Tang Dynasty, Chinese physician Sun Simiao is believed to have written the first nutrition guide in traditional Chinese medicine, in his book, Precious Prescriptions for Emergencies, the chapter Dietary Treatment contains sections describing the effects of eating fruits, vegetables, grains and animals. KF, a consumer co-op that worked with the Board, sought to illustrate these food groups, KF developed a food pyramid because it could depict basic foods as its base, and introduced the guide to the public in 1974 in their magazine, Vi. While the Board distanced itself from the pyramid, KF continued to promote it, the United States later developed its first food pyramid in 1992. Today, both the Swedish government and KF have moved to the Plate Model, below the wheel are reminders to drink plenty of water and eat fats and sweets occasionally or in small amounts. More specific recommendations are provided based on age, gender, life stage, the Austrian Federal Ministry of Health uses The Austrian Food Pyramid, which is divided into 25 blocks, each block representing a daily serving from a food group. The Voedingsdriehoek is a widely used tool for dietitians, health educators, schools, the triangle is constructed as a pyramid with five different layers. The bottom layer is the largest in area, so the most important and this is not a food, but an important part of a healthy diet and lifestyle. The information services use the food pyramid. Brazils Ministry of Health publishes the Food Guide, which features a map of Brazil depicting each of Brazils five regions as puzzle pieces representing a food group. Canadas Food Guide from Health Canada is illustrated with a rainbow of four groups, vegetables and fruit, grain products, milk and alternatives. More specific recommendations are provided based on age, gender and life stage, Canada developed its first nutrition guide in 1942 as part of its wartime nutrition program. Chinas Ministry of Health uses the Balanced Diet Pagoda, which is divided into five stories ascending from largest to smallest, beside the pagoda are images representing water and exercise
List of nutrition guides
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The Eatwell plate, as described by the United Kingdom's NHS and FSA.
14.
Nutrition facts label
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The nutrition facts label is a label required on most packaged food in many countries. Most countries also release overall nutrition guides for general educational purposes, in some cases, the guides are based on different dietary targets for various nutrients than the labels on specific foods. Australia and New Zealand use an information panel of the following format, Other items are included as appropriate. In April 2013 the New Zealand government introduced rules around common claims made on food packaging, in Canada, a standardized Nutrition Facts label was introduced as part of regulations passed in 2003, and became mandatory for most prepackaged food products on December 12,2005. In accordance with food packaging laws in the country, all information, including the nutrition label, canadian regulation tightly controls the manner in which the nutrition fact table data are laid out. There is a variety of possible formats for use on a given food package. A selection hierarchy is used to select among the many formats and this results in standard formats being considered for use before horizontal and linear formats. The selection hierarchy also allows the NFT to occupy no more than 15% of the packages available display area. In practice, determining the ADS of a package, and selecting the appropriate NFT format, a new regulation is now in force. Nutritional labelling becomes mandatory for most pre-packaged foods as from December 2016, in the European Union, along the old rules, the information is most often labelled Nutrition Information. An example is shown on the right, the panel is optional, but if provided, the prescribed content and format must be followed. It will always give values for a set quantity —100 g or 100 ml of the product — and often also for a defined serving, first will come the energy values, in both kilocalories and kilojoules. Then will come a breakdown of constituent elements, usually most or all of protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugar, fat, fibre and sodium. The fat figure is likely to be broken down into saturated and unsaturated fat. With regards to health claims and nutrition claims, these are harmonised in the EU through Regulation 1924/2006, in November 2012, the European Commission published two new regulations, Regulation No. Certain nutrition claim groups as of Regulation No 1924/2006 had to be changed, moreover, the health claims associated to barley beta-gluten were amended. Within Regulation 1924, there are definitions of terms such as low fat, high fibre. All health claims have been harmonised in the European Union and they can be used if they have been approved by EFSA
Nutrition facts label
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The original FDA Nutrition Facts label, as of 2014
Nutrition facts label
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A sample nutrition facts label, with instructions from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
15.
Marion Nestle
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Marion Nestle, Ph. D, M. P. H. is the Paulette Goddard Professor of Nutrition, Food Studies, and Public Health at New York University. She is also a professor of Sociology at NYU and a professor of Nutritional Sciences at Cornell University. Nestle received her BA from UC Berkeley, Phi Beta Kappa and her degrees include a Ph. D in molecular biology and an M. P. H. in public health nutrition, both from the University of California, Berkeley. She did postdoctoral work in biochemistry and developmental biology at Brandeis University, through this professorship, she was assigned a nutrition course to teach and she realized that there was no standardized nutritional requirements and kicked off her interest in nutrition. From 1976 to 1986, she was dean for Human Biology. From 1986 to 1988, she was senior nutrition policy advisor in the Department of Health and Human Services and editor of the Surgeon General’s Report on Nutrition and Health. In 1988, she was appointed Chair of Nutrition, Food Studies, in 1996, she founded the Food Studies program at New York University with food consultant Clark Wolf. She hoped that the new program of study would raise the awareness of food and its role in culture, society. It not only succeeded but inspired other universities to launch their own programs and her research examines scientific and socioeconomic influences on food choice, obesity, and food safety, emphasizing the role of food marketing. Through her role at NYU and her book, Food Politics, written in 2002, she has become a national influencer of food policy, nutrition and she is the author of numerous articles in professional publications and is the author or co-author of nine books. Her latest book, Soda Politics, Taking on Big Soda, was published in October,2015, Nestle wrote the Food Matters column for the San Francisco Chronicle from 2003-2010. She blogs at foodpolitics. com, and tweets from @marionnestle and she has appeared in the documentary films Super Size Me, Food, Inc. Food Fight, The Inside Story of the Food Industry, Killer at Large, In Organic We Trust, A Place at the Table and she received an honorary Doctor of Science degree from Transylvania University in Kentucky in 2012. In 2013, she received the James Beard Leadership Award and Healthful Food Councils Innovator of the Year Award and she currently resides in a West Village apartment, previously occupied by former New York City mayor Ed Koch. Her name is pronounced like the English verb to nestle, not like the name of the Swiss food giant, in 2011, Forbes listed Nestle as number 2 of The worlds 7 most powerful foodies. Food Politics, How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, safe Food, Bacteria, Biotechnology, and Bioterrorism. Pet Food Politics, The Chihuahua in the Coal Mine, safe Food, The Politics of Food Safety. New York, Free Press/Simon & Schuster, why Calories Count, From Science to Politics
Marion Nestle
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Photo by Bill Hayes
16.
Junk food
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Junk food is a pejorative term for cheap food containing high levels of calories from sugar or fat with little fiber, protein, vitamins or minerals. Many hamburger outlets, fried chicken outlets and the like supply food considered as junk food, despite being labeled as junk, such foods usually do not pose any immediate health concerns and are generally safe when integrated into a well balanced diet. The term junk food dates back at least to the early 1950s, brady’s Health Column, More Junk Than Food. In it, Dr. Brady writes, What Mrs. H calls junk I call cheat food and that is anything made principally of white flour and or refined white sugar or syrup. For example, white bread, crackers, cake, candy, ice cream soda, chocolate malted, sundaes, the term cheat food can be traced back in newspaper mentions to at least 1916. While not all fast foods are foods, most are. Fast foods are ready-to-eat foods served promptly after ordering, some fast foods are high in calories and low in nutritional value, while other fast foods, such as salads, may be low in calories and high in nutritional value. Junk foods have empty calories as the content is not complemented with proteins. François Magendie showed by experiment in 1816 that dogs died when fed only sugar and it has been noted that the metabolic cost of processing empty calories drains a body of resources and is debilitating. Foods commonly considered junk foods include salted snack foods, gum, candy, sweet desserts, fried fast food, many foods such as hamburgers, pizza, and tacos can be considered either healthy or junk food depending on their ingredients and preparation methods. The more highly processed items usually fall under the food category, including breakfast cereals that are mostly sugar or high fructose corn syrup. Co-editor Vincent Marks explains, To label a food as junk is just another way of saying, there are bad diets - that is, bad mixtures and quantities of food - but there are no bad foods except those that have become bad through contamination or deterioration. Junk food in its various forms is extremely popular, and a part of modern popular culture. In the US, annual fast food sales are in the area of $160 billion, often criticized for its lack of any nutritional value whatsoever, the Twinkie has managed to persevere as a cultural and gastronomical icon. America also celebrates an annual National Junk Food Day on July 21, in honor of the day, Time in 2014 published,5 Crazy Junk Food Combinations. Headlines from other national and local media coverage include, Celebrate National Junk Food Day With… Beer-Flavored Oreos and that the poor eat more junk food overall than the more affluent is quite well-established, but the reasons for this are not clear. Also consumers tend to eat too much at one sitting and consumers who have satisfied their appetite with junk food are less likely to eat healthy foods like fruit, vegetables or dairy products. Studies reveal that as early as the age of 30, arteries could begin clogging, testing on rats has indicated negative effects of junk food that may manifest likewise in people
Junk food
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A poster at Camp Pendleton’s 21-Area Health Promotion Center describes the effects of junk food that many Marines and sailors consume.
17.
World Health Organization
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The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
World Health Organization
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Three former directors of the
Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
World Health Organization
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World Health Organization
World Health Organization
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WHO Headquarters in Geneva
World Health Organization
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Demonstration on
Chernobyl disaster day near WHO in
Geneva
18.
Unsaturated fats
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An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain. A fatty acid chain is monounsaturated if it contains one double bond, where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are subtracted from the carbon chain. Thus, a saturated fat has no double bonds, has the number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons. In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules contain less energy than an equivalent amount of saturated fat. The greater the degree of unsaturation in a fatty acid the more vulnerable it is to lipid peroxidation, antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from lipid peroxidation. Double bonds may be in either a cis or a trans isomer, in the cis isomer, hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond, whereas in the trans isomer, they are on opposite sides of the double bond. Saturated fats are useful in processed foods because saturated fats are less vulnerable to rancidity, unsaturated chains have a lower melting point, hence these molecules increase the fluidity of cell membranes. Although both monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats can replace saturated fat in the diet, trans unsaturated fats should not, replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats helps to lower levels of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in the blood. Trans unsaturated fats are an exception because the double bond stereochemistry predisposes the carbon chains to assume a linear conformation, the geometry of the cis double bond induces a bend in the molecule, thereby precluding rigid formations. Natural sources of fatty acids are rich in the cis isomer and this probably is an indication of the greater vulnerability of polyunsaturated fats to lipid peroxidation, against which vitamin E has been shown to be protective. Examples of unsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, myristoleic acid, linoleic acid, foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils such as canola and olive oils. Meat products contain both saturated and unsaturated fats, most foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fats. Marketers advertise only one or the other, depending on which one makes up the majority, thus, various unsaturated fat vegetable oils, such as olive oils, also contain saturated fat. In chemical analysis, fatty acids are separated by gas chromatography of methyl esters, additionally, incidence of Insulin resistance is lowered with diets higher in monounsaturated fats, while the opposite is true for diets high in polyunsaturated fats as well as saturated fats. These ratios can be indexed in the phospholipids of human skeletal muscle, but this is contrary to the suggestion of more recent studies, in which polyunsaturated fats are shown as protective against insulin resistance. This fatty acid results in a more fluid cell membrane but also one that is permeable to various ions. This maintenance cost has been argued to be one of the key causes for the metabolic rates and concomitant warm-bloodedness of mammals. However polyunsaturation of cell membranes may also occur in response to cold temperatures as well
Unsaturated fats
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Amounts of fat types in selected foods
19.
Saturated fats
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A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
Saturated fats
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view
20.
Trans fats
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Trans fat has been shown to consistently be associated, in an intake-dependent way, with increased risk of coronary heart disease, a leading cause of death in Western nations. Fats contain long chains, which can either be unsaturated, i. e. have double bonds, or saturated. In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have cis as opposed to trans configurations, Trans fats also occur naturally in a limited number of cases. Vaccenyl and conjugated linoleyl containing trans fats occur naturally in trace amounts in meat, most artificial trans fats are chemically different from natural trans fats. A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL without any effect on HDL. In 2003 the World Health Organisation recommended that trans fats make up no more than 1% of a persons diet. On 16 June 2015, the FDA finalized its determination that trans fats are not generally recognized as safe, in other countries, there are legal limits to trans fat content. Trans fats levels can be reduced or eliminated using saturated fats such as lard, palm oil or fully hydrogenated fats, other alternative formulations can also allow unsaturated fats to be used to replace saturated or partially hydrogenated fats. Hydrogenated oil is not a synonym for trans fat, complete hydrogenation removes all unsaturated fats, nobel laureate Paul Sabatier worked in the late 1890s to develop the chemistry of hydrogenation, which enabled the margarine, oil hydrogenation, and synthetic methanol industries. Whereas Sabatier considered hydrogenation of only vapors, the German chemist Wilhelm Normann showed in 1901 that liquid oils could be hydrogenated, during the years 1905–1910, Normann built a fat-hardening facility in the Herford company. At the same time, the invention was extended to a plant in Warrington, England, at Joseph Crosfield & Sons. It took only two years until the fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in the autumn of 1909. The initial years production totalled nearly 3,000 tonnes, in 1909, Procter & Gamble acquired the US rights to the Normann patent, in 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated shortening, Crisco. Further success came from the technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco. Normanns hydrogenation process made it possible to stabilize affordable whale oil or fish oil for human consumption, prior to 1910, dietary fats consisted primarily of butterfat, beef tallow, and lard. During Napoleons reign in France in the early 19th century, a type of margarine was invented to feed the troops using tallow and buttermilk, it did not gain acceptance in the U. S. In the early 20th century, soybeans began to be imported into the U. S. as a source of protein, what to do with that oil became an issue. At the same time, there was not enough available for consumers
Trans fats
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Margarine, a common product that contains trans fatty acids
Trans fats
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Cover of original Crisco cookbook, 1912
Trans fats
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Wilhelm Normann patented the hydrogenation of liquid oils in 1902
Trans fats
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Salers Cow. Milk and meat from cows and other ruminants contain naturally occurring trans fats in small quantities
21.
Fruits
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In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
Fruits
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Culinary fruits
Fruits
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Several
culinary fruits
Fruits
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Mixed fruit
Fruits
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Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
22.
Vegetables
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In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
Vegetables
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Vegetables in a
market in the
Philippines
Vegetables
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Domestic vegetable garden in the United Kingdom
Vegetables
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cabbage Brassica oleracea
Vegetables
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turnip Brassica rapa
23.
Legumes
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A legume is a plant or its fruit or seed in the family Fabaceae. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for their grain seed called pulse, for forage and silage. Well-known legumes include alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupin bean, mesquite, carob, soybeans, peanuts, Fabaceae is the most common family found in tropical rainforests and in dry forests in the Americas and Africa. A legume fruit is a dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel. A common name for type of fruit is a pod, although the term pod is also applied to a number of other fruit types, such as that of vanilla. Legumes are notable in that most of them have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules, for that reason, they play a key role in crop rotation. The term pulse, as used by the United Nations Food and this excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are seeds that are grown for oil extraction. However, in usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made. Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae, are leguminous but are not called legumes by farmers. Farmed legumes can belong to many classes, including forage, grain, blooms, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure. Most commercially farmed species fill two or more roles simultaneously, depending upon their degree of maturity when harvested, grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds. The seeds are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses, grain legumes include beans, lentils, lupins, peas, and peanuts. Like other plant-based foods, pulses contain no cholesterol and little fat or sodium, Legumes are also an excellent source of resistant starch which is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids used by intestinal cells for food energy. Preliminary studies in humans include the potential for regular consumption of legumes in a diet to affect metabolic syndrome. There is evidence that a portion of pulses in a diet may lower blood pressure and reduce LDL cholesterol levels. Some, like alfalfa, clover, vetch, stylo, or Arachis, are sown in pasture, other forage legumes such as Leucaena or Albizia are woody shrub or tree species that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide livestock feed. Legume species grown for their flowers include lupins, which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide, industrially farmed legumes include Indigofera and Acacia species, which are cultivated for dye and natural gum production, respectively
Legumes
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A selection of various legumes
Legumes
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Freshly dug
peanuts (Arachis hypogaea),
indehiscent legume fruits
Legumes
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White
clover, a forage crop
24.
Whole grains
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A whole grain is a cereal grain that contains the germ, endosperm, and bran, in contrast to refined grains, which retain only the endosperm. Regular whole-grain consumption lowers LDL and triglyceride levels, which contributes to an overall 26% reduction in coronary heart disease-risk factors. In addition, whole-grain consumption is related to hypertension, diabetes. Keeping grains as close to their form as possible slows or prevents the digestion of starch. Wholegrain products can be identified by the ingredients list, wheat flour as the first ingredient is not a clear indicator of the products wholegrain content. If two ingredients are listed as grain products but only the second is listed as wholegrain, the product may contain between 1% and 49% wholegrain. Many breads are colored brown and made to look like wholegrain when they are not, in addition, some food manufacturers make foods with wholegrain ingredients, but, because wholegrain ingredients are not the dominant ingredient, they are not wholegrain products. Contrary to popular belief, wholegrains are not indicative of fiber, the amount of fiber varies from grain to grain, and some products may have things like bran, peas, or other foods added to boost the fiber content. In Canada, it is legal to advertise any food product as whole wheat with up to 70% of the germ removed, while the resulting product will contain the benefit of fiber in the nutritional information, it lacks the nutritional content found in the wheat germ. Canadian consumers can be assured of whole-grain products by a label stating 100% whole-grain whole wheat, similar to the distinction between whole and refined grains is that between whole pulses and refined dal. If all parts of the kernel are used in the relative proportions as they exist in the original kernel. Under the Food and Drug Regulations, up to 5% of the kernel can be removed to help reduce rancidity, the portion of the kernel that is removed for this purpose contains much of the germ and some of the bran. If this portion of the kernel has been removed, the flour would no longer be considered whole grain
Whole grains
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History
Whole grains
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The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the
talk page. (November 2010)
Whole grains
25.
Nut (fruit)
–
A nut is a fruit composed of a hard shell and a seed, which is generally edible. In a general context, however, a variety of dried seeds are called nuts. The translation of nut in certain languages frequently requires paraphrases, as the word is ambiguous. Most seeds come from fruits that naturally free themselves from the shell, unlike nuts such as hazelnuts, chestnuts, and acorns, which have hard shell walls and originate from a compound ovary. The general and original usage of the term is less restrictive, and many nuts, such as almonds, pecans, pistachios, walnuts, common usage of the term often refers to any hard-walled, edible kernel as a nut. A nut in botany is a dry fruit with one seed in which the ovary wall becomes increasingly hard as it matures. Most nuts come from the pistils with inferior ovaries and all are indehiscent, true nuts are produced, for example, by some plant families of the order Fagales. Order Fagales Family Fagaceae Beech Chestnut Oak Stone-oak Tanoak Family Betulaceae Hazel, in botany, this term specifically refers to a pyrena or pyrene, which is a seed covered by a stony layer, such as the kernel of a drupe. Walnuts and hickories have fruits that are difficult to classify and they are considered to be nuts under some definitions, but are also referred to as drupaceous nuts. Tryma is a term for hickory fruits. In common use, a nut is, as the name implies. This most often comes up regarding allergies, where people are allergic specifically to peanuts. A nut in cuisine is a less restrictive category than a nut in botany. Any large, oily kernels found within a shell and used in food are called nuts. Nuts are an important source of nutrients for humans and wildlife. Because nuts generally have an oil content, they are a highly prized food. A large number of seeds are edible by humans and used in cooking, eaten raw, sprouted, or roasted as a food, or pressed for oil that is used in cookery. Nuts are also a significant source of nutrition for wildlife, Nuts used for food, whether true nut or not, are among the most common food allergens
Nut (fruit)
–
Chestnuts are both botanical and culinary nuts.
Nut (fruit)
–
A
walnut, left, and its seed, right, having been removed from its pericarp.
Nut (fruit)
–
Korean Pine seeds — unshelled, and shell, above; shelled, below
Nut (fruit)
–
Raw
mixed nuts, sold as a snack food. This is a "fancy" mix, meaning that it does not include peanuts.
26.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
Sugar
–
Closeup of raw (unrefined, unbleached) sugar
Sugar
–
Ant feeding on sugar crystals.
Sugar
–
Sugar cane plantation
Sugar
–
Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary, by
George Flegel, first half of 17th century
27.
Salt
–
Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
Salt
–
Salt deposits beside the
Dead Sea
Salt
–
Red rock salt from the
Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan
Salt
–
Salt production in
Halle, Saxony-Anhalt (1670)
Salt
–
Ponds near
Maras, Peru, fed from a mineral spring and used for salt production since the time of the
Incas.
28.
Sodium
–
Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal, Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell that it readily donates, creating a positively charged atom—the Na+ cation. Its only stable isotope is 23Na, the free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earths crust, Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful compounds, sodium hydroxide is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride is a de-icing agent. Sodium is an element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation in the fluid and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic pressure. Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the sodium concentration, isotonic loss of water and sodium from the ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia. In nerve cells, the charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—an action potential—when the charge is dissipated. The melting and boiling points of sodium are lower than those of lithium but higher than those of the alkali metals potassium, rubidium. All of these high-pressure allotropes are insulators and electrides.3 nm, spin-orbit interactions involving the electron in the 3p orbital split the D line into two, at 589.0 and 589.6 nm, hyperfine structures involving both orbitals cause many more lines. Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable, 23Na is created in the carbon-burning process in stars by fusing two carbon atoms together, this requires temperatures above 600 megakelvins and a star of at least three solar masses. Two nuclear isomers have been discovered, the one being 24mNa with a half-life of around 20.2 milliseconds. Sodium atoms have 11 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas neon. This process requires so little energy that sodium is oxidized by giving up its 11th electron. In contrast, the ionization energy is very high, because the 10th electron is closer to the nucleus than the 11th electron. As a result, sodium usually forms ionic compounds involving the Na+ cation, the most common oxidation state for sodium is +1. It is generally less reactive than potassium and more reactive than lithium, Sodium metal is highly reducing, with the reduction of sodium ions requiring −2.71 volts, though potassium and lithium have even more negative potentials
Sodium
–
Sodium, 11 Na
Sodium
–
Spectral lines of sodium
Sodium
–
Emission spectrum for sodium, showing the
D line.
Sodium
–
A positive
flame test for sodium has a bright yellow color.
29.
Iodised salt
–
Iodised salt is table salt mixed with a minute amount of various salts of the element iodine. The ingestion of iodine prevents iodine deficiency, worldwide, iodine deficiency affects about two billion people and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual and developmental disabilities. Deficiency also causes thyroid problems, including endemic goitre. In many countries, iodine deficiency is a public health problem that can be cheaply addressed by purposely adding small amounts of iodine to the sodium chloride salt. Where natural levels of iodine in the soil are low and the iodine is not taken up by vegetables, iodine added to salt provides the small, an opened package of table salt with iodide may rapidly lose its iodine content through the process of oxidation and iodine sublimation. Four inorganic compounds are used as sources, depending on the producer, potassium iodate, potassium iodide, sodium iodate. Any of these supplies the body with its iodine required for the biosynthesis of thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones by the thyroid gland. Animals also benefit from iodine supplements, and the hydrogen iodide derivative of ethylenediamine is the supplement to livestock feed. Salt is a vehicle for distributing iodine to the public because it does not spoil and is consumed in more predictable amounts than most other commodities. For example, the concentration of iodine in salt has gradually increased in Switzerland,3.75 mg/kg in 1952,7.5 mg/kg in 1962,15 mg/kg in 1980,20 mg/kg in 1998, and 25 mg/kg in 2014. These increases were found to improve iodine status in the general Swiss population, Salt that is iodised with iodide may slowly lose its iodine content by exposure to excess air over long periods. Edible salt can be iodised by spraying it with a potassium iodate or potassium iodide solution,57 grams of potassium iodate, costing about US$1.15, is required to iodise a ton of salt. Dextrose is added as a stabilizer to prevent potassium iodide from oxidizing and evaporating, anti-caking agents such as calcium silicate are commonly added to table salt to prevent clumping. Worldwide, iodine deficiency affects two people and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual and developmental disabilities. According to public health experts, iodisation of salt may be the worlds simplest and most cost-effective measure available to improve health, at the World Summit for Children in 1990, a goal was set to eliminate iodine deficiency by 2000. At that time, 25% of households consumed iodised salt, a proportion that increased to 66% by 2006, Salt producers are often, although not always, supportive of government initiatives to iodise edible salt supplies. Iodine Deficiency Disorders were detected as a public health issue by Brazilian authorities in the 1950s. The National Agency for Sanitary Vigilance is responsible for setting the mandatory iodine content of table salt, the Brazilian diet averages 12 g of table salt per day, more than twice the recommended value of 5 g a day
Iodised salt
–
Global logo for iodised salt. Logos, such as this one, are placed on salt packages to help consumers identify salt that contains added iodine.
Iodised salt
–
A pile of iodised salt.
Iodised salt
–
History
30.
Vitamins
–
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present, Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each vitamin refers to a number of compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin generic descriptor title, such as vitamin A, which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the form of the vitamin in the body. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as cofactors or the precursors for them. In this role, vitamins may be bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups, For example. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, for example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins best-known function, study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology. Each vitamin is typically used in reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs and it requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, if there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage, for the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume, examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan. In those who are healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease
Vitamins
–
A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin supplement pills.
Vitamins
–
500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with vitamin D, made from
calcium carbonate,
maltodextrin,
mineral oil,
hypromellose,
glycerin,
cholecalciferol,
polyethylene glycol, and
carnauba wax.
Vitamins
–
The
Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a person
liver would help cure
night blindness.
31.
Benzene
–
Benzene is an important organic chemical compound with the chemical formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms joined in a ring with 1 hydrogen atom attached to each, because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon. Benzene is a constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals. Because of the cyclic continuous pi bond between the atoms, benzene is classed as an aromatic hydrocarbon, the second -annulene. Benzene is a colorless and highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell and it is used primarily as a precursor to the manufacture of chemicals with more complex structure, such as ethylbenzene and cumene, of which billions of kilograms are produced. Because benzene has a high number, it is an important component of gasoline. Because benzene is a carcinogen, most non-industrial applications have been limited. The word benzene derives historically from gum benzoin, a resin known to European pharmacists. An acidic material was derived from benzoin by sublimation, and named flowers of benzoin, the hydrocarbon derived from benzoic acid thus acquired the name benzin, benzol, or benzene. Michael Faraday first isolated and identified benzene in 1825 from the oily residue derived from the production of illuminating gas, in 1833, Eilhard Mitscherlich produced it by distilling benzoic acid and lime. He gave the compound the name benzin, in 1845, Charles Mansfield, working under August Wilhelm von Hofmann, isolated benzene from coal tar. Four years later, Mansfield began the first industrial-scale production of benzene, gradually, the sense developed among chemists that a number of substances were chemically related to benzene, comprising a diverse chemical family. In 1855, Hofmann used the word aromatic to designate this family relationship, in 1997, benzene was detected in deep space. The empirical formula for benzene was known, but its highly polyunsaturated structure. In 1865, the German chemist Friedrich August Kekulé published a paper in French suggesting that the structure contained a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds, the next year he published a much longer paper in German on the same subject. Kekulés symmetrical ring could explain these facts, as well as benzenes 1,1 carbon-hydrogen ratio. Here Kekulé spoke of the creation of the theory and he said that he had discovered the ring shape of the benzene molecule after having a reverie or day-dream of a snake seizing its own tail. This vision, he said, came to him years of studying the nature of carbon-carbon bonds
Benzene
–
A bottle of benzene. The warnings show benzene is a toxic and flammable liquid.
Benzene
–
Geometry of molecule
32.
E. coli
–
Escherichia coli is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause food poisoning in their hosts. The harmless strains are part of the flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2. E. coli is expelled into the environment within fecal matter, the bacterium grows massively in fresh fecal matter under aerobic conditions for 3 days, but its numbers decline slowly afterwards. E. coli and other facultative anaerobes constitute about 0. 1% of gut flora, cells are able to survive outside the body for a limited amount of time, which makes them potential indicator organisms to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. A growing body of research, though, has examined environmentally persistent E. coli which can survive for extended periods outside of a host, the bacterium can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting, and has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. E. coli is a chemoheterotroph whose chemically defined medium must include a source of carbon, under favorable conditions, it takes only 20 minutes to reproduce. E. coli is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic and nonsporulating bacterium, cells are typically rod-shaped, and are about 2.0 μm long and 0. 25–1.0 μm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0. 6–0.7 μm3. E. coli stains Gram-negative because its cell wall is composed of a peptidoglycan layer. During the staining process, E. coli picks up the color of the counterstain safranin, the outer membrane surrounding the cell wall provides a barrier to certain antibiotics such that E. coli is not damaged by penicillin. Strains that possess flagella are motile, the flagella have a peritrichous arrangement. E. coli can live on a variety of substrates and uses mixed-acid fermentation in anaerobic conditions, producing lactate, succinate, ethanol, acetate. Optimum growth of E. coli occurs at 37 °C, and it uses oxygen when it is present and available. It can, however, continue to grow in the absence of oxygen using fermentation or anaerobic respiration, the ability to continue growing in the absence of oxygen is an advantage to bacteria because their survival is increased in environments where water predominates. The bacterial cell cycle is divided into three stages, the B period occurs between the completion of cell division and the beginning of DNA replication. The C period encompasses the time it takes to replicate the chromosomal DNA, the D period refers to the stage between the conclusion of DNA replication and the end of cell division. The doubling rate of E. coli is higher when more nutrients are available, However, the length of the C and D periods do not change, even when the doubling time becomes less than the sum of the C and D periods. At the fastest growth rates, replication begins before the round of replication has completed, resulting in multiple replication forks along the DNA
E. coli
–
Escherichia coli
33.
Tapeworm
–
Cestoda is a class of parasitic flatworms of the phylum Platyhelminthes. Biologists informally refer to them as cestodes, the best-known species are commonly called tapeworms. All cestodes are parasitic and their life histories vary, but typically they live in the tracts of vertebrates as adults. Over a thousand species have been described, and all species may be parasitised by at least one species of tapeworm. Humans are subject to infection by several species of tapeworms if they eat undercooked meat such as pork, beef, and fish, or if they live in, or eat food prepared in, conditions of poor hygiene. T. saginata, the tapeworm, can grow up to 20 m, the largest species. Species using small vertebrates as hosts, though, tend to be small, for example, vole and lemming tapeworms are only 13–240 mm in length, and those parasitizing shrews only 0. 8–60 mm. The worms scolex attaches to the intestine of the definitive host, in some species, the scolex is dominated by bothria, or sucking grooves that function like suction cups. Other species have hooks and suckers that aid in attachment, cyclophyllid cestodes can be identified by the presence of four suckers on their scolices. While the scolex is often the most distinctive part of a tapeworm, it is often unnoticed in a clinical setting. Therefore, identifying eggs and proglottids in feces is the simplest way to diagnose an infection, the main nerve centre of a cestode is a cerebral ganglion in its scolex. Motor and sensory innervation depends on the number of nerves in, smaller nerves emanate from the ganglion to supply the general body muscular and sensory ending. The cirrus and vagina are innervated, and sensory endings around the genital pore are more plentiful than other areas, sensory function includes both tactoreception and chemoreception. The body is composed of segments called proglottids. The sum of the proglottids is called a strobila, which is thin, from this is derived the common name tapeworm. Proglottids are continually produced by the region of the scolex, as long as the scolex is attached. Like some other flatworms, cestodes use flame cells, located in the proglottids, mature proglottids are released from the tapeworms end segment and leave the host in feces or migrate as independent motile proglottids. The proglottids farthest away from the scolex are the ones containing eggs
Tapeworm
Tapeworm
–
Scolex of
Taenia solium with hooks and suckers.
Tapeworm
–
Two proglottids of Taenia solium
Tapeworm
–
Image of a tapeworm proglottid leaving its definitive host
34.
WHO
–
The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organization. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasized the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
WHO
–
Three former directors of the
Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
WHO
–
World Health Organization
WHO
–
WHO Headquarters in Geneva
WHO
–
Demonstration on
Chernobyl disaster day near WHO in
Geneva
35.
History of USDA nutrition guides
–
The history of USDA nutrition guides includes over 100 years of American nutrition advice. The guides have been updated over time, to new scientific findings. Over time they have described from 4 to 11 food groups, various guides have been criticized as not accurately representing scientific information about optimal nutrition, and as being overly influenced by the agricultural industries the USDA promotes. The USDAs first nutrition guidelines were published in 1894 by Dr. Wilbur Olin Atwater as a farmers bulletin and this information preceded the discovery of individual vitamins beginning in 1910. A new guide in 1916, Food for Young Children by nutritionist Caroline Hunt, categorized foods into milk and meat, cereals, vegetables and fruits, fats and fatty foods, and sugars and sugary foods. How to Select Food in 1917 promoted these five food groups to adults, in 1933, the USDA introduced food plans at four different cost levels in response to the Great Depression. In 1941, the first Recommended Dietary Allowances were created, listing specific intakes for calories, protein, iron, calcium, and vitamins A, B1, B2 B3, C and D. In 1943, during World War II, The USDA introduced a nutrition guide promoting the Basic 7 food groups to help maintain nutritional standards under wartime food rationing. These food groups were, Vegetables and fruits, Recommended as excellent sources of vitamins C and A, a dark-green or deep-yellow vegetable or fruit was recommended every other day. Milk, Recommended as a source of calcium, phosphorus, protein, riboflavin, and sometimes vitamins A and D. Cheese, ice cream. Meat, Recommended for protein, iron and certain B vitamins, includes meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dry beans, dry peas, and peanut butter. Cereals and breads, Whole grain and enriched breads were especially recommended as good sources of iron, B vitamins and carbohydrates, as well as sources of protein, includes cereals, breads, cornmeal, macaroni, noodles, rice and spaghetti. Other foods were said to round out meals and satisfy appetites and these included additional servings from the Basic Four, or foods such as butter, margarine, salad dressing and cooking oil, sauces, jellies and syrups. The Basic Four guide was omnipresent in nutrition education in the United States, a notable example is the 1972 series Mulligan Stew, providing nutrition education for schoolchildren in reruns until 1981. The introduction of the USDAs food guide pyramid in 1992 attempted to express the recommended servings of each food group, inside each group were several images of representative foods, as well as symbols representing the fat and sugar contents of the foods. The first chart suggested to the USDA by nutritional experts in 1992 featured fruits and vegetables as the biggest group and this chart was overturned at the hand of special interests in the grain, meat, and dairy industries, all of which are heavily subsidized by the USDA. If Americans followed the chart suggested, they would buy much less meat, milk, and bread. On the other hand, if they ate as the chart suggested, it could lead to an epidemic of obesity and diabetes, as original composer of the food Pyramid
History of USDA nutrition guides
–
The USDA's "Basic 7" food groups from 1943 to 1956.
36.
MyPlate
–
MyPlate is the current nutrition guide published by the United States Department of Agriculture, a food circle depicting a place setting with a plate and glass divided into five food groups. It replaced the USDAs MyPyramid guide on June 2,2011, MyPlate will be displayed on food packaging and used in nutrition education in the United States. MyPlate is the latest nutrition guide from the USDA, the USDAs first dietary guidelines were published in 1894 by Dr. Wilbur Olin Atwater as a farmers bulletin. Since then, the USDA has provided a variety of nutrition guides for the public, including the Basic 7, the Basic Four, the Food Guide Pyramid, many other governments and organizations have created nutrition guides. Some, like the United Kingdoms Eatwell Plate, the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, the guidelines also recommend portion control while still enjoying food, as well as reductions in sodium and sugar intakes. In unveiling MyPlate, First Lady Michelle Obama said, Parents dont have the time to measure out exactly three ounces of chicken or to look up how much rice or broccoli is in a serving, but we do have time to take a look at our kids plates. And as long as theyre eating proper portions, as long as half of their meal is fruits and vegetables alongside their lean proteins, whole grains and low-fat dairy, then were good. The USDA has created partnerships with a number of organizations to promote the messages of MyPlate and spread the reach as far. These partners consist of national in scope and reach that have agreed to promote nutrition content in the context of the entirety of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. MyPlate was widely received as an improvement on the previous MyPyramid icon, the 50-percent emphasis on fruits and vegetables, as well as the simplicity and understandability of the plate image, were particularly praised. The dairy section was criticized by some as similarly dispensable, the Harvard School of Public Health released their own adjusted and more detailed version of MyPlate, called the Harvard Healthy Eating Plate, in response. The Harvard plate also contains a recommendation for physical activity
MyPlate
–
The MyPlate food guide icon
37.
United States Department of Agriculture
–
Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit
United States Department of Agriculture
–
The
Jamie L. Whitten Building in
Washington D.C., the USDA headquarters.
United States Department of Agriculture
–
Seal of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Agriculture
–
Harvey Washington Wiley, Chief Chemist of the Department of Agriculture's Division of Chemistry (third from the right) with his staff, not long after he joined the division in 1883
United States Department of Agriculture
–
The
Beagle Brigade are part of the USDAs
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. This piece of luggage at
Washington Dulles International Airport may contain contraband.
38.
Vegetarianism
–
Vegetarianism /vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat, and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons, many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs, as well as animal rights advocacy, other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or personal preference. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs and dairy, some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax, leather or silk clothing, and goose-fat shoe polish. Often, prior to purchase or consumption, vegetarians will scrutinize products for animal-derived ingredients, vegetarians feelings vary with regard to these ingredients. Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats and those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism. A pescetarian diet has been described as fish but no other meat, the term vegetarian has been in use since 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable diet. The word is believed to be a compound of vegetable. The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester, the earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House, a school on the north side of Ham Common, London, opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from Indus Valley Civilization as early as the 7th century BCE, in the Indian culture, the diet was closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes vegetarianism, chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, through couplets 251 to 260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians and others, it had medical or ritual purification purposes and those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt, one animal is not to be fed to another. —Edicts of Ashoka, Fifth Pillar Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did on other continents, except India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons and it re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, in 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the century as a result of nutritional, ethical
Vegetarianism
–
Vegetarianism
Vegetarianism
–
A variety of
vegan and vegetarian
deli foods.
Vegetarianism
–
Roadside café near
Kullu, India.
Vegetarianism
–
A fruit stall in
Barcelona
39.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
Fruit
–
Culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Several
culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Mixed fruit
Fruit
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
40.
Vegetable
–
In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
Vegetable
–
Vegetables in a
market in the
Philippines
Vegetable
–
Domestic vegetable garden in the United Kingdom
Vegetable
–
cabbage Brassica oleracea
Vegetable
–
turnip Brassica rapa
41.
Grain
–
Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls
Grain
–
Food grains at a weekly market
Grain
–
Cereal grain seeds from left to right:
wheat,
spelt,
barley,
oat.
Grain
–
Barley
Grain
–
Rye grains.
42.
Dairy product
–
Dairy products or milk products are a type of food produced from or containing the milk of mammals, primarily cattle, water buffaloes, goats, sheep, and camels. Dairy products include items such as yogurt, cheese. A facility that produces dairy products is known as a dairy, dairy products are consumed worldwide, with the exception of much of East and Southeast Asia and also some parts of central Africa. Additionally dairy products can contribute significant amounts of cholesterol and saturated fat to the diet which can increase the risk of heart disease, and cause other serious health problems. However, it has shown that there is no connection between dairy consumption and cardiovascular disease, even though dairy tends to be higher in saturated fats. There is no excess cardiovascular risk with dietary calcium intake but calcium supplements are associated with a risk of coronary artery calcification. Drinking milk or other dairy products does not cause mucus production and this widely held belief stems from some people mistaking the thin coat of residue left behind after consuming milk or ice cream for mucus. Rates of dairy consumption vary widely worldwide, high-consumption countries consume more than 150 kg per capita per year, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Costa Rica, Europe, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, North America and Pakistan. Low-consumption countries consume under 30 kg per capita per year, Senegal, most of Central Africa, Some groups avoid dairy products for non-health related reasons, Religious – Some religions restrict or do not allow for the consumption of dairy products. For example, some scholars of Jainism advocate not consuming any dairy products because dairy is perceived to involve violence against cows. Strict Judaism requires that meat and dairy products not be served at the meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Ethical – Veganism is the avoidance of all products, including dairy products. The ethical reasons for avoiding dairy include how dairy is produced, how the animals are handled, fermented milk products List of dairy products List of dairy product companies in the United States List of foods Plant milk Britannica, Enclyclopaedia. Rankin, H. F. Imbucase, the Story of the B. C. I. C. of the Ministry of Food, Edinburgh, Edinburgh Press Questions and Answers on dairy products Guide for homemade kefir Template, Mbachilin Arsha Leo
Dairy product
–
A
dairy farm
Dairy product
–
Milk products and production relationships
Dairy product
–
A selection of three common dairy products made by a South African dairy company: a box of full cream, long life milk, a bottle of strawberry drinking yogurt, and a carton of passion fruit yogurt
Dairy product
–
The milk products of the Water buffaloes (super carabaos,
Philippine Carabao Center)
43.
Vegetable oil
–
A vegetable oil is a triglyceride extracted from a plant. For this reason, vegetable oils that are solid at room temperature are sometimes called vegetable fats, in contrast to these triglycerides, vegetable waxes lack glycerin in their structure. Although many plant parts may yield oil, in commercial practice, Oils extracted from plants have been used since ancient times and in many cultures. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Israel. Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, the oils serve a number of purposes in this role, Shortening – to give pastry a crumbly texture. Texture – oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less, flavor – while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, some oils, such as olive, sesame, or almond oil, may be chosen specifically for the flavor they impart. Flavor base – oils can also carry flavors of other ingredients, secondly, oils can be heated and used to cook other foods. Oils suitable for this objective must have a flash point. Such oils include the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. Tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran oils, are valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking. Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, the hydrogenation process involves sparging the oil at high temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound. As each carbon–carbon double-bond is chemically reduced to a single bond, the elimination of double bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called saturation, as the degree of saturation increases, the oil progresses toward being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity or to change its physical characteristics, as the degree of saturation increases, the oils viscosity and melting point increase. The use of hydrogenated oils in foods has never completely satisfactory. Because the center arm of the triglyceride is shielded somewhat by the end fatty acids, most of the hydrogenation occurs on the end fatty acids, a margarine made from naturally more saturated oils will be more plastic than a margarine made from hydrogenated soy oil. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to a risk of mortality from coronary heart disease. In the US, the Standard of Identity for a product labeled as vegetable oil margarine specifies only canola, safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean, products not labeled vegetable oil margarine do not have that restriction. Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products, many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products
Vegetable oil
–
Olive oil
Vegetable oil
–
Jambú oil
Vegetable oil
–
Guava oil
Vegetable oil
–
Pracachy or Pentaclethra macroloba
44.
Saturated fat
–
A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
Saturated fat
45.
American Heart Association
–
Originally formed in New York City in 1924 as the Association for the Prevention and Relief of Heart Disease, it is currently headquartered in Dallas, Texas. The American Heart Association is a voluntary health agency. They are known for publishing standards on basic life support and advanced life support. They are known also for operating a number of visible public service campaigns starting in the 1970s. In 1994, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, an industry publication, elliott Antman, M. D. is president of the American Heart Association for its 2014–15 fiscal year. The American Heart Association publishes a standard for providing basic and advanced life support, the AHA offers the most widely accepted certification for basic life support. The AHA is now also a provider of training for first aid, the AHA also operates an affiliated organization, the American Stroke Association, which focuses on care, research and prevention of strokes. The American Heart Association grew out of a set of smaller precursor groups, the primary precursor was the Association for the Prevention and Relief of Heart Disease, formed in New York City in 1915, to study whether patients with heart disease could safely return to work. Several similar organizations formed or evolved in Boston, Philadelphia, the AHA remained small until the 1940s when it was selected for support by Procter & Gamble, via their PR firm, from a list of applicant charities. Procter & Gamble gave $1.5 million from its show, Truth or Consequences. These recommendations continued to more precise from 1957 to 1980. In 1994, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, a publication, released the results of the largest study of charitable. On October 28,2009 The American Heart Association and the Ad Council launched a hands-only CPR public service announcement, on November 30,2009, The American Heart Association announced a new cardiac arrest awareness campaign called Be the Beat. The campaigns aim is to teach 12- to 15-year-olds fun ways to learn the basics of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, in 2010 the AHA launched the Go Red for Women campaign. Historically men have been the subjects of heart disease and stroke research. Go Red for Women specifically targets women with information about risks, all revenues from the local and national campaigns goes to support awareness, research, education and community programs to benefit women. In May 2010, the AHA endorsed the Nintendo Wii Console, the AHA Heart Icon is featured on the box of the console as well as on the Wii Fit Plus and Wii Sports Resort titles. It also carried out a campaign in 2012 to educate people on how to carry out hands-only CPR
American Heart Association
–
A Health Promotion coordinator at Fleet Activities Sasebo, from Augusta, Ga., checks a sailor's blood pressure during a "Go Red for Women" heart disease awareness campaign in 2009.
American Heart Association
–
American Heart Association
American Heart Association
–
Jump Rope for Heart, pictured in 2014. Volunteers with the 6th Squadron, 8th Cavalry Regiment assisted the students in celebrating the end of the school's fundraising event, "Jump Rope for Heart", to raise funds for the American Heart Association.
46.
Monounsaturated fat
–
In biochemistry and nutrition, monounsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that have one double bond in the fatty acid chain with all of the remainder carbon atoms being single-bonded. By contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond, Fatty acids are long-chained molecules having an alkyl group at one end and a carboxylic acid group at the other end. Monounsaturated fatty acids are liquids at room temperature and semisolid or solid when refrigerated, common monounsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic acid, cis-vaccenic acid and oleic acid. Palmitoleic acid has 16 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 7 carbon atoms away from the methyl group and it can be lengthened to the 18-carbon cis-vaccenic acid. Oleic acid has 18 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 9 carbon atoms away from the acid group. The illustrations below show a molecule of acid in Lewis formula. Polyunsaturated fats protect against cardiovascular disease by providing more membrane fluidity than monounsaturated fats, the large scale KANWU study found that increasing monounsaturated fat and decreasing saturated fat intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low. However, some monounsaturated fatty acids may promote resistance, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids may be protective against insulin resistance. Studies have shown that substituting dietary monounsaturated fat for saturated fat is associated with increased physical activity. More physical activity was associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a palmitic acid diet, from the study, it is shown that more monounsaturated fats lead to less anger and irritability. Foods containing monounsaturated fats reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, while possibly increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, however, their true ability to raise HDL is still in debate. Levels of oleic along with other monounsaturated fatty acids in red cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The saturation index of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk, monounsaturated fats and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these depend on the activity of the enzyme delta-9 desaturase. In children, consumption of monounsaturated oils is associated with healthier serum lipid profiles, the Mediterranean Diet is one heavily influenced by monounsaturated fats. The diet in Crete is fairly high in total fat yet affords a protection from coronary heart disease. Monounsaturated fats are found in foods such as red meat, whole milk products, nuts and high fat fruits such as olives. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat, the high oleic variety sunflower oil contains as much as 85% monounsaturated fat
Monounsaturated fat
47.
Polyunsaturated fat
–
Polyunsaturated fats are lipids in which the constituent hydrocarbon chain possesses two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Polyunsaturated fat can be mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, algae, leafy greens. Unsaturated refers to the fact that the molecules contain less than the amount of hydrogen. These materials exist as cis or trans isomers depending on the geometry of the double bond, saturated fats have hydrocarbon chains which can be most readily aligned. The hydrocarbon chains in trans fats align more readily than those in cis fats and this means that, in general, the melting points of fats increase from cis to trans unsaturated and then to saturated. See the section on chemical structure of fats for more information, the position of the carbon-carbon double bonds in carboxylic acid chains in fats is designated by Greek letters. The carbon atom closest to the group is the alpha carbon. In fatty acids the carbon atom of the group at the end of the hydrocarbon chain is called the omega carbon because omega is the last letter of the Greek alphabet. Omega-3 fatty acids have a double bond three carbons away from the carbon, whereas omega-6 fatty acids have a double bond six carbons away from the methyl carbon. The illustration below shows the omega-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid, while it is the nutritional aspects of polyunsaturated fats that are generally of greatest interest, these materials do also have non-food applications. Drying oils, which polymerize on exposure to oxygen to form films, are polyunsaturated fats. The most common ones are linseed oil, tung oil, poppy seed oil, perilla oil and these oils are used to make paints and varnishes. In preliminary research, omega-3 fatty acids in algal oil, fish oil, fish, ongoing research indicates that omega-6 fatty acids in sunflower oil and safflower oil may also reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Among n-3 fatty acids, neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of acid, however, the most abundant n-3 PUFA in erythrocyte membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. The DHA obtained through the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with cognitive. In addition DHA is vital for the grey matter structure of the human brain, dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids has been shown in preliminary studies to decrease the risk of developing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The importance of the ratio of essential fatty acids as established by comparative studies shows an Omega-6
Polyunsaturated fat
–
3D representation of
linoleic acid in a bent
conformation.
48.
Healthy eating pyramid
–
The Healthy Eating Pyramid is a nutrition guide developed by the Harvard School of Public Health, suggesting quantities of each food category that a human should eat each day. The healthy eating pyramid is intended to provide a sound eating guide than the food guide pyramid created by the USDA. The new pyramid aims to more recent research in dietary health not present in the USDAs 1992 guide. Plant oils, including oil, canola oil, soybean oil, corn oil. 2–3 servings of fruits, each serving =1 piece of fruit or 4 ounces, 1–3 servings of nuts, or legumes, each serving =2 ounces. 1–2 servings of dairy or calcium supplement, each serving =8 ounces non fat or 4 ounces of whole, 1–2 servings of poultry, fish, or eggs, each serving =4 ounces or 1 egg. Sparing use of rice, white bread, potatoes, pasta and sweets, Sparing use of red meat. Dietary supplement Dieting List of diets Essential nutrient Functional food Health food restaurants MyPlate Orthorexia nervosa Is the Food Pyramid Obsolete, the Way We Eat Now Harvard Magazine, May-June 2004
Healthy eating pyramid
–
The Healthy Eating Pyramid, from the Harvard School of Public Health
49.
Harvard School of Public Health
–
The Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health is the public health graduate school of Harvard University, located in the Longwood Medical Area of Boston, Massachusetts adjacent Harvard Medical School. The Chan School is considered a preeminent school of health in the United States. She will become the first African American individual to head a Harvard faculty, as of 2015, the school is ranked second in the nation in the U. S. News & World Report. U. S. News consistently ranks Harvard #1 in Health Policy, the School traces its origins to the Harvard-MIT School for Health Officers, founded in 1913, Harvard calls it the nations first graduate training program in public health. In 1922, the School for Health Officers became the Harvard School of Public Health, and in 1946 it was split off from the medical school and became a separate faculty of Harvard University. It was renamed the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health in 2014 after receiving a $350 million donation, the largest gift in Harvards history at the time, from the Morningside Foundation. The Morningside Foundation is headed by Harvard School of Public Health alumnus Dr. Gerald Chan, SM ’75, SD ’79, the program is a cohort-based program emphasizing small-group learning and collaboration. The program is designed for three years – two years at Harvard, plus one year in a doctoral project – although some students may take up to four years to complete the program. Study, examining the factors for and prognosis of lung cancer in terms of genetics. The College Alcohol Study, which examines the causes of college binge drinking and approaches to prevention, the Program on the Global Demography of Aging, which studies policy issues related to economics of aging with a focus on the developing world. The Superfund Basic Research Program, studying toxic waste management. S, department of Health and Human Services. Steven K. Marr, MD, MPH, epidemiologist and author
Harvard School of Public Health
–
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Avenue
Harvard School of Public Health
–
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
Harvard School of Public Health
–
HSPH Courtyard Entrance from Harvard Medical School
Harvard School of Public Health
–
History
50.
Dietary fiber
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Dietary fiber or roughage is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants. It has two components, Soluble fiber, which dissolves in water, is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. It delays gastric emptying which in turn can cause a feeling of fullness. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, is inert and provides bulking, or it can be prebiotic. Bulking fibers absorb water as they move through the digestive system, Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract, some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate, other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fully fermented. A novel position has been adopted by the US Department of Agriculture to include functional fibers as isolated fiber sources that may be included in the diet, the term fiber is something of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not actually fibrous. Food sources of fiber are often divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the plants characteristics, a disadvantage of a diet high in fiber is the potential for significant intestinal gas production and bloating. Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes, the definition was later changed to also include resistant starch, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides. Official definition of dietary fiber differs a little among different institutions, Dietary fibers are found in fruits, vegetables, the exact amount of fiber contained in the food can be seen in the following table of expected fiber in USDA food groups/subgroups Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high concentrations are generally the most practical source. Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly, or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, formerly the American Dietetic Association, some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp, the skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain an amount of fiber. The root of the plant, or glucomannan, produces results similar to fiber
Dietary fiber
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Legumes contain healthy dietary fibers.
. PMID 16389240. doi:10.1503/cmaj.045037.
