1.
View from the Window at Le Gras
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View from the Window at Le Gras is a heliographic image and the oldest surviving camera photograph. It was created by Nicéphore Niépce in 1826 or 1827 at Saint-Loup-de-Varennes, France, Niépce captured the scene with a camera obscura focused onto a 16.2 cm ×20.2 cm pewter plate thinly coated with Bitumen of Judea, a naturally occurring asphalt. The bitumen hardened in the brightly lit areas, but in the dimly lit areas it remained soluble and could be washed away with a mixture of oil of lavender, a very long exposure in the camera was required. Sunlight strikes the buildings on opposite sides, suggesting an exposure that lasted eight hours. A researcher who studied Niépces notes and recreated his processes found that the exposure must have continued for several days, in late 1827, Niépce visited England. He showed this and several specimens of his work to botanical illustrator Francis Bauer. View from the Window at Le Gras was the example of a camera photograph. Bauer encouraged him to present his heliography process to the Royal Society, before returning to France, Niépce gave his paper and the specimens to Bauer. Niépce died suddenly in 1833, due to a stroke, on March 9,1839, the specimens were finally exhibited at the Royal Society. After Bauers death in 1840 they passed through several hands and were exhibited as historical curiosities. View from the Window at Le Gras was last seen in 1905, historian Helmut Gernsheim tracked down the photograph in 1952 and brought it to prominence, reinforcing the claim that Niépce is the inventor of photography. Gernsheim heavily retouched one of the prints to clean it up and make the scene more comprehensible. During the 1950s and early 1960s, Gernsheim lent the photograph to several exhibitions in continental Europe, in 1963, Harry Ransom purchased most of Gernsheims photography collection for the University of Texas at Austin. The Niépce heliograph was not included in the sale, but shortly afterward Gernsheim donated it, although it has rarely traveled since then, in 2012–13 it visited Mannheim, Germany, as part of an exhibition entitled The Birth of Photography—Highlights of the Helmut Gernsheim Collection. It is normally on display in the lobby of the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center in Austin. They confirmed that the image consists of bitumen and that the plate is pewter. The Institute also designed and built the elaborate display case system that now houses the artifact in a continuously monitored, stabilized, in 2007, scientists from the Louvre Museum published an analysis of the photograph using ion beam analysis, with data taken on their 2 MV electrostatic accelerator. This showed the details of the process that was corroding the image
2.
Camera obscura
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The surroundings of the projected image have to be relatively dark for the image to be clear, so many historical camera obscura experiments were performed in dark rooms. The term camera obscura also refers to constructions or devices that use of the principle within a box. Camerae obscurae with a lens in the opening have been used since the second half of the 16th century, before the term camera obscura was first used in 1604, many other expressions were used including cubiculum obscurum, cubiculum tenebricosum, conclave obscurum and locus obscurus. Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color, lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. The human eye itself works much like a camera obscura with an opening, a biconvex lens, a camera obscura device consists of a box, tent or room with a small hole in one side. Light from a scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted and reversed. The image can be projected onto paper, and can then be traced to produce an accurate representation. In order to produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture has to be about 1/100th the distance to the screen, many camerae obscurae use a lens rather than a pinhole because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus. As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, with too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction. Using mirrors, as in an 18th-century overhead version, it is possible to project a right-side-up image, another more portable type is a box with an angled mirror projecting onto tracing paper placed on the glass top, the image being upright as viewed from the back. There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects inspired paleolithic cave paintings and it is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in Neolithic structures. Perforated gnomons projecting an image of the sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings. The location of the circle can be measured to tell the time of day. In Arab and European cultures its invention was later attributed to Egyptian astronomer. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura projections. In these writings it is explained how the image in a collecting-point or treasure house is inverted by an intersecting point that collected the light. Light coming from the foot of a person would partly be hidden below. Rays from the head would partly be hidden above and partly form the part of the image
3.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
4.
Lavender oil
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Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the flower spikes of certain species of lavender. Like all essential oils, it is not a compound, it is a complex mixture of naturally occurring phytochemicals, including linalool. Kashmir Lavender oil is famous for being produced from lavender at the foothills of the Himalayas, as of 2011, the biggest lavender oil producer in the world is Bulgaria. Lavender oil has long used in the production of perfume. Oil of spike lavender was used as a solvent in oil painting, Lavender oil appears to be an endocrine disruptor, exhibiting anti-androgenic activity in vitro. The exact composition of lavender essential oil varies from species to species, of these linalool and linalyl acetate dominate, with moderate levels of lavandulyl acetate, terpinen-4-ol and lavandulol. 1, 8-cineole and camphor are also present in low to moderate qualities, in all lavender oil typically contains many more than 100 compounds, although a great many of these are present at very low concentrations. The composition of lavender essential oil as obtained by chromatography, Lavender Essential oil
5.
Geography
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Geography is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of Earth. The first person to use the word γεωγραφία was Eratosthenes, Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of the Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. It is often defined in terms of the two branches of geography and physical geography. Geography has been called the world discipline and the bridge between the human and the physical sciences, Geography is a systematic study of the Earth and its features. Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names, although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the space and the temporal database distribution of phenomena, processes, because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and its spatial patterns. Names of places. are not geography. know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself and this is a description of the world—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause, just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main fields, human geography and physical geography. The former largely focuses on the environment and how humans create, view, manage. The latter examines the environment, and how organisms, climate, soil, water. The difference between these led to a third field, environmental geography, which combines physical and human geography. Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science and it aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns. Physical geography can be divided into broad categories, including, Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns. It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social, and it requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between the human and the geography, as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Examples of areas of research in the environmental geography include, emergency management, environmental management, sustainability, geomatics is concerned with the application of computers to the traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography
6.
Heliograph
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A heliograph is a wireless solar telegraph that signals by flashes of sunlight reflected by a mirror. The flashes are produced by momentarily pivoting the mirror, or by interrupting the beam with a shutter, the heliograph was a simple but effective instrument for instantaneous optical communication over long distances during the late 19th and early 20th century. Its main uses were military, survey and forest protection work, heliographs were standard issue in the British and Australian armies until the 1960s, and were used by the Pakistani army as late as 1975. Most heliographs were variants of the British Army Mance Mark V version and it used a mirror with a small unsilvered spot in the centre. The sender aligned the heliograph to the target by looking at the target in the mirror. Keeping his head still, he adjusted the aiming rod so its cross wires bisected the target. This indicated that the sunbeam was pointing at the target, the flashes were produced by a keying mechanism that tilted the mirror up a few degrees at the push of a lever at the back of the instrument. If the sun was in front of the sender, its rays were reflected directly from this mirror to the receiving station. If the sun was behind the sender, the rod was replaced by a second mirror, to capture the sunlight from the main mirror. The U. S. Signal Corps heliograph mirror did not tilt and this type produced flashes by a shutter mounted on a second tripod. The heliograph had some great advantages, however, anyone in the beam with the correct knowledge could intercept signals without being detected. In the Boer War, where both sides used heliographs, tubes were used to decrease the dispersion of the beam.5 degrees to 15 degrees. The distance that signals could be seen depended on the clarity of the sky. A clear line of sight was required, and since the Earths surface is curved, under ordinary conditions, a flash could be seen 30 miles with the naked eye, and much farther with a telescope. The maximum range was considered to be 10 miles for each inch of mirror diameter, mirrors ranged from 1.5 inches to 12 inches or more. The record distance was established by a detachment of U. S, the German professor Carl Friedrich Gauss of the University of Göttingen developed and used a predecessor of the heliograph in 1821. His device directed a beam of sunlight to a distant station to be used as a marker for geodetic survey work. Similarly, the story that a shield was used as a heliograph at the Battle of Marathon is a modern myth, what Herodotus did write was that someone was accused of having arranged to hold up a shield as a signal
7.
Heliotrope (instrument)
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The heliotrope is an instrument that uses a mirror to reflect sunlight over great distances to mark the positions of participants in a land survey. The heliotrope was invented in 1821 by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, the word heliotrope is taken from the Greek, helios, meaning sun, and tropos, meaning turn. It is a name for an instrument which can be used to turn incoming sunlight. Heliotropes were used in surveys from Gausss survey in Germany in 1821 through the late 1980s, the Indian specification for heliotropes was updated in 1981, and the American military specification for heliotropes was retired on 8 December 1995. Heliotropes were often used as targets at ranges of over 100 miles. In California, in 1878, a heliotrope on Mount Saint Helena was surveyed by B. A. Colonna of the USCGS from Mount Shasta, a distance of 192 miles. The heliotrope was limited to use on days and was further limited to mornings. The inventor of the heliograph, a similar instrument specialized for signaling, was inspired by observing the use of heliotropes in the survey of India, transits of Venus Page with photographs of three heliotropes from 1873. Improvised Heliotrope this 1969 article also provides the US Army part number for a heliotrope, Heliotrope Heliotrope photo, description of a 192-mile record
