1.
Heliography
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Heliography is the photographic process invented by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce around 1822, which he used to make the earliest known surviving photograph from nature, View from the Window at Le Gras. The process used Bitumen of Judea, a naturally occurring asphalt and it hardened in proportion to its exposure to light. When the plate was washed with oil of lavender, only the areas remained. The word has also used to refer to other phenomena, for description of the sun, for photography in general, for signalling by heliograph. Found on old reproductions, may stand for the French word héliogravure, Art & Architecture Thesaurus, s. v. heliography. The University of Texas at Austin, an Improved Method in the Art of Signalling for Military & Scientific Purposes
2.
Photograph
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A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scenes visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography, the word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, together meaning drawing with light. The first permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based heliography process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process, after Niépces death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype and its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the image surface. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera, inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type, the needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. Non-digital photographs are produced with a chemical process. In the two-step process the film captures a negative image. To produce an image, the negative is most commonly transferred onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film, originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color
3.
Camera obscura
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The surroundings of the projected image have to be relatively dark for the image to be clear, so many historical camera obscura experiments were performed in dark rooms. The term camera obscura also refers to constructions or devices that use of the principle within a box. Camerae obscurae with a lens in the opening have been used since the second half of the 16th century, before the term camera obscura was first used in 1604, many other expressions were used including cubiculum obscurum, cubiculum tenebricosum, conclave obscurum and locus obscurus. Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color, lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. The human eye itself works much like a camera obscura with an opening, a biconvex lens, a camera obscura device consists of a box, tent or room with a small hole in one side. Light from a scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted and reversed. The image can be projected onto paper, and can then be traced to produce an accurate representation. In order to produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture has to be about 1/100th the distance to the screen, many camerae obscurae use a lens rather than a pinhole because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus. As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, with too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction. Using mirrors, as in an 18th-century overhead version, it is possible to project a right-side-up image, another more portable type is a box with an angled mirror projecting onto tracing paper placed on the glass top, the image being upright as viewed from the back. There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects inspired paleolithic cave paintings and it is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in Neolithic structures. Perforated gnomons projecting an image of the sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings. The location of the circle can be measured to tell the time of day. In Arab and European cultures its invention was later attributed to Egyptian astronomer. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura projections. In these writings it is explained how the image in a collecting-point or treasure house is inverted by an intersecting point that collected the light. Light coming from the foot of a person would partly be hidden below. Rays from the head would partly be hidden above and partly form the part of the image
4.
Pewter
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Pewter is a malleable metal alloy, traditionally 85–99% tin, with the remainder consisting of copper, antimony, bismuth and sometimes, less commonly today, lead. Copper and antimony act as hardeners while lead is common in the grades of pewter. It has a low melting point, around 170–230 °C, depending on the mixture of metals. The word pewter is probably a variation of the word spelter, Pewter was first used around the beginning of the Bronze Age in the Near East. The earliest piece of pewter found is from an Egyptian tomb from 1450 BC, the constituents of pewter were first controlled in the 12th century by town guilds in France. By the 15th century, the Worshipful Company of Pewterers controlled pewter constituents in England and this company originally had two grades of pewter, but in the 16th century a third grade was added. The first type, known as metal, was used for tableware. It consisted of tin with as much copper as it could absorb, the second type, known as trifling metal or trifle, was used for holloware and is made up of fine metal with approximately 4% lead. The last type of pewter, known as lay or ley metal, was used for items that were not in contact with food or drink and it consisted of tin with 15% lead. These three alloys were used, with variation, until the 20th century. Older pewters with higher lead content are heavier, tarnish faster, pewters containing lead are no longer used in items that will come in contact with the human body due to health concerns stemming from the lead content. Modern pewters are available that are free of lead, although many pewters containing lead are still being produced for other purposes. A typical European casting alloy contains 94% tin, 1% copper, a European pewter sheet would contain 92% tin, 2% copper, and 6% antimony. Asian pewter, produced mostly in Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand, contains a percentage of tin, usually 97. 5% tin, 1% copper. This makes the alloy slightly softer, Pewter items are often found in churches. Pewter was the chief tableware until the making of porcelain, mass production of pottery, porcelain and glass products has seen pewter universally replaced in day-to-day life. Pewter artifacts continue to be produced, mainly as decorative or specialty items, Pewter was also used around East Asia. Although some items still exist, Ancient Roman pewter is rare, in the early 19th century, changes in fashion caused a decline in the use of pewter flatware
5.
Asphalt
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Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
6.
Lavender oil
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Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the flower spikes of certain species of lavender. Like all essential oils, it is not a compound, it is a complex mixture of naturally occurring phytochemicals, including linalool. Kashmir Lavender oil is famous for being produced from lavender at the foothills of the Himalayas, as of 2011, the biggest lavender oil producer in the world is Bulgaria. Lavender oil has long used in the production of perfume. Oil of spike lavender was used as a solvent in oil painting, Lavender oil appears to be an endocrine disruptor, exhibiting anti-androgenic activity in vitro. The exact composition of lavender essential oil varies from species to species, of these linalool and linalyl acetate dominate, with moderate levels of lavandulyl acetate, terpinen-4-ol and lavandulol. 1, 8-cineole and camphor are also present in low to moderate qualities, in all lavender oil typically contains many more than 100 compounds, although a great many of these are present at very low concentrations. The composition of lavender essential oil as obtained by chromatography, Lavender Essential oil
7.
White spirit
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In western Europe about 60% of the total white spirit consumption is used in paints, lacquers and varnishes. White spirit is the most widely used solvent in the paint industry, White spirit is a mixture of aliphatic and alicyclic C7 to C12 hydrocarbons with a maximum content of 25% of C7 to C12 aromatic hydrocarbons. Three different types and three different grades of white spirit exist, the type refers to whether the solvent has been subjected to hydrodesulfurization alone, solvent extraction or hydrogenation. Each type comprises three different grades, low grade, regular grade, and high flash grade. The grade is determined by the oil used as the starting material. In addition there is type 0, which is defined as distillation fraction with no further treatment, dry cleaners began using the result of their work in 1928 and it soon became the predominant dry cleaning solvent in the United States, until the late 1950s. Turpentine substitute is not made to a standard and can have a wider range of components than products marketed as white spirit. The physical properties of the three types of spirit are, White Spirit is a petroleum distillate used as a paint thinner. In industry, mineral spirits are used for cleaning and degreasing machine tools and parts, mineral spirits are an inexpensive petroleum-based replacement for the vegetable-based turpentine. It is commonly used as a paint thinner for oil-based paint and cleaning brushes, mineral turpentine is chemically very different from turpentine, which mainly consists of pinene, and it has inferior solvent properties. Artists use mineral spirits as an alternative to turpentine since it is less flammable, because of interactions with pigments, artists require a higher grade of mineral spirits than many industrial users, including the complete absence of residual sulfur. Mineral spirits have a characteristic unpleasant kerosene-like odor, chemical manufacturers have developed a low odor version of mineral turpentine which contains less of the highly volatile shorter hydrocarbons. In screen printing, mineral spirits are used to clean and unclog screens after printing with oil-based textile. They are also used to thin inks used in making monoprints, mineral spirits are often used inside liquid-filled compasses and gauges. Mineral spirits are used for re-gripping golf clubs. After the old grip is removed, the spirits are poured into the new grip. After the mineral spirits are poured on, the new underlying tape, after an hour of drying out, the new grip and club are ready to use. Although not normally marketed as a fuel, white spirit can be used as an alternative to kerosene in portable stoves and it cannot be used as an alternative to white gas, which is a much more volatile gasoline-like fuel
. Bibcode:2007NIMPB.261..426P. doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2007.04.259.
