1.
Bicycle helmet
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A bicycle helmet is designed to attenuate impacts to the head of a cyclist in falls while minimizing side effects such as interference with peripheral vision. The dominant form of helmet up to the 1970s was the leather hairnet style and this offered acceptable protection from scrapes and cuts, but only minimal impact protection, and was mainly used by racing cyclists. More widespread use of helmets began in the U. S. in the 1970s, after many decades, when bicycles were regarded only as childrens toys, many American adults took up cycling during and after the bike boom of the 1970s. Two of the first modern bicycle helmets were made by MSR, a manufacturer of mountaineering equipment, and Bell Sports and these helmets were a spin-off from the development of expanded polystyrene foam liners for motorcycling and motorsport helmets, and had hard polycarbonate plastic shells. The bicycle helmet arm of Bell was split off in 1991 as Bell Sports Inc. having completely overtaken the motorcycle, the first commercially successful purpose-designed bicycle helmet was the Bell Biker, a polystyrene-lined hard shell released in 1975. At the time there was no standard, the only applicable one, from Snell. Over time the design was refined and by 1983 Bell were making the V1-Pro, in 1984 Bell produced the Lil Bell Shell, a no-shell childrens helmet. These early helmets had little ventilation, in 1985, Snell B85 was introduced, the first widely adopted standard for bicycle helmets, this has subsequently been refined into B90 and B95. At this time helmets were almost all either hard-shell or no-shell, ventilation was still minimal due mainly to technical limitations of the foams and shells in use. Around 1990 a new technique was invented, in-mould microshell. A very thin shell was incorporated during the moulding process and this rapidly became the dominant technology, allowing for larger vents and more complex shapes than hard shells. The late 1990s and early 2000s saw advances in retention and fitting systems, with cradles which adjust precisely to the riders head and this resulted in the back of the head being less covered by the helmet, although more recent designs have largely addressed this. Since more advanced helmets began being used in the Tour de France, carbon fiber inserts are often used to increase strength, the Giro Atmos and Ionos, as well as the Bell Alchera were among the first to use carbon fiber. Some modern road and track racing bicycle helmets have a long tapering back end for streamlining and this type of helmet is mainly dedicated to time trial racing as they lack significant ventilation, making them uncomfortable for long races. Snells standard includes testing of random samples, in 1990 the Consumers Association market survey showed that around 90 % of helmets on sale were Snell B90 certified. By their 1998 survey the number of Snell certified helmets was around zero, there are two main types of helmet, hard shell and soft/micro shell. The American National Standards Institute created a standard called ANSI Z80.4 in 1984, later, the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission created its own mandatory standard for all bicycle helmets sold in the United States, which took effect in March 1999. In the European Union the currently applicable standards are EN1078,1997, in Australia and New Zealand, the current legally-required standard is AS/NZS2063
2.
Personal protective equipment
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Personal protective equipment refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearers body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks. PPE is needed there are hazards present. PPE has the limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at source. Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment and this can create additional strains on the wearer, impair their ability to carry out their work and create significant levels of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly, therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, death. Good ergonomic design can help to minimise these barriers and can help to ensure safe. Practices of occupational safety and health can use hazard controls and interventions to mitigate workplace hazards, the hierarchy of hazard controls provides a policy framework which ranks the types of hazard controls in terms of absolute risk reduction. At the top of the hierarchy are elimination and substitution, which remove the hazard entirely or replace the hazard with a safer alternative. If elimination or substitution measures cannot apply, engineering controls and administrative controls, Personal protective equipment ranks last on the hierarchy of controls, as the workers are regularly exposed to the hazard, with a barrier of protection. The hierarchy of controls is important in acknowledging that, while personal protective equipment has tremendous utility, Personal protective equipment can be categorized by the area of the body protected, by the types of hazard, and by the type of garment or accessory. The protective attributes of each piece of equipment must be compared with the expected to be found in the workplace. More breathable types of protective equipment may not lead to more contamination. Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, there are two main types of respirators. One type functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, the filtration may be either passive or active. Gas masks and particulate respirators are examples of type of respirator. A second type protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source and this type includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus
3.
Human head
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In human anatomy, the head is the upper portion of the human body. It supports the face and is maintained by the skull, which encloses the brain. The human head consists of an outer portion surrounding the bony skull. The head rests on the neck, and is provided bony support for movement by the seven cervical vertebrae, the face is the anterior part of the head, containing the sensory organs the eyes, nose and mouth. The cheeks, on side of the mouth, provide a fleshy border to the oral cavity. To either side of the sit the ears. The twelve pairs of cranial nerves provide the majority of control to the head. The sensation to the face is provided by the branches of the trigeminal nerve, the sensation to other portions of the head is provided by the cervical nerves. The head receives blood supply through the internal and external carotid arteries and these supply the area outside of the skull and inside of the skull. The area inside the skull also receives blood supply from the vertebral arteries, the head contains sensory organs, two eyes, two ears, a nose and inside the mouth a tongue. The human head typically weighs between 5 and 11 pounds, human faces are easily differentiable to us due to our brains predispositions toward discriminating human facial forms. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical, ancient Greeks had a method for evaluating sexual attractiveness based on the Golden Ratio, part of which included measurements of the head. In many cultures, covering the head is seen as a sign of respect, often, some or all of the head must be covered and veiled when entering holy places, or places of prayer. For many centuries, women in Europe, the Middle East and this trend has changed drastically in Europe in the 20th century, although is still observed in other parts of the world. People may cover the head for other reasons, a hat is a piece of clothing covering just the top of the head. This may be part of a uniform, such as a uniform, a protective device such as a hard hat. Different headpieces can also signify status, origin, religious/spiritual beliefs, social grouping, team affiliation, occupation, while numerous charts detailing head sizes in infants and children exist, most do not measure average head circumference past the age of 21. Reference charts for adult head circumference also generally feature homogeneous samples, one study in the United States estimated the average human head circumference to be 55 centimetres in females and 57 centimetres in males
4.
Brain
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The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the organs for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrates body, in a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body, the brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment, the operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. This article compares the properties of brains across the range of animal species. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains, the ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, the shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species, others distinguish advanced brains from more primitive ones. The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter. Further information can be gained by staining slices of tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, the brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells, neurons and glial cells. Glial cells come in types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation. Neurons, however, are considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to target cells over long distances
5.
Kevlar
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Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965, this material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Typically it is spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such or as an ingredient in composite material components and it is also used to make modern drumheads that withstand high impact. When used as a material, it is suitable for mooring lines. A similar fiber called Twaron with roughly the same structure was developed by Akzo in the 1970s, commercial production started in 1986. Poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide – branded Kevlar – was invented by Polish-American chemist Stephanie Kwolek while working for DuPont, in 1964, her group began searching for a new lightweight strong fiber to use for light but strong tires. The polymers she had been working with at the time, poly-p-phenylene-terephthalate and polybenzamide, formed liquid crystal while in solution, the solution was cloudy, opalescent upon being stirred, and of low viscosity and usually was thrown away. However, Kwolek persuaded the technician, Charles Smullen, who ran the spinneret, to test her solution and her supervisor and her laboratory director understood the significance of her accidental discovery and a new field of polymer chemistry quickly arose. By 1971, modern Kevlar was introduced, however, Kwolek was not very involved in developing the applications of Kevlar. Kevlar is synthesized in solution from the monomers 1, 4-phenylene-diamine, the result has liquid-crystalline behavior, and mechanical drawing orients the polymer chains in the fibers direction. Hexamethylphosphoramide was the solvent initially used for the polymerization, but for safety reasons, DuPont replaced it by a solution of N-methyl-pyrrolidone, as this process had been patented by Akzo in the production of Twaron, a patent war ensued. Kevlar production is expensive because of the difficulties arising from using concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water-insoluble polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning. Several grades of Kevlar are available, Kevlar K-29 – in industrial applications, such as cables, asbestos replacement, brake linings, Kevlar K49 – high modulus used in cable and rope products. When Kevlar is spun, the fiber has a tensile strength of about 3,620 MPa. The polymer owes its high strength to the many inter-chain bonds and these inter-molecular hydrogen bonds form between the carbonyl groups and NH centers. Additional strength is derived from aromatic stacking interactions between adjacent strands, the presence of salts and certain other impurities, especially calcium, could interfere with the strand interactions and care is taken to avoid inclusion in its production. Kevlars structure consists of relatively rigid molecules tend to form mostly planar sheet-like structures rather like silk protein. Kevlar maintains its strength and resilience down to temperatures, in fact
6.
Jockey
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A jockey is someone who rides horses in horse racing or steeplechase racing, primarily as a profession. The word also applies to camel riders in camel racing, the word is by origin a diminutive of jock, the Northern English or Scots colloquial equivalent of the first name John, which is also used generically for boy, or fellow, at least since 1529. A familiar instance of the use of the word as a name is in Jockey of Norfolk in Shakespeares Richard III. v.3,304, the current usage which means a person who rides a horse in races was first seen in 1670. Another possible origin is the Gaelic word eachaidhe, a horseman, the Irish name Eochaid is related to each, horse, and is usually translated as horse rider. This is phonetically similar to jockey Jockeys must be light to ride at the weights which are assigned to their mounts. There are horse carrying weight limits, that are set by racing authorities, the Kentucky Derby, for example, has a weight limit of 126 lb including the jockeys equipment. The weight of a jockey usually ranges from 108 to 118 lb, despite their light weight, they must be able to control a horse that is moving at 40 mph and weighs 1,200 lb. Though there is no limit for jockeys, they are usually fairly short due to the weight limits. Jockeys typically stand around 4 ft 10 in to 5 ft 6 in, Jockeys are normally self employed, nominated by horse trainers to ride their horses in races, for a fee and a percentage of the purse winnings. In Australia, employment of apprentice jockeys is in terms of indenture to a master, Jockeys often cease their riding careers to take up other employment in racing, usually as trainers. In this way the system serves to induct young people into racing employment. Jockeys usually start out when they are young, riding work in the morning for trainers and it is normally necessary for an apprentice jockey to ride a minimum of about 20 barrier trials successfully before being permitted to ride in races. An apprentice jockey is known as a bug boy because the asterisk that follows the name in the program looks like a bug, all jockeys must be licensed and usually are not permitted to bet on a race. An apprentice jockey has a master, who is a horse trainer and this allowance is adjusted according to the number of winners that the apprentice has ridden. After a four-year indentured apprenticeship, the apprentice becomes a jockey and usually develops relationships with trainers. Sometimes senior jockeys are paid a retainer by an owner gives the owner the right to insist the jockey ride their horses in races. Racing modeled on the English Jockey Club spread throughout the world with colonial expansion, the colors worn by jockeys in races are the registered colors of the owner or trainer who employs them. The practice of riders wearing colors probably stems from medieval times when jousts were held between knights, however, the origins of racing colors of various patterns may have been influenced by racing held in Italian city communities since medieval times
7.
Horse racing
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Horse racing is an equestrian performance sport, typically involving two or more horses ridden by jockeys or driven over a set distance for competition. Horse races vary widely in format, often, countries have developed their own particular horse racing traditions. Variations include restricting races to particular breeds, running over obstacles, running over different distances, running on different track surfaces, Horse racing has a long and distinguished history and has been practised in civilisations across the world since ancient times. Archaeological records indicate that horse racing occurred in Ancient Greece, Babylon, Syria and it also plays an important part of myth and legend, such as the contest between the steeds of the god Odin and the giant Hrungnir in Norse mythology. Chariot racing was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman, both chariot and mounted horse racing were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by 648 BC and were important in the other Panhellenic Games. This was despite the fact that racing was often dangerous to both driver and horse as they frequently suffered serious injury and even death. In the Roman Empire, chariot and mounted horse racing were major industries, fifteen to 20 riderless horses, originally imported from the Barbary Coast of North Africa, ran the length of the Via del Corso, a long, straight city street, in about 2½ minutes. In later times, Thoroughbred racing became, and remains, popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society, historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle, Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. The various forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat. There are many different types of racing, including, Flat racing. Jump racing, or Jumps racing, also known as Steeplechasing or, in the UK and Ireland, National Hunt racing, Harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a sulky. Breeds that are used for flat racing include the Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Arabian, Paint, Jump racing breeds include the Thoroughbred and AQPS. In harness racing, Standardbreds are used in Australia, New Zealand and North America, light cold blood horses, such as Finnhorses and Scandinavian coldblood trotter are also used in harness racing within their respective geographical areas. There also are races for ponies, both flat and jump and harness racing, Flat racing is the most common form of racing seen worldwide. Track surfaces vary, with turf most common in Europe, dirt more common in North America and Asia, individual flat races are run over distances ranging from 440 yards up to two and a half miles, with distances between five and twelve furlongs being most common. Short races are referred to as sprints, while longer races are known as routes in the United States or staying races in Europe
8.
Football helmet
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The football helmet is a piece of protective equipment used mainly in American football and Canadian football. It consists of a plastic shell with thick padding on the inside, a face mask made of one or more plastic-coated metal bars. Helmets are a requirement at all levels of organized football, except for variations such as flag football. Although they are protective, players can and do still suffer head injuries such as concussions, one of the first instances of football headgear dates to 1896 when Lafayette College halfback George Rose Barclay began to use straps and earpieces to protect his ears. It is not certain who invented the football helmet, reeves had been advised by a Navy doctor that another kick to his head would result in instant insanity or even death, so he commissioned an Annapolis shoemaker to make him a helmet out of leather. Later, helmets were made of padded leather and resembled aviators helmets or modern day scrum caps, at least in professional football, they were optional. Some National Football League players, notably Hall-of-Famer Bill Hewitt, played all or most of their careers without a helmet, one innovation from the early 1900s period was hardened leather. 1917 marked the first time helmets were raised above the head in an attempt to direct blows away from the top of the head, ear flaps also had their downfall during this period as they had little ventilation and made it difficult for players to hear. The 1920s marked the first time helmets were widely used in the sport of football. These helmets were made of leather and had some padding on the inside, in addition, they lacked face masks. As a result, injuries were very common, early helmets also absorbed a lot of heat, making them very uncomfortable to wear. In 1939, the Riddell Company of Chicago, Illinois started manufacturing plastic helmets because it felt that plastic helmets would be safer than those made of leather, plastic was found to be more effective because it held its shape when full collision contact occurred on a play. These helmets were also more comfortable and had more padding to cushion the head in an impact. Included with the helmet came plastic face mask, which allowed the helmet to protect the entire head. By the mid-1940s, helmets were required in the NFL and they were still made of leather, but with improved manufacturing techniques had assumed their more familiar spherical shape. By the 1950s, the introduction of polymers ended the leather helmet era, the NFL also recommended face masks for players in 1955, reducing the number of broken noses and teeth, but also necessitating new rules prohibiting opposing players from grabbing the face mask. Vin Ferrara, a former Harvard quarterback, accidentally discovered a new way to cushion football helmets, one night, Ferrara was looking for an aspirin when he saw a squirt bottle in his medicine cabinet. As he pumped it and then punched it, he realized that the bottle withstood the blows of different forces, Ferrara immediately came up with the idea to encase football helmets with a number of inflatable pockets in order to cushion the blows a football player receives to reduce concussions
9.
Hockey helmet
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A hockey helmet is worn by players of ice hockey, inline hockey, and bandy to help protect the head from potential injury when hit by the puck, sticks, skates, boards, other players, or the ice. Hockey helmets grip the head from inside by cupping the back of head, helmet manufacturers will have a chart that relates their helmet sizes to head measurements. Most helmets have tool-free adjustments, but on older models, the size is adjusted by loosening the screws on the side to slide the front portion forward or back. The first player to wear a helmet for protective purposes was George Owen. In 1927, Barney Stanley presented a prototype of a helmet at the NHLs annual meeting, helmets appeared after the Ace Bailey–Eddie Shore incident on December 12,1933, as a result of which Bailey almost died and Shore suffered a severe head injury. After that, Art Ross engineered a new design and when the Boston Bruins took to the ice in a game against the Ottawa Senators. Most Bruins players didnt wear the helmet after the game, with the exception of Eddie Shore, in the 1930s, the Toronto Maple Leafs players were ordered to add helmets to their equipment. A few minutes into the first game with the new helmets, the helmets were generally unpopular with fans, media, and other players. A few players, such as Des Smith, Bill Mosienko, Dit Clapper, during the Original Six era, Maurice Richard and Elmer Lach briefly wore helmets. Jack Crawford wore a helmet to hide his head and Charlie Burns wearing one to protect the metal plates in his head from an injury incurred in playing junior ice hockey. The death of Bill Masterton from an injury in a January 13,1968 in a game between the Minnesota North Stars and Oakland Seals started to change perceptions surrounding helmets. The 1972 Summit Series showcased an entirely helmet clad Soviet Union team, with Paul Henderson, Stan Mikita, usage increased to the point that 70% of NHL players were wearing them by 1979. In August 1979, then President of the National Hockey League, John Ziegler, the introduction of the helmet rule will be an additional safety factor, he said. The rule allowed players who signed contracts prior to June 1,1979 to continue to not wear a helmet provided a liability waiver was signed. The last player to play without a helmet was Craig MacTavish, a visor or shield in ice hockey is a device attached to the front of a helmet to reduce potential of injury to the face. Visors cover the half of the face, while full face shields cover the entire face. A series of eye injuries, most notably that to Bruce Fogarty, have led to a call from many to enforce their wearing, as of 2015, 89% of NHL players wear visors. Many other leagues around the world mandate the use of visors, visors and shields, made of a high impact-resistant plastic, offer better overall vision than the wire cages available, which can obscure vision in certain areas
10.
Batting helmet
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A batting helmet is worn by batters in the game of baseball or softball. It is meant to protect the head from errant pitches thrown by the pitcher. A batter who is hit by pitch, due to an inadvertent wild pitch or a purposeful attempt to hit him, may be seriously, even fatally. In 1905, Mogridge created the first crude protective head gear and was granted patent No.780899 for a head protector and this first attempt at a batting helmet was said to look like an inflatable boxing glove that wrapped around the hitters head. Roger Bresnahan, Hall of Fame catcher who was injured after being struck in the head with a pitch, the helmets were not so much helmets as they were protective earmuffs. They did not protect the head of the batter but rather protected the ear. In 1914, minor leaguer Joe Bosk, playing for the Utica Utes, the first known case of a manager issuing head protectors to his players on a large scale was Philadelphia Phillies manager Pat Moran who gave cork-cushioned hats to his players in 1921. Despite the fatal beaning of Ray Chapman in 1920, protective headgear was used only rarely in the major leagues. Cochrane himself went on saying that players should absolutely be required to wear protective helmets. Only one week after Cochranes injury, on June 1,1937, managers of both teams decided to use batting practice as a test run for helmet use on their players, before a game between the two teams. Though there is evidence of the polo helmets being worn in batting practice. The first documented team to wear helmets in a game was the Des Moines Demons of the Western League and they also used polo helmets but the idea did not stick, as they only wore the helmets for one game. Buster Mills was the first player in the league to use a helmet, the idea of making helmets a required part of Major League Baseball was discussed by officials of the National League in a meeting at the 1940 MLB All-Star Game in Chicago. Ford Frick, president of the National League, showed the helmet he designed with the hopes that the league would adopt it. Though the National League at this meeting did not adopt it, in 1941, the National League adopted the use of a helmet, designed by George Bennett, a Johns Hopkins University brain surgeon, for use by all teams in spring training. On March 8,1941 the Brooklyn Dodgers announced that the players would be wearing the helmets during regular season games. On April 26,1941 the Washington Senators joined the Dodgers as the two teams to fully adopt the batting helmet for regular season use. The New York Giants on June 6 and the Chicago Cubs on June 24 also joined the list of teams to adopt the use of protective helmets during games
11.
Hurling
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Hurling, is an outdoor team game of ancient Gaelic and Irish origin, administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association. The game has prehistoric origins, and has played for 3,000 years. One of Irelands native Gaelic games, it shares a number of features with Gaelic football, such as the field and goals, the number of players, there is a similar game for women called camogie. It shares a common Gaelic root with the sport of shinty, the sliotar can be caught in the hand and carried for not more than four steps, struck in the air, or struck on the ground with the hurley. It can be kicked, or slapped with a hand for short-range passing. A player who wants to carry the ball for more than four steps has to bounce or balance the sliotar on the end of the stick, no protective padding is worn by players. A plastic protective helmet with a faceguard is mandatory for all age groups, including senior level, the game has been described as a bastion of humility, with player names absent from jerseys and a players number decided by his position on the field. Hurling is played throughout the world, and is popular among members of the Irish diaspora in North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Argentina, in many parts of Ireland, however, hurling is a fixture of life. It has featured regularly in art such as film, music. A team comprises 15 players, or hurlers, the hurley is generally 24 to 36 inches in length. The ball, known as a sliotar, has a cork centre, the goalkeepers hurley usually has a bas twice the size of other players hurleys to provide some advantage against the fast moving sliotar. A good strike with a hurley can propel the ball over 150 km/h in speed and 110 metres in distance, a ball hit over the bar is worth one point. A ball that is hit under the bar is called a goal and is three points. As of 2010, all players must wear a helmet, a hurling pitch is similar in some respects to a rugby pitch but larger. The grass pitch is rectangular, stretching 130–145 metres long and 80–90 m wide. There are H-shaped goalposts at each end, formed by two posts, which are usually 6–7 metres high, set 6.5 m apart, a net extending behind the goal is attached to the crossbar and lower goal posts. The same pitch is used for Gaelic football, the GAA, lines are marked at distances of 14 yards,21 yards and 65 yards from each end-line. Shorter pitches and smaller goals are used by youth teams, teams consist of fifteen players, a goalkeeper, three full backs, three half backs, two midfielders, three half forwards and three full forwards
12.
Rock climbing
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Rock climbing is an activity in which participants climb up, down or across natural rock formations or artificial rock walls. The goal is to reach the summit of a formation or the endpoint of a usually pre-defined route without falling. Due to the length and extended endurance required and because accidents are likely to happen on descent than ascent. It is very rare for a climber to downclimb, especially on the larger multiple pitches, professional Rock climbing competitions have the objectives of either completing the route in the quickest possible time or attaining the farthest point on an increasingly difficult route. Scrambling, another activity involving the scaling of hills and similar formations, is similar to rock climbing, however, rock climbing is generally differentiated by its sustained use of hands to support the climbers weight as well as to provide balance. Rock climbing is a physically and mentally demanding sport, one that often tests a climbers strength, endurance, agility and it can be a dangerous activity and knowledge of proper climbing techniques and usage of specialized climbing equipment is crucial for the safe completion of routes. Because of the range and variety of rock formations around the world. Paintings dating from 200 BC show Chinese men rock climbing China woop woop, in early America, the cliff-dwelling Anasazi in the 12th century were thought to be excellent climbers. Early European climbers used rock climbing techniques as a required to reach the summit in their mountaineering exploits. In the 1880s, European rock climbing become an independent pursuit outside of mountain climbing, Rock climbing evolved gradually from an alpine necessity to a distinct athletic activity. However, climbing techniques, equipment and ethical considerations have evolved steadily, today, free climbing, climbing using holds made entirely of natural rock while using gear solely for protection and not for upward movement, is the most popular form of the sport. Free climbing has since divided into several sub-styles of climbing dependent on belay configuration. Over time, grading systems have also created in order to compare more accurately the relative difficulties of the rock climbs. In How to Rock Climb, John Long notes that for moderately skilled climbers simply getting to the top of a route is not enough, in rock climbing, style refers to the method of ascending the cliff. There are three styles of climbing, on-sight, flash, and redpoint. To on-sight a route is to ascend the wall without aid or any foreknowledge and it is considered the way to climb with the most style. Flashing is similar to on-sighting, except that the climber has previous information about the route including talking about the beta with other climbers, redpointing means to make a free ascent of the route after having first tried it. Free climbing is typically divided into styles that differ from one another depending on the choice of equipment used
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