1.
King
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King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant, in the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the title may refer to tribal kingship. Germanic kingship is cognate with Indo-European traditions of tribal rulership In the context of classical antiquity, king may translate Latin rex or either Greek archon or basileus. In classical European feudalism, the title of king as the ruler of a kingdom is understood as the highest rank in the order, potentially subject. In a modern context, the title may refer to the ruler of one of a number of modern monarchies. The title of king is used alongside other titles for monarchs, in the West prince, emperor, archduke, duke or grand duke, in the Middle East sultan or emir, etc. Kings, like other royalty, tend to wear purple because purple was a color to wear in the past. The English term king is derived from the Anglo-Saxon cyning, which in turn is derived from the Common Germanic *kuningaz, the Common Germanic term was borrowed into Estonian and Finnish at an early time, surviving in these languages as kuningas. The English term king translates, and is considered equivalent to, Latin rēx, the Germanic term is notably different from the word for king in other Indo-European languages. It is a derivation from the term *kunjom kin by the -inga- suffix, the literal meaning is that of a scion of the kin, or perhaps son or descendant of one of noble birth. English queen translates Latin regina, it is from Old English cwen queen, noble woman, the Germanic term for wife appears to have been specialized to wife of a king, in Old Norse, the cognate kvan still mostly refers to a wife generally. Scandinavian drottning, dronning is a derivation from *druhtinaz lord. The English word is of Germanic origin, and historically refers to Germanic kingship, the Early Middle Ages begin with a fragmentation of the former Western Roman Empire into barbarian kingdoms. The core of European feudal manorialism in the High Middle Ages were the territories of the kingdom of France, the Holy Roman Empire, in southern Europe, the kingdom of Sicily was established following the Norman conquest of southern Italy. The Kingdom of Sardinia was claimed as a title held by the Crown of Aragon in 1324. In the Balkans, the Kingdom of Serbia was established in 1217, in eastern-central Europe, the Kingdom of Hungary was established in AD1000 following the Christianisation of the Magyars. The kingdoms of Poland and Bohemia were established within the Holy Roman Empire in 1025 and 1198, in Eastern Europe, the Kievan Rus consolidated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which did not technically claim the status of kingdom until the early modern Tsardom of Russia. In northern Europe, the kingdoms of the Viking Age by the 11th century expanded into the North Sea Empire under Cnut the Great, king of Denmark, England
2.
Haryana
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Haryana is one of the 29 states in India, situated in North India. It was carved out of the state of East Punjab on 1 November 1966 on a linguistic basis. It stands 21st in terms of its area, which is spread about 44,212 km2, as of 2011 census of India, the state is eighteenth largest by population with 25,353,081 inhabitants. The city of Chandigarh is its capital while the NCR city of Faridabad is the most populous city of the state, Haryana is one of the most economically developed regions in South Asia, and its agricultural and manufacturing industries have experienced sustained growth since the 1970s. Since 2000, the state has emerged as the largest recipient of investment per capita in India and it is bordered by Punjab and Himachal Pradesh to the north, and by Rajasthan to the west and south. The river Yamuna defines its border with Uttar Pradesh. Haryana surrounds the countrys capital Delhi on three sides, forming the northern, western and southern borders of Delhi, consequently, a large area of south Haryana is included in the National Capital Region for purposes of planning for development. The name Haryana is found in the works of the 12th-century AD Apabhramsha writer Vibudh Shridhar, the name Haryana has been derived from the Sanskrit words Hari and ayana, meaning the Abode of God. However, scholars such as Muni Lal, Murli Chand Sharma, HA Phadke and Sukhdev Singh Chib believe that the name comes from a compound of the words Hari and Aranya. Vedic state of Brahmavarta is claimed to be located in a new research in south Haryana, manusmriti, a flood time document composed by Manu and Bhrigu is now dated 10,000 years old. Rakhigarhi village in the Hisar district is home to the largest and one of the oldest ancient Indus Valley Civilization sites, evidence of paved roads, a drainage system, a large-scale rainwater collection storage system, terracotta brick and statue production, and skilled metal working have been uncovered. According to archeologists, Rakhigarhi may be the origin of Harappan civilisation, the area that is now Haryana has been ruled by major empires of India. Panipat is known for three seminal battles in the history of India, in the First Battle of Panipat, Babur defeated the Lodis. In the Second Battle of Panipat, Akbar defeated the local Haryanvi Hindu Emperor of Delhi, hemu, had earlier won 22 battles across India from Punjab to Bengal defeating Mughals and Afghans. Hemu had defeated Akbars forces twice at Agra and Battle of Delhi in 1556 to become last Hindu Emperor of India with formal Coronation at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7th Oct.1556, in the Third Battle of Panipat, the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas. Haryana state was formed on 1 November 1966, the commission delivered its report on 31 May 1966 whereby the then-districts of Hisar, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak and Karnal were to be a part of the new state of Haryana. Further, the tehsils of Jind and Narwana in the Sangrur district—along with Naraingarh, Ambala, the commission recommended that the tehsil of Kharad, which includes Chandigarh, the state capital of Punjab, should be a part of Haryana. However, only a portion of Kharad was given to Haryana
3.
Coronation
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The ceremony can also be conducted for the monarchs consort, either simultaneously with the monarch or as a separate event. A ceremony without the placement of a crown on the head is known as an enthronement. Coronations are still observed in the United Kingdom, Tonga, in addition to investing the monarch with symbols of state, Western-style coronations have often traditionally involve anointing with holy oil, or chrism as it is often called. Wherever a ruler is anointed in this way, as in Great Britain and Tonga, some other lands use bathing or cleansing rites, the drinking of a sacred beverage, or other religious practices to achieve a comparable effect. Such acts symbolise the granting of divine favour to the monarch within the relevant spiritual-religious paradigm of the country, in the past, concepts of royalty, coronation and deity were often inexorably linked. Rome promulgated the practice of worship, in Medieval Europe. Coronations were once a direct expression of these alleged connections. Thus, coronations have often been discarded altogether or altered to reflect the nature of the states in which they are held. However, some monarchies still choose to retain an overtly religious dimension to their accession rituals, others have adopted simpler enthronement or inauguration ceremonies, or even no ceremony at all. In non-Christian states, coronation rites evolved from a variety of sources, buddhism, for instance, influenced the coronation rituals of Thailand, Cambodia and Bhutan, while Hindu elements played a significant role in Nepalese rites. The ceremonies used in modern Egypt, Malaysia, Brunei and Iran were shaped by Islam, Coronations, in one form or another, have existed since ancient times. Egyptian records show coronation scenes, such as that of Seti I in 1290 BC, judeo-Christian scriptures testify to particular rites associated with the conferring of kingship, the most detailed accounts of which are found in II Kings 11,12 and II Chronicles 23,11. Following the assumption of the diadem by Constantine, Roman and Byzantine emperors continued to wear it as the symbol of their authority. Although no specific coronation ceremony was observed at first, one gradually evolved over the following century, the emperor Julian was hoisted upon a shield and crowned with a gold necklace provided by one of his standard-bearers, he later wore a jewel-studded diadem. Later emperors were crowned and acclaimed in a manner, until the momentous decision was taken to permit the Patriarch of Constantinople to physically place the crown on the emperors head. Historians debate when exactly this first took place, but the precedent was established by the reign of Leo II. This ritual included recitation of prayers by the Byzantine prelate over the crown, after this event, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the ecclesiastical element in the coronation ceremonial rapidly develop. This was usually performed three times, following this, the king was given a spear, and a diadem wrought of silk or linen was bound around his forehead as a token of regal authority
4.
Akbar
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Abul-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad, popularly known as Akbar I and later Akbar the Great, was a Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the ruler of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, a strong personality and a successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of the Godavari river. His power and influence, however, extended over the country because of Mughal military, political, cultural. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture, holy men of many faiths, poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbars courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centres of the arts, letters, perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterised by Mughal style arts, painting, and architecture. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centred on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of the ulema, many of his courtiers followed Din-i-Ilahi as their religion as well, as many believed that Akbar was a prophet. One famous courtier who followed this religion was Birbal. Akbars reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history, during his rule, the Mughal empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a military system and instituted effective political and social reforms. By abolishing the tax on non-Muslims and appointing them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust. He had Sanskrit literature translated, participated in festivals, realising that a stable empire depended on the co-operation. Thus, the foundations for an empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Jahangir, defeated in battles at Chausa and Kannauj in 1539–40 by the forces of Sher Shah Suri Mughal emperor Humayun fled westward to Sindh. There he met and married the then 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a teacher of Humauyuns younger brother Hindal Mirza. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the year on 15 October 1542 at the Rajput Fortress of Umerkot in Sindh
5.
Panipat
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Panipat pronunciation is an ancient and historic city in Haryana, India. It is 90 km north of Delhi and 169 km south of Chandigarh on NH-1, the battles fought at the city in 1526,1556 and 1761 were turning points in Indian history. The city is famous in India by the name of City of Weavers, the first verse of the Bhagavad Gita is possibly referring to Panipat as Dharmakshetra. Panipat is first recorded in the Mahabharata as one of the five villages that the Pandavas demanded from Duryodhana, baburs force defeated Ibrahims much larger force of over one lakh soldiers. This first battle of Panipat thus ended the Lodi Rule established by Bahlul Lodhi in Delhi, the Second Battle of Panipat was fought on 5 November 1556 between the forces of Akbar and Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, a Hindu King of Delhi. Hemu had an army, and initially his forces were winning. On not seeing him in his howdah on the back of an elephant and his head was sent to Kabul to be hanged outside Delhi Darwaza, and his torso was hanged outside Purana Quila in Delhi. The Third Battle of Panipat was fought on 14 January 1761 between the Maratha Empire and the Afghan and Baloch invaders, the Maratha Empire was led by Sadashivrao Bhau Peshwa and the Afghans were led by Ahmadshah Abdali. The Afghans had a strength of 125,000 soldiers. The Maratha soldiers were unable to get food because of non-cooperation of other empires of Hindustan, both the sides fought their heart out. The Afghans were supported by Najib and Sujaudolla for the supply of food, and the Maratha had pilgrims along with them, on the single day of 14 January, more than one lakh of soldiers died resulting in the victory for the Afghans. There are some verbs in the Marathi language originated from the Third Battle of Panipat related to loss as Panipat zale and this verb is even today used in the Marathi language. A common pun is Aamchaa Vishwaas Panipataat gela, vishwas here is referred as son of nanasaheb peshwa & Maratha commander. Panipat is located at 29. 39°N76. 97°E /29.39,76.97 and it has an average elevation of 219 metres. Panipat is situated on G. T. road or NH-1,90 km north of Delhi, on three sides, Panipat district boundaries touch other districts of Haryana – Karnal in the north, Jind in the west and Sonipat in the south. Panipat district borders the state of Uttar Pradesh across the Yamuna river in the east, Panipat was a part of Karnal district until 31 October 1989. It was separated from Karnal, along with another subdivision, the Assandh tehsil, when the district was re-formed on 1 January 1992, the Assandh tehsil was excluded. The newly constructed flyover across the Grand Trunk Road completed in the year 2008 is one of the longest flyovers in India
6.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
7.
Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
8.
Vizier
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A vizier is a high-ranking political advisor or minister. In modern usage, the term has been used for ministers in the Arab world, Iran, Turkey, East Africa Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. It is also used in the only absolute Asian monarchy. It is given to the current King Hassanal Bolkiahs second brother, in Brunei, an ordinary vizier is known as Pengiran Temenggong. The word entered into English in 1562 from the Turkish vezir, Wazir itself has two possible etymologies, The most accepted etymology is that it is derived from the Arabic wazara, from the Semitic root W-Z-R. The word is mentioned in the Quran, where Aaron is described as the wazir of Moses, on the other hand, the presence of a Middle Persian word vizīr or vicīr, cognate to the Avestan vīcira, meaning decreer or arbitrator, could possibly indicate an Indo-European origin. In modern Turkey, there is no usage of vezir for any ministry as suggested in the description above, the Muslim office of vizier, which spread from the Persians, Turks, Arabs and Mongols and neighboring peoples, arose under the first Abbasid caliphs. The vizier stood between sovereign and subjects, representing the former in all matters touching the latter, if one such vizier is the prime minister, he may hold the title of Grand Vizier or another title. In Al-Andalus appointed by the Caliph of Cordoba, similarly in many of the emirates and sultanates of the taifas which the caliphate was broken up into. In Muslim Egypt, the most populous Arab country, Under the Fatimid Caliphs. Again since the end of Ottoman rule, remarkably since 1857 (i. e. before the last Wali, Ismail Pasha, was raised Khedive. During the days of the Ottoman Empire, the Grand Vizier was the—often de facto minister, second only to the Sultan and was the leader of the Divan. Vizier was also the title of some Ottoman provincial governors, use of the title indicating a greater degree of autonomy for the province involved. In the Sherifian kingdom of Morocco, a Sadr al-Azam was in office until 22 November 1955, Grand Vizier, Chief Minister or Prime Minister. Wazir al-Amala, Minister for the Interior, Wazir al-Bahr, Minister of the Sea, i. e. for the Navy/ Marine. Wazir al-Harb, Minister for the Army or Minister for War, Wazir al-Qalam, Minister of the Pen. In Oman the Hami/Sultans Chief minister was styled Wazir till 1966, Viziers to the Sultans of Zanzibar, since 1890 filled by British, also known as First ministers, the British Resident s, an extremely direct form of indirect rule. Grand Viziers to the Sultan of Sokoto – this is however disputed, the title Waziri is apparently a derivative of this word, and is a highly regarded chieftaincy title in most of northern Nigeria
9.
Muhammad Adil Shah
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Muhammad Adil Shah was the fourth ruler of the Sur dynasty, a late medieval Afghan dynasty of northern India. He was the son of Nizam Khan, the brother of the Sultan Sher Shah Suri. Adils sister, Bibi Bai, was married to Islam Shah Suri and his real name was Muhammad Mubariz Khan. He was responsible for the assassination of Firuz Shah Suri, the son of Islam Shah Suri. Then he ascended the throne as the last sultan of the united empire and he appointed Hemu as his Wazir. In 1555, Adils brother in law, Ibrahim Shah Suri of Agra, Adil Shahs army was defeated and he lost the throne of Delhi. Soon, the empire founded by Sher Shah was divided into four parts, as Delhi and Agra came under the rule of Ibrahim Shah Suri, only the territories from the vicinity of Agra to Bihar remained under Adil. Shamsuddin Muhammad Shah already declared independence of Bengal in 1554, but hostility did not end with the division of empire. Ibrahim Shah Suri was then defeated by Sikandar Shah Suri at Farah,32 km from Agra, then Ibrahim renewed his strife with Adil, but he was defeated by Hemu twice, once near Kalpi and again near Khanua. He took refuge in the Bayana fort, which was besieged by Hemu, Muhammad Shah of Bengal approached near Kalpi, Adil had to recall Hemu to Kalpi. Muhammad Shah was defeated and killed at Chhapparghatta near Kalpi, Adil captured Bengal and appointed Shahbaz Khan as the Governor. In 1557, Adil was defeated and killed in a battle with the Bengal Sultan Khizr Khan Suri, the son of Muhammad Shah
10.
Sur Empire
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It interrupted the rule of the Mughal Empire under Humayun, who later restored the Mughal Empire by ending the Sur Empire. Sher Shah defeated badhsah-i-Hind Humayun in the Battle of Chausa and again in the Battle of Bilgram, the Sur dynasty held control of nearly all the Mughal territories, from modern-day eastern Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in modern-day Bangladesh in the east. During the almost 17-year rule of the Sur dynasty, until the return of the Mughals to the throne, a systematised relationship was created between the people and the ruler, minimising corruption and the oppression of the public. Their rule came to an end by a defeat that led to restoration of the Mughal Empire, today, the Sur are part of the Pashtun tribal system and belong to the sub-groups of the Ghilzais. It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaimán Mountains, about six or seven kos in length, Sur Delhi Sultanate List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Sher Shah Suri and the Afghan Revival Sher Shah Suri Sher Shah Suri
11.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
12.
Afghan (ethnonym)
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The ethnonym Afghan has been used in the past to denote a member of the Pashtuns, and that usage still persists in some places in Afghanistan. The name Afghanistan is a derivation from the ethnonym Afghan, originally in the loose meaning land of the Pashtuns, in the 3rd century, the Sassanids mentioned an eastern tribe called Abgân, which is attested in its Arabic form Afġān in the 10th century Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam. Through the nineteenth century, the term Afghan was used by writers as a synonym for Pashtun. Since the Afghan Constitution of 1964, Afghan officially refers to every citizen of the state of Afghanistan, the Encyclopædia Iranica explains, From a more limited, ethnological point of view, Afġān is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan designate the Paštūn. The term Afġān has probably designated the Paštūn since ancient times, under the form Avagānā, this ethnic group is first mentioned by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in the beginning of the 6th century in his Brhat-samhita. Hiven Tsiang, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visiting the Afghanistan area several times between 630 and 644 CE, speaks about the tribes inhabiting the region. According to scholars such as V. Minorsky, W. K, gillet, the word Afghan has appeared in the 982 Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam, where a reference is made to a village. Saul, a pleasant village on a mountain, Saul was probably located near Gardez, in the Paktia province of Afghanistan. Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam also speaks of a king in Ninhar, who shows a public display of conversion to Islam, even though he has over 30 wives, which are described as Muslim, Afghan and it should be noted that some of these names were used as geographical terms. For example, Hindu has been used historically as a term to describe someone who was native from the general region known as Hindustan or the Indian subcontinent. Al-Utbi, the Ghaznavid chronicler, in his Tarikh-i Yamini records that many Afghans, the Afghans and Khiljis who resided among the mountains having taken the oath of allegiance to Subooktugeen, many of them were enlisted in his army, after which he returned in triumph to Ghizny. In the 11th century, Afghans are mentioned in Al-Birunis Tarikh-ul Hind and it is recorded that Afghans were also enrolled in the Ghurid Kingdom. By the beginning of the Khilji dynasty in 1290, Afghans have been known in northern India. Ibn Battuta, a famous Moroccan traveler, visiting Afghanistan following the era of the Khilji dynasty in 1333 writes and we travelled on to Kabul, formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans. They hold mountains and defiles and possess considerable strength, and are mostly highwaymen and their principal mountain is called Kuh Sulayman. It is told that the prophet Sulayman ascended this mountain and having looked out over India, from this marriage many children were born, among whom were two sons famous in history. The one Lodhi, the other Sur, who each, subsequently, in the writings of the 17th-century Pashto poet Khushal Khattak, it states Pull out your sword and slay any one, that says Pashtun and Afghan are not one. Arabs know this and so do Romans, Afghans are Pashtuns, Pashtuns are Afghans, the last part of the name -stān is a Persian suffix for place of, the Pashto translation of which is stogna prominent in many languages of Asia
13.
Punjab
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The Punjab, also spelled Panjab, panj-āb, land of five rivers, is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of South Asia, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India. Not being a unit, the extent of the region is the subject of debate. The foreign invaders mainly targeted the most productive region of the Punjab known as the Majha region. The people of the Punjab today are called Punjabis and their language is called Punjabi. The main religions of the Punjab region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism, other religious groups are Christianity, Jainism and Buddhism. The name of the region is a compound of two Persian words Panj and āb and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India, Punjab literally means Five Waters referring to the rivers, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest, there are two main definitions of the Punjab region, the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. The third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis. 1947 definition The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan, in Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana, Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab region borders Kashmir to the north, Sindh and Rajasthan to the south, the Pashtun region and Balochistan to the west, and the Hindi belt to the east. Accordingly, the Punjab region is diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains. Present day maps Major cities Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad. Older 1846–1849 definition The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire, According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division, the formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres per year. The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year, Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains
14.
Bengal
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Bengal is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in Asia, which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, in 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it the most densely populated region in South Asia. An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal, the predominant ethno-linguistic group are the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh, Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal. Dense woodlands, including rainforests, cover Bengals northern and eastern areas. In the littoral southwest are the Sunderbans, the worlds largest mangrove forest, in the coastal southeast lies Coxs Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at 125 km. The region has a climate, which the Bengali calendar divides into six seasons. Bengal has played a role in the history of Asia. In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations, at times an independent regional empire, or a bastion of larger empires, the historical region was a leading power of the Indian subcontinent and the Islamic East. Bengali culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature, music, art, architecture, sports, currency, commerce, politics and cuisine. The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga, theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian Bong tribe that settled in the area circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word Bong. The term Bangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th century South Indian records, the modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery, most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, the total area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 and Bangladesh 147,570 km2. The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet regions are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres above the sea level, because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres, a major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered, West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south
15.
Humayun
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Like his father, Babur, he lost his kingdom early but regained it with the aid of the Safavid dynasty of Persia, with additional territory. At the time of his death in 1556, the Mughal Empire spanned almost one million square kilometres, in December 1530 Humayun succeeded his father as ruler of the Mughal territories in the Indian subcontinent. At the age of 23, Humayun was an inexperienced ruler when he came to power and his half-brother Kamran Mirza inherited Kabul and Lahore, the northernmost parts of their fathers empire. Mirza was to become a rival of Humayun. Humayun lost Mughal territories to the Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, Humayuns return from Persia was accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen and signalled an important change in Mughal court culture. The Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language, there are many stone carvings and thousands of Persian manuscripts in India dating from the time of Humayun. Subsequently, Humayun further expanded the Empire in a short time, leaving a substantial legacy for his son. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title ’Insān-i-Kamil, among the Mughals. The decision of Babur to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India, although it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Genghis Khan. Unlike most monarchies, which practised primogeniture, the Timurids followed the example of Genghis, although under that system only a Chingissid could claim sovereignty and khanal authority, any male Chinggisid within a given sub-branch had an equal right to the throne. While Genghis Khans Empire had been divided between his sons upon his death, almost every Chinggisid succession since had resulted in fratricide. Timur himself had divided his territories among Pir Muhammad, Miran Shah, Khalil Sultan and Shah Rukh, upon Baburs death, Humayuns territories were the least secure. He had ruled only four years, and not all umarah viewed Humayun as the rightful ruler, indeed, earlier, when Babur had become ill, some of the nobles had tried to install his uncle, Mahdi Khwaja, as ruler. Although this attempt failed, it was a sign of problems to come, when Humayun came to the throne of the Mughal Empire, several of his brothers revolted against him. Another brother Khalil Mirza supported Humayun but was assassinated, the Emperor commenced construction of a tomb for his brother in 1538, but this was not yet finished when Humayun was forced to flee to Persia. Sher Shah destroyed the structure and no work was done on it after Humayuns restoration. Humayun had two rivals for his lands, Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat to the southwest and Sher Shah Suri settled along the river Ganges in Bihar to the east. Humayuns first campaign was to confront Sher Shah Suri, halfway through this offensive Humayun had to abandon it and concentrate on Gujarat, where a threat from Ahmed Shah had to be met
16.
Agra
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Agra is a city on the banks of the river Yamuna in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is 378 kilometres west of the capital, Lucknow,206 kilometres south of the national capital New Delhi and 125 kilometres north of Gwalior. Agra is one of the most populous cities in Uttar Pradesh, Agra is a major tourist destination because of its many splendid Mughal-era buildings, most notably the Tāj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpūr Sikrī, all three of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Agra falls within the Braj cultural region, the city was first mentioned in the epic Mahābhārata, where it was called Agrevaṇa. Legend ascribes the founding of the city to Raja Badal Singh, however, the 11th century Persian poet Masūd Sad Salmān writes of a desperate assault on the fortress of Agra, then held by the Shāhī King Jayapala, by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. It was mentioned for the first time in 1080 AD when a Ghaznavide force captured it, Sultan Sikandar Lodī was the first to move his capital from Delhi to Agra in 1506. He governed the country from here and Agra assumed the importance of the second capital. He died in 1517 and his son, Ibrāhīm Lodī, remained in there for nine more years and several palaces, wells. Finally being defeated at the Battle of Panipat in 1526, between 1540 and 1556, Afghans, beginning with Sher Shah Suri ruled the area. It achieved fame as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1658, Agra features a semiarid climate that borders on a humid subtropical climate. The city features mild winters, hot and dry summers and a monsoon season, however the monsoons, though substantial in Agra, are not quite as heavy as the monsoon in other parts of India. This is a factor in Agra featuring a semiarid climate as opposed to a humid subtropical climate. As of 2011 India census, Agra city has a population of 1,585,704, the urban agglomeration of Agra has a population of 1,760,285. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%, Agra city has an average literacy rate of 73. 11%, lower than the national average of 74%. Literacy rate of males is considerably higher than that of women, the sex ratio in the city was 875 females per thousand males while child sex ratio stood at 857. Agra district literacy rate is 62. 56%, Agra is dominated by Yadavs and Jats. According to the 2011 census, Agra district has a population of 4,380,793 and this gives it a ranking of 41st in India. The district has a density of 1,084 inhabitants per square kilometre
17.
Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
18.
Battle of Tughlaqabad
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The battle ended in a decisive victory for Hemu who took possession of Delhi and claimed royal status, assuming the title of Raja Vikramaditya. Following his failure, Tardi Beg was murdered by Akbars regent, the two armies would meet again at Panipat a month later. Since the days of the Delhi Sultanate, the city of Delhi had acquired the reputation of being the centre of India. No ruler could be considered to hold sway over Hindustan until he had control of Delhi. Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, called it the capital of all Hindustan, Humayun, however, lost his inheritance when he was chased out of India by Sher Shah Suri who established the Sur Empire in 1540. Delhi and Agra fell into Sher Shahs hands and he razed Din Panah and built his new capital, Sher Shahabad, Sher Shah died soon after in 1545 at Kalinjar. He was succeeded by his son, Islam Shah Suri. However, upon his death in 1553, the Sur Empire was caught up in a battle and was plagued by rebellion. Humayun made use of this discord to recapture what was lost and on 23 July 1555, Islam Shahs rightful successor, his 12-year-old son, Firoz Khan, had been murdered by his maternal uncle who had taken the throne as Adil Shah Suri. The new ruler was however, more interested in the pursuit of pleasure than in the affairs of his state. Those were largely left to Hemu, a Hindu from Rewari and he was in Bengal when Humayun died on 26 January 1556. The Mughal emperors death provided an opportunity to defeat the Mughals. Hemu started a march from the eastern provinces and drove the Mughals out of Bayana, Etawah, Sambhal, Kalpi. In Agra, the governor evacuated the city and fled without a fight upon hearing of Hemus impending invasion, meanwhile, Tardi Beg Khan had also ordered all the Mughal nobles in the vicinity to muster their forces at Delhi. A council of war was convened where it was decided that the Mughals would stand and fight Hemu, Hemu, who had set off in pursuit of Agras governor, reached Tughlaqabad, a village just outside Delhi where he ran into Tardi Beg Khans forces. According to Badauni, Hemus forces included 1000 elephants,50,000 horses,51 cannon and 500 falconets, the Mughals were commanded by Tardi Beg in the centre with Iskandar Beg leading the left wing and Haidar Muhammad, the right. Abdullah Uzbeg commanded the vanguard which included in its ranks select Turki cavalry, the Mughals while outnumbered, put up a gallant fight against Hemus forces. The cavalry in the van and left launched an attack to beat both the Afghan van as well as Hemus right wing
19.
Second Battle of Panipat
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The Second Battle of Panipat was fought on November 5,1556, between the forces of Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu king of Delhi and the army of the Mughal emperor, Akbar. Hemu had conquered Delhi a month earlier by defeating the Mughals led by Tardi Beg Khan at the Battle of Delhi, Akbar and his guardian, Bairam Khan, had immediately marched to Delhi to reclaim the city. The two armies clashed at Panipat not far from the site of the First Battle of Panipat of 1526, although Hemu had lost his artillery to the Mughals before the battle, his forces held the numerical superiority. However, Hemu was wounded by an arrow in the middle of the battle. Seeing their leader going down, his army panicked and dispersed, Hemu was captured and subsequently beheaded. The battle ended in a victory for Akbar. Humayun, the successor of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, had lost his inheritance when he was chased out of India by Sher Shah Suri who established the Sur Empire in 1540. Delhi and Agra fell into Sher Shahs hands, but he died soon after in 1545 at Kalinjar and he was succeeded by his younger son, Islam Shah Suri, who was a capable ruler. However, upon his death in 1553, the Sur Empire was caught up in a battle and was plagued by rebellion. Humayun made use of this discord to recapture what was lost and on 23 July 1555, Islam Shahs rightful successor, his 12-year-old son, Firoz Khan, had been murdered by his maternal uncle who had taken the throne as Adil Shah Suri. The new ruler was however, more interested in the pursuit of pleasure than in the affairs of his state. Those were largely left to Hemu, a Hindu from Rewari and he was in Bengal when Humayun died on 26 January 1556. The Mughal emperors death provided an opportunity to defeat the Mughals. Hemu started a march from Bengal and drove the Mughals out of Bayana, Etawah, Sambhal, Kalpi. In Agra, the governor evacuated the city and fled without a fight upon hearing of Hemus impending invasion and he took possession of Delhi after a days battle on 7 October 1556 and claimed royal status assuming the title of Vikramaditya. On hearing the news from Tughlaqabad, Humayuns successor, the 13-year-old Akbar. In a stroke of luck, Ali Quli Khan Shaibani, who had sent ahead with 10, 000-strong cavalry force. He was easily able to capture the train of artillery from the Afghans who abandoned the guns
20.
Bairam Khan
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Bairam Khan also Bayram Khan was an important military commander, later commander-in-chief of the Mughal army, a powerful statesman and regent at the court of the Mughal emperors Humayun and Akbar. He was also guardian, chief mentor, advisor, teacher, Humayun honored him as Khan-i-Khanan, which means king of kings. Bairam was originally called Bairam Beg but later became honored as Kha or Khan, Bairam Khan was born in the region of Badakhshan in Central Asia, and belonged to the Baharlu clan of an Oghuz Turkic, Kara Koyunlu tribe. The Kara Koyunlu had ruled Western Persia for decades before being overthrown by their Ak Koyunlu rivals, Bairam Khans father and grandfather had been part of Baburs service. Bairam entered Baburs service at the age of 16 and played a role in the early Mughal conquests of India. He accompanied Humayun during his exile in Persia and helped conquer Kandahar before serving as its governor for nine years, in 1556, he played a leading role as a commander in Humayuns reconquest of Hindustan. Following Humayuns death in 1556, Bairam Khan was appointed Regent over the young monarch Akbar, as regent, he consolidated Mughal authority in northern India and most notably led the Mughal forces at the Second Battle of Panipat, which was fought between Akbar and Hemu in November 1556. Bairam Khan was a Shia Muslim and was disliked by the Sunni Turkic nobles, gazetteer of Ulwur states, Soon after Babars death, his successor, Humayun, was supplemented by Sher Shah in 1540 A. D. later followed by Islam Shah in 1545 A. D. During the reign of the latter, a battle was fought and lost by the Emperors troops at Firozpur Jhirka in Mewat, on which, however, Islam Shah did not lose his hold. Adil Shah, the third of the Pathan interlopers, who succeeded in A. D.1552, had to contend for the Empire with the returned Humayun, in these struggles for the restoration of Babars dynasty Khanzadas apparently do not figure at all. Bairams other wife was Salima Sultan Begum, who married Akbar after his death, due to a difference in opinion with Bairam Khan, Akbar told him that he could either retire and stay in the palace or go on the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. While traveling through Gujarat he was killed and it came about when Bairam Khan was at Sahastralinga Tank, a religious site near Anhilwad Patan, and was recognised by Lohani Pashtun, an associate of Haji Khan Mewati. Upon learning of this Haji Khan planned his attack and killed Bairam Khan in order to revenge for Emperor Hemus death. Haji Khan Mewati was from Alwar and he had been a general of Hemu, and had been staying at Patan after his defeat by Akbars forces, Bairam Khan died on 31 January 1561. However, his son and wife were allowed to go free and were sent to Agra, Bairam Khans wife, who was also the cousin of Akbar, married Akbar after Bairam Khans death. Bairams son, Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, became an important part of Akbars administration and was one of the nav-ratans of Akbars court, ray, Sukumar Bairam Khan Institute of Central and West Asian Studies, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, OCLC29564939. Agravāla, Sushamā Devī Bairamakhām̐ aura usake vaṃśaja kā Mugala sāmrājya meṃ yogadāna Rāmānanda Vidyā Bhavana, New Delhi, India, OCLC34118191, devīprasāda, Munśī Khānakhānā nāmā Pratibhā Pratishṭhāna, New Delhi, India, ISBN 81-85827-89-3, in Hindi
21.
`Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni
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ʿAbd-ul-Qadir Badauni was a historian and translator living in the Mughal Empire. He translated the Hindu works, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, however, as an orthodox Muslim, he strongly resented the reforms of Akbar, and the elevation of Hindus to high offices. He was also renowned for his rivalry with Abul-Fazl ibn Mubarak and he was son the of Muluk Shah. He lived in Basavar as a boy studying in Sambhal and Agra and he moved to Badaun, the town of his name, in 1562 before moving on to enter the service of prince Husayn Khan for the next nine years in Patiala. His later years of study were governed by Muslim mystics, the Mughal emperor, Akbar, appointed him to the religious office in the royal courts in 1574 where he spent much of his career. The most notable work of Badauni is Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh or Tarikh-i-Badauni composed in 1004 AH and this work in three volumes is a general History of the Muslims of India. The first volume contains an account of Babur and Humayun, the second volume exclusively deals with Akbars reign up to 1595. This volume is a frank and critical account of Akbars administrative measures, particularly religious. This volume was kept concealed till Akbars death and was published after Jahangirs accession and this book gives a contemporary perspective regarding the development of Akbars views on religion and his religious policy. S. A. Ranking, W. H. Lowe and T. W. Haig, all three volumes of his Muntakhab al-Tavarikh are available and searchable here, http, //persian. packhum
22.
Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak
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He was also one of the Nine Jewels of Akbars royal court and the brother of Faizi, the poet laureate of emperor Akbar. Abul Fazl ibn Mubarak ancestors hailed from Yemen, however, it was common during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire for individuals to embellish their ancestral heritage to raise their stature. He was a descendant of Shaikh Musa who lived in Rel near Siwistan, Sindh and his grandfather, Shaikh Khizr, moved to Nagaur which had attained importance as a sufi mystic centre under Shaikh Hamid-ud-din Sufi Sawali, a khalifa of Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chisti of Ajmer. At Nagaur Shaikh Khizr settled near the tomb of Shaikh Hamid-ud-din, Abul Fazls father, Shaikh Mubarak Nagori, was born in 1506 at Nagaur. Soon after Fazls birth, Khizr travelled to Sindh to bring members of his family to Nagaur. Khizrs death and a famine and plague that ravaged Nagaur caused great hardship to the destitute Mubarak, despite these hardships Mubaraks mother arranged a good education for him. One of Mubaraks earliest teacher was Shaikh Attanwho was known for his piety, another important teacher who influenced Shaikh Mubarak was Shaikh Fayyazi, a disciple of Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar. Later he went to Ahmedabad and studied under Shaikh Abul Fazl Gazruni, Shaikh Umar, Yusuf advised Mubarak to go to Agra and set up a madrasah there. Mubarak reached Agra in April 1543 and on the suggestion of Shaikh Alawal Balawal set up his residence at Charbagh, mir Rafiud-din Safavi of Inju lived close by and Mubarak married a near relative of his. Mubarak established his madrash in Agra where his field of instruction was philosophy. He also spent some time in Badaun, holy land of Sufism, the orthodox group of ulama criticised Mubarak and accused him of changing his views. Shaikh Mubaraks first son, the poet Abul Faizi and his second son Abul Fazl were born in Agra, Abul Fazls education began with Arabic and by the age of five he could read and write. His father started teaching him all the branches of Islamic sciences but Fazl could not adhere to conventional learning. A friend rescued him from state and he resumed his studies. Some incidents from his life reflect on his brilliance. A dictionary of Ishafani, which had been eaten by white ants came under his observation and he removed the parts that had been eaten and joined blank paper to the rest. He discovered the beginning and end of fragment and eventually penned a draft text. Subsequently the entire work was discovered and on comparison to Fazls draft the original differed in two or three places
23.
Rewari
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Rewari is a city and a municipal council in Rewari district in the Indian state of Haryana. It is located in south-west Haryana 82 km from Delhi railway station and 51 km from Gurgaon, Rewari may be considered centre of Ahirwal. During the Mahabharata period in ancient India, a king named Rewat had a daughter named Rewati, the father used to call her Rewa, and founded a city Rewa Wadi named after her. Wadi and wada mean a neighbourhood in Hindi and many other Indian languages, when Rewa married Balram, elder brother of Krishna, the king donated the city “Rewa-Wadi” to his daughter. In the course of time, the name Rewa-Wadi became Rewari, Rewari was founded by Nand Ram, an Ahir leader of Bolni village. A small Ahir principality was established there in the early century, hem Chandra Vikramaditya, who reigned as king of north India during 1556, was educated and brought up in what is now Rewari. Hem Chandra had developed a cannon foundry in Rewari, laying the foundation of an industry in brass. He had supplied cannons and Gunpowder to Sher Shah Suri from 1535 onwards and was an adviser to Sur dynasty till 1553, hem Chandra had won 22 battles from Punjab to Delhi during 1553-56. He defeated Mughal king Akbars forces at Agra and Delhi, hem Chandra was coronated as a Vikramaditya king at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7 October 1556, reigned as king of Delhi for one month but lost to Akbar on 5 November 1556 at Panipat where he died. His haveli still stands in the Qutabpur area of the city, Rao Tula Ram, the ruler of Rewari, played a significant role in Indias First War of Independence in 1857. His estate was confiscated by the British Raj and made a part of Gurgaon district of Punjab and it remained a part of Gurgaon district until reorganisation in 1972 saw it transferred to Mahendragarh district. Further changes, in 1989, led to the creation of the eponymous Rewari district, Rewari is well known for the high proportion of soldiers and officers it contributes to the Indian army and other armed forces of India. Rezang La near Chushul in Ladakh was the site of the last stand of the 13 Kumaon, the company led by Major Shaitan Singh, who won a posthumous Param Vir Chakra for his actions. In this action 118 men of the Ahir rifle company fought until their bullets finished, almost all of the 118 were from Rewari. A memorial was constructed in Rewari city for them, Rewari is adjacent to Rajasthan and, therefore, has dust storms in summer. Rugged hilly terrain of Aravali ranges as well as dunes in the district affect the citys climate. Rewari forms a part of the National Capital Region, Rewari is located at 28. 18°N76. 62°E /28.18,76.62. It has an elevation of 245 metres
24.
Mewat
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Mewat is a historical region of Haryana and Rajasthan states in northwestern India. The region roughly corresponds to the ancient kingdom of Matsya, founded in the 5th century BCE, Mewati dialect, a slight variant of the Haryanvi and Rajasthani dialects of Hindi, is spoken in rural areas of the region. Mewati Gharana is a style of Indian classical music. Hasan Khan Mewati is the most well-known chieftain of Mewat and he fought against Babur in Battle of Khanwa in 1527. Under Mughal rule Mewat came under Rajputs, in 1372, Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq granted Raja Nahar Khan of Kotila, the Lordship of Mewat. He established a polity in Mewat and proclaimed the title of Wali-e-Mewat. Later his descendants affirmed their own sovereignty in Mewat and ruled there till 1527, the last Khanzada Rajput ruler of Mewat was Hasan Khan Mewati, who died in the Battle of Khanwa, his successors ruled Mewat as vassals of Mughal Empire. Wali-e-Mewat Raja Nahar Khan, f. k. a Raja Sonpar Pal - the founder of Mewat state, Wali-e-Mewat Raja Khanzada Bahadur Khan - founded Bahadurpur in 1406. Wali-e-Mewat Raja Khanzada Akleem Khan Wali-e-Mewat Raja Khanzada Feroz Khan - founded Ferozepur Jhirka in 1419, the population of the area is predominantly rural with a few small towns. Mewat is named after Meo Muslims who live here, the Muslim residents are known as Meo, thus the word Meo is both region-specific and religion-specific. Meos, who are said to be Muslim Rajputs, follow the culture of the pals. As Meos were originally a tribe, they were forced to relocate from their villages whenever the Delhi rulers became strong. A region near Bhopal settled by Meos who ran away from Mewat is called Chotti Mewat Small Mewat), Meos are divided into 13 pals and 52 gotras. Mirasi singers keep an oral tradition of their Meo patrons. The main source of income in Mewat is agriculture, in the absence of good canal system, agriculture is mainly dependent on the monsoon. The Mewat region comprises parts of Alwar, Bharatpur Districts in Rajasthan, Mathura Districts in Uttar Pradesh, the Gurugram Sohna Nuh Alwar Road has been upgraded to four lane National Highway and is known as NH 248A. Kundli Manesar Palwal expressway passing through Mewat also provides high speed connectivity to National Highway 8, a Government Medical College is now operational near Nuh. However, due to expansion of real estate activities in nearby Gurgaon, the prices in Mewat have gone up considerably
25.
Potassium nitrate
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Potassium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula KNO3. It is a salt of potassium ions K+ and nitrate ions NO3−. It occurs as a mineral niter and is a solid source of nitrogen. Potassium nitrate is one of several nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as saltpeter or saltpetre, major uses of potassium nitrate are in fertilizers, tree stump removal, rocket propellants and fireworks. It is one of the constituents of gunpowder and has been used since the Middle Ages as a food preservative. Potassium nitrate, because of its early and global use and production, has many names, by the 15th century, Europeans referred to it as saltpeter and later as nitrate of potash, as the chemistry of the compound was more fully understood. The Arabs called it Chinese snow and it was called Chinese salt by the Iranians/Persians or salt from Chinese salt marshes. Potassium nitrate has a crystal structure at room temperature, which transforms to a trigonal system at 129 °C. Potassium nitrate is soluble in water, but its solubility increases with temperature. The aqueous solution is almost neutral, exhibiting pH6.2 at 14 °C for a 10% solution of commercial powder and it is not very hygroscopic, absorbing about 0. 03% water in 80% relative humidity over 50 days. It is insoluble in alcohol and is not poisonous, it can react explosively with reducing agents and this was used for the manufacture of gunpowder and explosive devices. The terminology used by al-Rammah indicated a Chinese origin for the gunpowder weapons about which he wrote, at least as far back as 1845, Chilean saltpeter deposits were exploited in Chile and California, USA. A major natural source of nitrate was the deposits crystallizing from cave walls. Extraction is accomplished by immersing the guano in water for a day, filtering, traditionally, guano was the source used in Laos for the manufacture of gunpowder for Bang Fai rockets. Perhaps the most exhaustive discussion of the production of material is the 1862 LeConte text. He was writing with the purpose of increasing production in the Confederate States to support their needs during the American Civil War. Since he was calling for the assistance of rural farming communities and he details the French Method, along with several variations, as well as a Swiss method. Many references have been made to a method using only straw and urine, LeConte describes a process using only urine and not dung, referring to it as the Swiss method
26.
Sher Shah Suri
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Sher Shah Suri was the founder of the Sur Empire in North India, with its capital at Delhi. An ethnic Pashtun, Sher Shah took control of the Mughal Empire in 1540, after his accidental death in 1545, his son Islam Shah became his successor. He first served as a private before rising to become a commander in the Mughal army under Babur, in 1537, when Baburs son Humayun was elsewhere on an expedition, Sher Shah overran the state of Bengal and established the Sur dynasty. A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah proved himself as an administrator as well as a capable general. His reorganization of the laid the foundations for the later Mughal emperors, notably Akbar. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, he set up a new civic and military administration, issued the first Rupiya and re-organised the postal system of India. He further developed Humayuns Dina-panah city and named it Shergarh and revived the city of Pataliputra. He extended the Grand Trunk Road from Chittagong in the frontiers of the province of Bengal in northeast India to Kabul in Afghanistan in the far northwest of the country. Sher Shah Suri was born as Farid Khan in the present day place Sasaram in the state of Bihar in India and his surname Suri was taken from his Sur tribe. The name Sher was conferred upon him when, as a young man and his grand father Ibrahim Khan Suri was a land lord in Narnaul area and represented Delhi rulers of that period. Mazar of Ibrahim Khan Suri still stands as a monument in Narnaul, tarikh-i Khan Jahan Lodi. also confirm this fact. However, the online Encyclopædia Britannica states that he was born in Sasaram and he was one of about eight sons of Mian Hassan Khan Suri, a prominent figure in the government of Bahlul Khan Lodi in Narnaul Pargana. Sher Khan belonged to the Pashtun Sur tribe and his grandfather, Ibrahim Khan Suri, was a noble adventurer from Roh who was recruited much earlier by Sultan Bahlul Lodi of Delhi during his long contest with the Jaunpur Sultanate. It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaimán Mountains, about six or seven kos in length, during his early age, Farid was given a village in Fargana, Delhi by Omar Khan Sarwani, the counselor and courtier of Bahlul Khan Lodi. Farid Khan and his father, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar, jamal Khan had advised Farid to return home but he refused. Farid replied in a letter, If my father wants me back to me in learning, there are in this city many learned men. Farid Khan started his service under Bahar Khan Lohani, the Mughal Governor of Bihar, because of his valour, Bahar Khan rewarded him the title Sher Khan. After the death of Bahar Khan, Sher Khan became the regent ruler of the minor Sultan, later sensing the growth of Sher Shahs power in Bihar, Jalal sought the assistance of Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah, the independent Sultan of Bengal
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Islam Shah Suri
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Islam Shah Suri was the second ruler of the Sur dynasty which ruled part of India in the mid-16th century. His original name was Jalal Khan and he was the son of Sher Shah Suri. On his fathers death, a meeting of nobles chose Jalal Khan to be successor instead of his elder brother Adil Khan. Jalal Khan was crowned on 26 May 1545 and took the title Islam Shah and he was still worried that his brother would threaten his power and tried to have him captured. But Adil Khan evaded his grasp and raised an army and it marched on Islam Shah while he was at Agra. In the battle Islam Shah came out victorious and Adil Khan fled, the support some of the nobles had given his brother made Islam Shah suspicious and he ruthlessly purged their ranks, strictly subordinating the nobility to the crown. He continued his fathers policies of efficient administration and increased centralisation and he had little opportunity for military campaigning, the fugitive Mughal emperor Humayun, whom his father had overthrown, made one abortive attempt to attack him. Islam Shah died on 22 November 1554 and he was succeeded by his son Firuz Shah Suri, who was only twelve. Within a few days the boy ruler had been murdered by Sher Shahs nephew Muhammad Mubariz Khan, the incomplete tomb of Islam Shah lies about a kilometer to the North-West of Sher Shahs tomb. Islam Shah Sur, the forerunner of Akbar in reforms and policies
28.
Kamran Mirza
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Kamran Mirza, sometimes known simply as Kamran, was the second son of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire and the first Mughal Emperor. Kamran Mirza was born in Kabul to Baburs wife Gulrukh Begum and he was still in charge of the northern part of the newly formed empire, when his father died in 1530. According to the Mughal historian Abul Fazl, Babur’s last words to Humayun were “do nothing against your brothers, even though they may deserve it. ”In 1538 Kamran first crossed into India, bringing with him 12,000 soldiers, while Humayun was away fighting in Bengal. He appeared to have come in order to put down the rebellion of his brother Hindal against Humayun, however, despite Humayun’s calls for help, Kamran offered him no aid whatsoever. After Humayun returned from his defeat at the Battle of Chausa, seeing no chance of furthering his ambition, Kamran withdrew back to Lahore. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of Kanauj in May 1540 and he ordered Humayun to leave India. Humayun went back to Kabul but Kamran was unwilling to hand the city over to his brother, at this point Kamran went behind Humayuns back and offered to support Sher Shah, if the latter would give him the Punjab in return. At this point Humayun was urged by his advisors to put his brother to death, after a series of disastrous attempts to retake his throne, Humayun crossed the Indus in 1543. Rather than welcoming him, Kamran sent his younger brother Askari out to catch him, Humayun managed to escape his brother’s clutches though and sought refuge in the court of the ruler of Persia, Shah Tahmasp I. When Humayun was in Persia, Kamran offered the Shah the city of Kandahar if he would hand his brother over to him, Shah Tahmasp favoured Humayun in this fraternal squabble however, and provided him with troops with which he defeated Kamran. Humayun was able to enter Kabul in November 1545 in a takeover, as Kamran’s rule had been oppressive. Islam Shah arrested him and deputed his trusted adviser Hemu to hand over Kamran to Humayun at Kabul, the only significant architectural structure built by Kamran exists today in Lahore, Pakistan. It is called Kamran ki Baradari, bara means twelve and dar means doors. Kamran ki baradari was a building on the bank of River Ravi. The river changed its course time, with the result that the Baradari stands not on the bank. Although Humayun resisted the pressure to put his rebellious brother to death, Humayun then sent him off to perform the Hajj to Mecca, where he died in 1557. After his death his daughter was married Akbar, the children were executed
29.
Gwalior Fort
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Gwalior Fort is an 8th-century hill fort near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, central India. The fort consists of a structure and two main palaces, Gujari Mahal and Man Mandir, built by Man Singh Tomar. The fort has been controlled by a number of different rulers in its history, the Gujari Mahal palace was built for Queen Mrignayani. It is now an archaeological museum, the oldest record of zero in the world was found in a small temple, which is located on the way to the top. The inscription is around 1500 years old, the word Gwalior is derived from one of the Hindu words for saint, Gwalipa. The fort is built on an outcrop of Vindhyan sandstone on a rocky hill called Gopachal. This feature is long, thin, and steep, the geology of the Gwalior range rock formations is ochre coloured sandstone covered with basalt. There is a horizontal stratum,342 feet at its highest point, the stratum forms a near-perpendicular precipice. A small river, the Swarnrekha, flows close to the palace, the exact period of Gwalior Forts construction is not certain. According a local legend, the fort was built by a king named Suraj Sen in 3 CE. He was cured of leprosy, when a sage named Gwalipa offered him the water from a sacred pond, the grateful king constructed a fort, and named it after the sage. The sage bestowed the title Pal upon the king, and told him that the fort would remain in his familys possession,83 descendants of Suraj Sen Pal controlled the fort, but the 84th, named Tej Karan, lost it. Historical records prove that the fort existed in the 10th century. The inscriptions and monuments found within what is now the fort indicate that it may have existed as early as the beginning of the 6th century. A Gwalior inscription describes a sun temple built during the reign of the Huna emperor Mihirakula in 6th century, the Teli ka Mandir, now located within the fort, was built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas in the 9th century. The Kachchhapaghatas controlled the fort in 10th century, most probably as feudatories of the Chandelas, from 11th century onwards, the Muslim dynasties attacked the fort several times. In 1022 CE, Mahmud of Ghazni besieged the fort for four days, according to Tabaqat-i-Akbari, he lifted the siege after in return for a tribute of 35 elephants. The Ghurid general Qutb al-Din Aibak, who became a ruler of the Delhi Sultanate
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Gwalior
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Gwalior is a major city in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and one of the Counter-magnet cities. Located 319 kilometres south of Delhi, the city of India. The city and its fortress have been ruled by several historic northern Indian kingdoms, from the Tomars in the 13th century, it was passed on to the Mughal Empire, then to the Maratha in 1754, followed by the Scindia in 18th century. Besides being the headquarters of Gwalior district and Gwalior division. Several administrative and judicial organisations, commissions and boards have their state, Gwalior was the winter capital of the state of Madhya Bharat which later became a part of the larger state of Madhya Pradesh. Prior to Indian independence on 15 August 1947, Gwalior remained a state of the British Raj with the Scindia as the local rulers. High rocky hills surround the city from all sides, on the north it just forms the border of the Ganga- Yamuna Drainage Basin, the city however is situated in the valley between the hills. Gwaliors metropolitan area includes Lashkar Gwalior, Morar Gwalior, Thatipur, Gwalior was one of the major sites of rebellion during the 1857 uprising. Post-independence, Gwalior has emerged as an important tourist attraction in central India while many industries, before the end of the 20th century it became a million plus agglomeration and now it is a metropolitan city in central India. Gwalior is surrounded by industrial and commercial zones of neighbouring districts on all three main directions, a 2016 report of the World Health Organization found Gwalior to be the second-most air-polluted city in the world and the most polluted city in India. Gwalior has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. According to local tradition, Gwalior owes its name to a sage of former times, Suraj Sen, a prince of the gurjar-pratihar clan of the eighth century, is said to have lost his way in the forest. On a secluded hill, he met an old man, the sage Gwalipa, upon asking the sage for some drinking water, he was led to a pond, where the waters not only quenched his thirst but cured him of leprosy. Suraj Sen later built a palace inside the fort, which was named Gwalior after the sage, after being founded by Maharaj Suraj Sen, Gwalior Fort saw many different rulers ruling the city and suburbs around it. Gwalior became a prominent place for religious practices, cultures and other disciplines coming up during that time in the country, during the 6th century BC Gwalior was ruled by the Nanda dynasty of Pataliputra. During the first century AD, Gwalior came under Naga Dynasty, from the carving found at Pawaya, it has been discovered that the kushanas ruled the city till the 3rd century AD. After that, it came under the Guptas till 467 AD, during the 5th century, The Kannauj of Gurar-Pratihara Dynasty ruled Gwalior and played a prominent role in shaping its history. From 700–740 AD Gwalior became the capital of Kannauj, a Magnificent Sun Temple was created at the fort hill during that period
31.
Agra Fort
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Agra Fort is a historical fort in the city of Agra in India. It was the residence of the emperors of the Mughal Dynasty till 1638. It is also a UNESCO World Heritage site and is about 2.5 km northwest of its famous sister monument. The fort can be accurately described as a walled city. After the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, the victorious Babur stayed in the fort and he later built a baoli in it. The emperor Humayun was crowned in the fort in 1530, Humayun was defeated at Bilgram in 1540 by Sher Shah. The fort remained with the Suris till 1555, when Humayun recaptured it, adil Shah Suris general, Hemu, recaptured Agra in 1556 and pursued its fleeing governor to Delhi where he met the Mughals in the Battle of Tughlaqabad. Realising the importance of its situation, Akbar made it his capital. His historian, Abul-Fazl, recorded that this was a fort known as Badalgarh. It was in a condition and Akbar had it rebuilt with red sandstone from Barauliu area in Rajasthan. Architects laid the foundation and it was built with bricks in the core with sandstone on external surfaces. Some 4,000 builders worked on it daily for eight years and it was only during the reign of Akbars grandson, Shah Jahan, that the site took on its current state. Legend has it that Shah Jahan built the beautiful Taj Mahal in the memory of his wife, unlike his grandfather, Shah Jahan tended to have buildings made from white marble. He destroyed some of the buildings inside the fort to make his own. At the end of his life, Shah Jahan was deposed and restrained by his son, Aurangzeb and it is rumoured that Shah Jahan died in Muasamman Burj, a tower with a marble balcony with a view of the Taj Mahal. The fort was invaded and captured by the Maratha Empire in the early 18th century, thereafter, it changed hands between the Marathas and their foes many times. After their catastrophic defeat at Third Battle of Panipat by Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761, finally Mahadji Shinde took the fort in 1785. It was lost by the Marathas to the British during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in 1803
32.
Jalandhar
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Jalandhar, formerly known as Jullundur in British India, is a city in the Doaba region of the northwestern Indian state of Punjab. Jalandhar is the oldest city in the Indian state of Punjab and is one of the oldest in the country, in recent times the city has undergone rapid urbanisation and has developed into a highly industrialised centre of commerce. Jalandhar has been shortlisted for the phase of the “Smart City” initiative of the Indian Government. Jalandhar used to be the capital of Punjab from India’s independence until Chandigarh was constructed in 1953, Jalandhar is situated alongside the Grand Trunk Road and is a well-connected rail and road junction. Jalandhar is 144 km northwest of Chandigarh, the capital of Punjab. The history of Jalandhar District comprises three periods — ancient, medieval and modern, the city is named after Jalandhara, a demon king, who is mentioned in the Puranas and Mahabharta. According to another legend, Jalandhar was the capital of the kingdom of Lava, according to another version Jalandhar is said to have derived its name from the vernacular term Jalandhar means area inside the water, i. e. tract lying between the two rivers Satluj and Beas. The whole of Punjab and the area of present Jalandhar District was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro are the sites where remains of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found extensively. The archaeological explorations made during recent years have pushed the ancient times of Jalandhar District of Harappa period, the modern history of Jalandhar District states that Khilafat Movement was started in the district in early 1920 to bring pressure upon British rulers to change their policy towards Turkey. Mahatma Gandhi extended sympathy and support to this movement, Jalandhar District was declared Proclaimed Area under the Seditious Meetings Act. The city has a subtropical climate with cool winters and long. Summers last from April to June and winters from November to February, temperatures in the summer vary from average highs of around 48 °C to average lows of around 25 °C. Winter temperatures have highs of 19 °C to lows of −7 °C, the climate is dry on the whole, except during the brief southwest monsoon season during July and August. The average annual rainfall is about 70 cm, as per provisional data of 2011 census Jalandhar had a population of 873,725, of which 463,975 were male and 409,750 female. The literacy rate was 85.46 per cent, Jalandhar has been selected in the second phase of the smart city project and 200 crores has been allocated to the municipal corporation for initialising the project. Jalandhar exports goods like furniture and glass to neighbouring cities and is a hub for the manufacture of sporting equipment. Jalandhar is famous for its sports industry and equipment manufactured in Jalandhar is used by many prominent sporting figures such as Sachin Tenduklar, Saurav Ganguly and Steve Waugh among others. The nearest airport is Pathankot Airport at Pathankot, about 90 km and Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport at Amritsar and it is connected to other parts of the country by regular flights
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Tughlaqabad Fort
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It lends its name to the nearby Tughlaqabad residential-commercial area as well as the Tughlaqabad Institutional Area. Tughlaq also built Qutub-Badarpur Road, which connected the new city to the Grand Trunk Road, the road is now known as Mehrauli-Badarpur Road. Also nearby is the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary, Dr. Karni Singh Shooting Range, Ghazi Malik was a feudatory of the Khilji rulers of Delhi, India. Once while on a walk with his Khilji master, Ghazi Malik suggested that the build a fort on a hillock in the southern portion of Delhi. The king jokingly told Ghazi Malik for building the fort himself when he would become king, in 1321, Ghazi Malik drove away the Khiljis and assumed the title of Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq, starting the Tughlaq dynasty. He immediately started the construction of his city, which he dreamt of as an impregnable. However, destiny would not be as he would have liked, Ghias-ud-din is usually perceived as a liberal ruler. However, he was so passionate about his dream fort that he issued a dictate that all labourers in Delhi must work on his fort, saint Nizamuddin Auliya, a Sufi mystic, got incensed as the work on his baoli was stopped. The confrontation between the Sufi saint and the emperor has become a legend in India. The saint uttered a curse which was to resonate throughout history right until today, Ya rahey ujjar, so, after the fall of sultanate, Gujjars of the area captured the Qila and till date village Tughlakabad is situated in it. Another of the saints curses was Hunuz Dilli dur ast, the Emperor was engrossed in a campaign in Bengal at this time. He was successful and was on his way to Delhi, however, his son, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, met him at Kara in Uttar Pradesh. Allegedly at the orders, a Shamiana fell on the Emperor. The Mausoleum of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq is connected by a causeway to the southern outpost of the fortification. This elevated causeway 600 ft in length, supported by 27 arches, leads across a former artificial lake, after passing an old Pipal tree, the complex of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluqs tomb is entered by a high gateway made up of red sandstone with a flight of steps. The actual mausoleum is made up of a single-domed square tomb with sloping walls crowned by parapets. In contrast to the walls of the made up of granite. The edifice is topped by an elegant dome resting on a drum that is covered with white slabs of marble
34.
Falconet (cannon)
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The falconet or falcon was a light cannon developed in the late 15th century. During the Middle Ages guns were decorated with engravings of reptiles, for example, a culverin would often feature snakes, as the handles on the early cannons were often decorated to resemble serpents. The falconet fired small yet lethal shot of similar weight and size to a bird of prey, similarly, the musket was associated with the sparrowhawk. Its barrel was approximately 4 feet long, had a caliber of 2 inches, the falconet used 0.5 pounds of black powder to fire a 1 pound round shot approximately 5,000 feet. They could also be used to fire grapeshot, the falconet resembled an oversized matchlock musket with two wheels attached to improve mobility. In 1620s Germany a breechloading version was invented, seeing action in the Thirty Years War, many falconets were in use during the English Civil War as they were lighter and cheaper than the culverins, sakers and minions. During times of unrest they were used by the nobility to defend their grand houses, though developed for use on land, the falconet gained naval prominence during the 17th century for the defence of light vessels, for example, on small boats for boarding manoeuvres. They were heavily used in the American Revolutionary War by both the British and the Colonists, artillery through the ages Picture of a 17th century falconet
35.
Abraham Eraly
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Abraham Eraly was an Indian writer of history, a teacher, and the founder of Chennai-based magazine Aside. Abraham Eraly was born in the village of Ayyampalli in Ernakulam district and he studied History at a college in Ernakulam and followed it up with a post-graduate degree in the same subject at Madras Christian College in Chennai. He became a Professor of History at MCC in 1971, bored with the monotony of teaching, Eraly resigned his professorship in 1977 and founded the Chennai-based magazine Aside, Indias first English-language city magazine. Following financial difficulties, it closed in 1997, Eralys earliest publications were poems and short stories. His historical writing career started while at Madras Christian College, dissatisfied with the material he used to teach history, he began to write a series of books on Indian history. The Gem in the Lotus covered its earliest period, while The Last Spring continued the narration to the end of the Mughal Empire, in 2014, he published a book on the Delhi Sultanate, The Age of Wrath. In 2011, Eraly moved to Pondicherry, where he lived in Sarathambal Nagar, Abraham Eraly died at the JIPMER hospital on April 8,2015, following a paralytic attack. The Last Spring, The Lives and Times of Great Mughals was re-published in two parts, The Last Spring Part I and The Last Spring Part II. Night of the Dark Tree, A Novel,2006, Penguin Books India, ISBN0143061836 Tales Once Told, Legends of Kerala,2006, Penguin Books India, ISBN 014309968X Abraham Eralys articles for Outlook India
36.
Babur
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He was a direct descendant of Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur from the Barlas clan, through his father, and also a descendant of Genghis Khan through his mother. Babur was the eldest son of Umar Sheikh Mirza and he ascended the throne of Fergana in 1495 at the age of twelve and faced rebellion from his own relatives. He conquered Samarkand two years later, only to lose the city of Fergana soon after, in his attempt to reconquer Fergana, he lost control of Samarkand. In 1501, his attempt to both cities went in vain as he was defeated by Muhammad Shaybani Khan. In 1504, he conquered Kabul, which was under the rule of the infant heir of Ulugh Begh. Babur formed a partnership with Safavid ruler Ismail I and reconquered parts of central Asia, including Samarkand, only to lose it. After losing Samarkand for the time, Babur turned his attention to creating his empire in north India. In 1524, Daulat Khan Lodi, a rebel of the Lodhi dynasty, invited Babur to overthrow Ibrahim, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and founded the Mughal empire. However, he faced opposition, this time from Rana Sanga of Mewar who considered Babur a foreigner. The Rana was defeated at the Battle of Khanwa, notable among his sons are Humayun, Kamran Mirza and Hindal Mirza. Babur died in 1530 and was succeeded by Humayun, according to Baburs wishes, he was buried in Bagh-e-Babur in Kabul, Afghanistan. Being a patrilineal descendant of Timur, Babur considered himself a Timurid and Turk and he is considered a national hero in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. Many of his poems also have become popular folk songs and he wrote his autobiography, Baburnama, in Chaghatai Turkic and this was translated into Persian during Akbars reign. Ẓahīr-ud-Dīn is Arabic for Defender of the Faith, and Muhammad honours the Islamic prophet, the name is generally taken in reference to the Persian babr, meaning tiger. The word repeatedly appears in Ferdowsis Shahnameh and was borrowed into the Turkic languages of Central Asia. The choice of vowel would nominally be restricted to one of the four front vowels, hence babr → babür, thackston argues for an alternate derivation from the PIE word beaver, pointing to similarities between the pronunciation Bābor and the Russian bobr. Babur bore the royal titles Badshah and al-ṣultānu l-ʿazam wa l-ḫāqān al-mukkarram pādshāh-e ġāzī and he and later Mughal emperors used the title of mirza when they were princes. Baburs memoirs form the source for details of his life
