1.
Long Parliament
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The Long Parliament was an English Parliament which lasted from 1640 until 1660. It followed the fiasco of the Short Parliament which had held for three weeks during the spring of 1640, and which in its turn had followed an 11-years parliamentary absence. In September 1640 writs were issued summoning a parliament to convene on 3 November 1640 by King Charles I, the parliament was summoned to pass financial bills, a step that was necessary as a result of the cost of the Bishops Wars. It sat from 1640 until 1648, when it was purged by the New Model Army and this cleared the way for a new Parliament to be elected, which was known as the Convention Parliament. But many of original members of Long Parliament, such as were barred from the final acts of the Long Parliament. He believed its republican principles made it a precursor to the American Revolutionary War, instead, the Parliament quickly proceeded to impeach William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, of high treason, on 18 December. John Finch was impeached the following day, and he fled to the Netherlands with Charless permission on 21 December. The Parliament was initially influenced by John Pym and his supporters, Pym rose in his place and entered into a particular enumeration of the troubles of the kingdom. Early in the Long Parliaments proceedings, the house also unanimously accused the Earl of Strafford of high treason and this marked a new unanimity in Irish politics, whereby Old English, Gaelic Irish and New English settlers joined together in a legal body to present evidence against governor Strafford. However, the evidence supplied indirectly by Henry Vane the Elder through his son in relation to Straffords alleged improper use, Vane the Elder, on the Kings Privy Council, remained completely loyal to his King. These handwritten notes of the elder Vane obtained by Henry Vane the Younger were confirmed by independent testimony, Pym immediately moved a Bill of Attainder, asserting Straffords guilt and ordering that he be put to death. Charles, however, promised Strafford that he would not sign the attainder, the Lords opposed the severity of the death sentence imposed upon Strafford, but increased tensions and an attempted army coup in support of Strafford began to sway the issue. On 21 April, the Bill went virtually unopposed in the Commons, Charles, fearing for his familys safety, signed the death warrant on 10 May. Strafford was beheaded two days later, with the King having been implicated, the Long Parliament passed the Triennial Act, also known as the Dissolution Act, in May 1641, to which the Royal Assent was readily granted. In the meantime both Parliament and the King agreed to an independent investigation of royal involvement in Straffords plot. This Triennial Act required Parliament to be summoned at least once every three years, and stipulated that when the King failed to issue proper summons, the members could assemble on their own. The very doctrine of modern freedoms have, to some degree, on 3 May, Parliament issued the Protestation of 1641, attacking the wicked counsels of Charless government. Those who signed the petition undertook to defend the reformed religion, Parliament, and the kings person, honour
2.
Rump Parliament
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Rump normally means the hind end of an animal, its use meaning remnant was first recorded in the above context in English. Since 1649, the rump parliament has been used to refer to any parliament left over from the actual legitimate parliament. In September 1648, at the end of the Second English Civil War, the Long Parliament began negotiations with King Charles I. The members wanted to restore the king to power but wanted to limit the authority he had. Charles I conceded militia power among other things but he admitted, “it was only so he could escape. ”In November the negotiations began to fall through. Charles I was then taken into the Army’s custody to await trial for treason, the New Model Army wanted to prevent the Treaty of Newport from reinstating King Charles I. Thomas Fairfax organized a coup in 1648 by issuing a command to Commissary General Ireton. Ireton intended to dissolve the Long Parliament but was persuaded to purge it instead and he then ordered Colonel Thomas Pride to stop the signing of the Treaty of Newport. Pride prevented 231 known supporters of the treaty from entering the House, the remaining free members then became the Rump Parliament. Prides Purge brought the Parliament to heel, under the control of the Army. In the middle of December the King was brought from Windsor to London, on 4 January 1649, the Commons passed an ordinance to set up a High Court of Justice to try Charles I for high treason in the name of the people of England. The Lords rejected it, and as it did not receive Royal Assent, I would know by what authority, I mean lawful authority, knowing that there was no legal answer under the constitutional arrangements of the time. He was convicted with fifty-nine Commissioners signing the death warrant, the establishment of a Council of State was approved on 14 February and on 19 May an Act Declaring England a Commonwealth was passed. The Treasons Act made it an offense to say that the House of Commons was not the authority of the land. Although an exact number hasnt been pinned down, it is estimated there were about 210 members of the Rump Parliament. This was approximately a fifty percent decrease from the 470 member enrollment of the Long Parliament before Prides Purge, though nine new members were admitted to the Rump parliament, the vast majority of the Rumpers were transferred from the Long Parliament. Most Rumpers still regarded many purged colleagues as “members of parliament”, “The Rump did not think of itself as a corporate political entity distinct in membership, aims and character from the Long Parliament”. Despite the rump’s lack of distinctiveness, there were a variety of reasons why people wanted to be a part of the Rump Parliament
3.
Attenborough, Nottinghamshire
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Attenborough is a village and a suburb in the Broxtowe borough of Nottinghamshire. It forms part of Greater Nottingham, and is to the southwest of the city of Nottingham, the population of the ward within the Borough of Broxtowe taken at the 2011 Census was 2,328. It adjoins the suburbs of Toton to the west and Chilwell to the north, the village is the location of Attenborough railway station and of Attenborough Nature Reserve. Attenborough Nature Reserve is a series of pits, which were flooded after gravel extraction and are now a haven for birds. The main commercial centre of Attenborough is around the junction of Nottingham Road, nearer to the nature reserve is a tennis club, a private day-nursery, the Attenborough Cricket Club and St. Marys Church. This southeastern part of Attenborough is bounded to the northwest by the railway line/and to the three sides by the wetlands of the nature reserve. It is the part of the village, with two listed buildings and the listed church itself. Some time ago, a hoard of Roman coins was found on the footpath runs over the railway. The village was flooded in November 2000, in 2006, plans were drawn up for substantial flood defences for the village. However, the scheme proved controversial because of the impact of a high flood wall along The Strand. After a series of negotiations, planning permission was granted in August 2010, the work was completed in summer 2012. Attenborough is an area and has no parish council. For local government and electoral purposes, Attenborough is one of the wards within Broxtowe, in the 2007 local elections the Conservatives won the seat. For elections to Nottinghamshire County Council the village is covered by the division of Beeston South & Attenborough. In 2009, the Conservative candidate won the division, for elections to Parliament, the village is part of the Broxtowe constituency for which the present Member for Parliament is Anna Soubry. She won the seat from the Labour Party at the 2010 general election, Attenborough was known in Saxon times as Addensburgh. It was the village of Henry Ireton, an English general in the army of Parliament during the English Civil War. During the First World War, the station had its platforms extended as it was used as an interchange for soldiers heading for Chetwynd Barracks
4.
Nottinghamshire
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Nottinghamshire is a county in the East Midlands of England, bordering South Yorkshire to the north-west, Lincolnshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south, and Derbyshire to the west. The traditional county town is Nottingham, though the county council is based in West Bridgford in the borough of Rushcliffe, the districts of Nottinghamshire are Ashfield, Bassetlaw, Broxtowe, Gedling, Mansfield, Newark and Sherwood, and Rushcliffe. The City of Nottingham was administratively part of Nottinghamshire between 1974 and 1998 but is now an authority, remaining part of Nottinghamshire for ceremonial purposes. In 2011 the county was estimated to have a population of 785,800, over half of the population of the county live in the Greater Nottingham conurbation. The conurbation has a population of about 650,000, though less than half live within the city boundaries. Nottinghamshire lies on the Roman Fosse Way, and there are Roman settlements in the county, for example at Mansfield, the county was settled by Angles around the 5th century, and became part of the Kingdom, and later Earldom, of Mercia. However, there is evidence of Saxon settlement at the Broxtowe Estate, Oxton, near Nottingham, the name first occurs in 1016, but until 1568 the county was administratively united with Derbyshire, under a single Sheriff. In Norman times the county developed malting and woollen industries, in the 18th and 19th centuries, mechanised deeper collieries opened and mining became an important economic sector, though these declined after the 1984–85 miners strike. Until 1610, Nottinghamshire was divided into eight Wapentakes, sometime between 1610 and 1719 they were reduced to six – Newark, Bassetlaw, Thurgarton, Rushcliffe, Broxtowe and Bingham, some of these names still being used for the modern districts. Oswaldbeck was absorbed in Bassetlaw, of which it forms the North Clay division, Nottinghamshire is famous for its involvement with the legend of Robin Hood. This is also the reason for the numbers of tourists who visit places like Sherwood Forest, City of Nottingham, to reinforce the Robin Hood connection, the University of Nottingham in 2010 has begun the Nottingham Caves Survey with the goal to increase the tourist potential of these sites. The project will use a 3D laser scanner to produce a three dimensional record of more than 450 sandstone caves around Nottingham. Nottinghamshire was mapped first by Christopher Saxton in 1576, the first fully surveyed map of the county was by John Chapman who produced Chapmans Map of Nottinghamshire in 1774. Nottinghamshire, like Derbyshire and South Yorkshire, sits on extensive coal measures, up to 900 metres thick, there is an oilfield near Eakring. These are overlaid by sandstones and limestones in the west and clay in the east, the north of the county is part of the Humberhead Levels lacustrine plain. The centre and south west of the county, around Sherwood Forest, principal rivers are the Trent, Idle, Erewash and Soar. The Trent, fed by the Soar and Erewash, and Idle, composed of many streams from Sherwood Forest, run through wide and flat valleys, the lowest is Peat Carr, east of Blaxton, at sea level, the Trent is tidal below Cromwell Lock. Nottinghamshire is sheltered by the Pennines to the west, so receives relatively low rainfall at 641–740 mm annually, the average temperature of the county is 8. 8–10.1 degrees Celsius
5.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
6.
Limerick
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Limerick is a city in county Limerick, Ireland. It is located in the Mid-West Region and is part of the province of Munster. Limerick City and County Council is the authority for the city. The city lies on the River Shannon, with the core of the city located on Kings Island, which is bounded by the Shannon. Limerick is also located at the head of the Shannon Estuary where the river widens before it flows into the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 95,854, Limerick is the third most populous area in the state. There are 102,161 people living in the Limerick City Metropolitan District, on 1 June 2014 following the merger of Limerick City and County Council a new Metropolitan District of Limerick was formed within the united council which extended the city area. The Metropolitan District includes the city area and extends outwards towards Patrickswell in the west. The City Metropolitan Area however excludes city suburbs located within County Clare, when included this increases the overall city and metropolitan area by a further 5,000 with a combined total population of 107,161. Limerick is one of the constituent cities of the Cork–Limerick–Galway corridor which has a population of 1 million people and it is located at a strategic position on the River Shannon with four main crossing points near the city centre. To the south of the city is the Golden Vale, an area of rich pastureland, historically, much of the citys industry was based on this rich agricultural hinterland and it is particularly noted for Limerick Ham. Luimneach originally referred to the area along the banks of the Shannon Estuary known as Loch Luimnigh. The earliest settlement in the city, Inis Sibhtonn, was the name for Kings Island during the pre-Viking and Viking eras. This island was also called Inis an Ghaill Duibh, The Dark- Foreigners Island, the name is recorded in Viking sources as Hlymrekr. Antiquitys map-maker, Ptolemy, produced in 150 the earliest map of Ireland, history also records an important battle involving Cormac mac Airt in 221 and a visit by St. Patrick in 434 to baptise an Eóganachta king, Carthann the Fair. Saint Munchin, the first bishop of Limerick died in 652, in 812 the Vikings sailed up the Shannon and pillaged the city, burned the monastery of Mungret but were forced to flee when the Irish attacked and killed many of their number. The Normans redesigned the city in the 12th century and added much of the most notable architecture, such as King Johns Castle, one of the kingdoms most notable kings was Brian Boru, ancestor of the OBrien Clan of Dalcassians. The word Thomond is synonymous with the region and is retained in place such as Thomondgate
7.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
8.
Soldier
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A soldier is one who fights as part of an organised, land-based armed force. A soldier can be a person, a non-commissioned officer. The word soldier derives from the Middle English word soudeour, from Old French soudeer or soudeour, meaning mercenary, from soudee, meaning shillings worth or wage, from sou or soud, the word is also related to the Medieval Latin soldarius, meaning soldier. These words ultimately derive from the Late Latin word solidus, referring to an Ancient Roman coin used in the Byzantine Empire. In most armed forces use of the soldier has taken on a more general meaning due to the increasing specialization of military occupations that require different areas of knowledge. In many countries soldiers serving in specific occupations are referred to by other than their occupational name. For example, military personnel in the British Army are known as red caps because of the colour of their caps. Infantry are sometimes called grunts or squaddies, while US Army artillery crews, or gunners, are referred to as redlegs. U. S. soldiers are often called G. I. s, members of the Marine Corps are typically referred to as marines rather than soldiers. In the United States, the term warfighter is often used to refer collectively to all whose job it is to do the actual fighting, the army has not completely phased out this terminology and still uses warfighter in various contexts such as the Project Manager Warfighter Information Network-Tactical. French Marine Infantry are called marsouins because of their amphibious role, Military units in most armies have nicknames of this type, arising either from items of distinctive uniform, some historical connotation or rivalry between branches or regiments. Some soldiers, such as conscripts or draftees, serve a limited term. Others choose to serve until retirement, then receive a pension. In the United States, military members can retire after 20 years, in other countries, the term of service is 30 years, hence the term 30-year man. Airman Marine Military use of children Seaman Media related to Soldier at Wikimedia Commons
9.
Roundhead
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Roundhead was the name given to the supporters of the Parliament of England during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against Charles I of England and his supporters, the Cavaliers or Royalists, who claimed rule by absolute monarchy, the goal of the Roundhead party was to give the Parliament supreme control over executive administration. Most Roundheads sought constitutional monarchy in place of the absolutist monarchy sought by Charles I, englands many Puritans and Presbyterians were almost invariably Roundhead supporters, as were many smaller religious groups such as the Independents. However many Roundheads were Church of England, as were many Cavaliers, Roundhead political factions included the proto-anarchist Diggers, the diverse group known as the Levellers and the apocalyptic Christian movement of the Fifth Monarchists. Some Puritans, but by no means all, wore their hair closely cropped round the head or flat, during the war and for a time afterwards, Roundhead was a term of derision—in the New Model Army it was a punishable offence to call a fellow soldier a Roundhead. This contrasted with the term Cavalier to describe supporters of the Royalist cause, Roundheads appears to have been first used as a term of derision toward the end of 1641, when the debates in Parliament in the Clergy Act 1640 were causing riots at Westminster. The demonstrators included London apprentices and Roundhead was a term of derision for them because the regulations to which they had agreed included a provision for closely cropped hair. However, Richard Baxter ascribes the origin of the term to a made by Queen Henrietta Maria of France at the trial of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford. Referring to John Pym, she asked who the man was. The principal advisor to Charles II, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, remarked on the matter and they who were looked upon as servants to the king being then called Cavaliers, and the other of the rabble contemned and despised under the name of Roundheads. By the end of this period some Independent Puritans were again using the term Roundhead to refer to the Presbyterian Puritans. Likewise during the Exclusion Bill crisis, the term Cavalier was replaced with Tory, an Irish term introduced by their opponents, the History of England from the Accession of James II. Historical Memorials Relating to the Independents Or Congregationalists, From Their Rise to the Restoration of the Monarchy, religious Thought in England, from the Reformation to the End of Last Century, A Contribution to the History of Theology. Heavy Words Lightly Thrown, The Reason Behind Rhyme, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Anonymous
10.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
11.
Oliver Cromwell
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Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell was born into the gentry, albeit to a family descended from the sister of King Henry VIIIs minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life as only four of his letters survive alongside a summary of a speech he delivered in 1628. He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a conversion in the 1630s. He was a religious man, a self-styled Puritan Moses. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short and he entered the English Civil War on the side of the Roundheads or Parliamentarians. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles Is death warrant in 1649 and he was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–1650. Cromwells forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, during this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics, and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651, as a ruler, he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. He died from natural causes in 1658 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the Royalists returned to power in 1660, and they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell, sponsored by military historian Richard Holmes was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. Katherine married Morgan ap William, son of William ap Yevan of Wales, Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he use Cromwell, in honour of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. They had ten children, but Oliver, the child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Jasper was the uncle of Henry VII and great uncle of Henry VIII, Cromwells paternal grandfather Sir Henry Williams was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwells father Robert was of modest means but still a part of the gentry class, as a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes, Cromwell himself in 1654 said, I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity. He was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St Johns Church and he went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos
12.
St Mary's Church, Attenborough
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St. Marys Church, Attenborough is a parish church in the Church of England in the village of Attenborough, Nottinghamshire. The church is Grade I listed by the Department for Culture and it is set within a conventional churchyard that is walled and gated on Church Lane. A chapel is said to have existed on the banks of the River Trent at Attenburgh in 964 AD and was overbuilt with the chancel of the present day church. The chancel was thought to exist as early as 1042 and is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 where it is referred to as being shared by Chilwell, the boundary division of these two civil parishes divided the churchyard for many years. The spire was rebuilt in 1848 and reaches a height of 130 feet, the church was restored in 1869 by the architect Richard Charles Sutton. The west end gallery was removed, and the arch was opened up. Until the 20th century, Attenborough was the parish responsible for the souls of the Chilwell. Bramcote was also adjoined with Attenborough, the parish being known as Attenborough cum Bramcote, in 1903 a separate mission church, Christ Church, had been built at Chilwell, and in 1923, a daughter church, St Peters, was built at Toton. In 1957, a mission church was built at the extremity of the rapidly developing area of Chilwell and was known as St. Barnabas Church. Eventually, in 1967 Bramcote became a parish and Rev James Hamilton-Brown became its first vicar. Then in 1975 Chilwell was recognised as a parish in its own right, the first vicar of this newly formed parish was the Rev John Williams. At the same time in 1975 Attenborough became Attenborough with Toton and merited its own vicar, a small amount of the old parish, which was situated South of the River Trent, was at this time transferred to Clifton. This arrangement continued until once more, due to growth, it was necessary to divide Attenborough. This division took effect from 1 May 2001 and Rev Peter Gibbs was to be re-licensed as vicar of Toton, Henry Ireton, the son-in-law of Oliver Cromwell, was baptised here in 1611. There are eight bells in the tower, the oldest dates from 1370 where details of these are displayed in the tower. An organ was provided by Mr. Groves of London, and was restored in 1869 by Lloyd, the current organ was installed in 1928 by Brindley & Foster. Later centuries are represented by various arms and plaques. The most colourful of these is a wooden memorial bearing the arms of the Powtrell family, dated 1623 and depicted in red, white
13.
Commoner (academia)
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A commoner is a student at certain universities in the British Isles who historically pays for their own tuition and commons. Commoners were also known as pensioners at the University of Cambridge, pensioners paid for their own tuition and commons. A fellow‑commoner was a rank of student above pensioners but below noblemen and they paid double the tuition fee and enjoyed more privileges than pensioners, such as commoning with Fellows. As fellow‑commoners had considerable wealth, they were ineligible for scholarships, fellow‑commoners who wore a hat instead of a velvet cap were known as hat fellow‑commoners. They were often sons of nobility but not the eldest, who enjoyed the rank of noblemen, today, a fellow‑commoner at Cambridge is one who enjoys access to the Senior Common Room without a Fellowship. Formerly, there were also fellow-commoners who paid twice the fees but could incept for their degree a year earlier, dined at the High Table and wore velvet collars. Above these were Noblemen who paid four times tuition and were entitled to privileges, including gold. In the University of Oxford, a commoner is a student without a scholarship or exhibition, a gentleman‑commoner at the University of Oxford, equivalent to Cambridges fellow‑commoner, was historically a rank of student above commoners but below noblemen. According to Merriam-Webster, the first known usage of gentleman‑commoner was in 1687, battel Servitor Sizar Bristed, Charles Astor. Five years in an English university
14.
Trinity College, Oxford
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Trinity College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The college was founded in 1555 by Sir Thomas Pope, on land occupied by Durham College. Despite its large size, the college is small in terms of student numbers at approximately 400. As of July 2013, Trinity had an endowment of £104.2 million. Trinity has produced three British prime ministers, placing it joint-second with Balliol College in terms of students who have held the office. The site where Trinity College now stands was occupied by Durham College. This college had been founded after land was bought in 1291, Durham College was built around a single quadrangle, now known as the Durham Quadrangle. The site was surrendered to the crown in March 1545, being granted to private owners in 1553 and they were then acquired by civil servant Thomas Pope on 20 February 1555, who used them to found Trinity College 16 days later. Durham College was originally dedicated to the Virgin Mary, St Cuthbert, and the Trinity, Pope was a Catholic who had no surviving children, and he hoped that by founding a college he would be remembered in the prayers of its students. His remains are still encased beside the chapel altar, the original foundation provided for a president,12 fellows, and 12 scholars, and for up to 20 undergraduates. The fellows were required to take Holy Orders and to remain unmarried, the College remained a largely all-male institution until 1979, when it admitted its first women undergraduates. It is now fully co-educational and co-residential, Trinity was one of the locations used for filming of the original miniseries Brideshead Revisited, its grounds were also, in part, the basis for Fleet College in Charles Finchs The Last Enchantments. Sir Ivor Roberts, formerly HM Ambassador to Italy, succeeded The Hon. Michael Beloff QC as President on 26 September 2006. Peter Brown, Tutor in Classics, assumed the position of Pro-President during the interregnum, for many years, there has been a traditional and fierce rivalry shown between the students of Trinity and those of its immediate neighbour to the west, Balliol College. It has manifested itself on the field and the river, in the form of songs sung over the dividing walls. In college folklore, the rivalry back to the late 17th century. The traditional words run, Gordouli Face like a ham, Bobby Johnson says so And he should know, although these words are now rarely heard, the singing of songs over the wall is still known as a Gordouli. The traditional Gordouli is said to have been sung by Balliol, the rivalry was given an extra edge in the early 20th century by the contrast between the radical tendencies of many Balliol students and Trinitys traditional conservatism and social exclusivity
15.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
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Middle Temple
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It is located in the wider Temple area of London, near the Royal Courts of Justice, and within the City of London. In the 13th century, the Inns of Court originated as hostels and schools for student lawyers, the Middle Temple is the western part of The Temple, the headquarters of the Knights Templar until they were dissolved in 1312. The Temple Church still stands as a church of the Inner. Most of the Inn is occupied by offices, known as chambers. One of the Middle Temples main functions now is to provide education, Middle Temple Hall is at the heart of the Inn, and the Inns student members are required to attend a minimum of 12 qualifying sessions there. Qualifying sessions, formerly known as dinners, combine collegiate and educational elements and will combine an dinner or reception with lectures, debates, mooting. Middle Temple Hall is also a venue for banqueting, weddings, receptions. In recent years, it has become a much-used film location—the cobbled streets, historic buildings, william Shakespeares Twelfth Night received its first recorded performance here, at the feast Candlemas in 1602. Middle Temple Library possesses Emery Molyneuxs terrestrial and celestial globes, which are of particular historical cartographical value, Middle Temple is also one of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a geographic division. It is an independent extra-parochial area, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation, the Middle Temples functions as a local council are set out in the Temples Order 1971. It geographically falls within the boundaries and liberties of the City, some of the Inns buildings lie just outside the liberty of the Middle Temple and the Citys boundary, and are actually situated in the City of Westminster. Quadrant House was acquired by the Middle Temple in 1999 and after five years of conversion is now a barristers chambers and this lies outside the liberty but is within the City of London. List of members of Middle Temple Outer Temple Pump Court Middle Temple website
17.
Battle of Edgehill
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The Battle of Edgehill was the first pitched battle of the First English Civil War. It was fought near Edge Hill and Kineton in southern Warwickshire on Sunday,23 October 1642, all attempts at constitutional compromise between King Charles and Parliament broke down early in 1642. Both King and Parliament raised large armies to gain their way by force of arms, in October, at his temporary base near Shrewsbury, King Charles decided to march on London in order to force a decisive confrontation with Parliaments main army, commanded by the Earl of Essex. Late on 22 October, both armies unexpectedly found the enemy to be close by, the next day, the Royalist army descended from Edge Hill to force battle. After the Parliamentary artillery opened a cannonade, the Royalists attacked, both armies consisted mostly of inexperienced and sometimes ill-equipped troops. Many men from both sides fled or fell out to loot enemy baggage, and neither army was able to gain a decisive advantage. After the battle, King Charles resumed his march on London, the inconclusive result of the Battle of Edgehill prevented either faction gaining a quick victory in the war, which eventually lasted four years. When it appeared to King Charles I that no agreement with Parliament over the government of the Kingdom was possible, he left London on 2 March 1642, both Parliament and King realised that armed conflict was inevitable, and prepared to raise forces. Charles then attempted to seize the port of Kingston-upon-Hull where arms, in the Siege of Hull, the Parliamentarian garrison defied the Kings authority and drove his forces away from the city. In early August the King moved south, to Lincoln and Leicester, on 22 August, he took the decisive step by raising the royal standard in Nottingham, effectively declaring war on Parliament. Having learned of the Kings actions in Nottingham, Parliament dispatched its own army northward under the Earl of Essex, Essex marched first to Northampton, where he mustered almost 20,000 men. Learning of the Kings move westwards, Essex then marched north-westwards towards Worcester, nevertheless, lacking infantry, the Royalists abandoned Worcester. By early October, the Kings army was almost complete at Shrewsbury and he held a council of war, at which two courses of action were considered. The first was to attack Essexs army at Worcester, which had the drawback that the country around the city would put the superior Royalist cavalry at a disadvantage. The second course, which was adopted, was to advance towards London, the intention was not to avoid battle with Essex, but to force one at an advantage. In the Earl of Clarendons words, it was considered more counsellable to march towards London, accordingly, the army left Shrewsbury on 12 October, gaining two days start on the enemy, and moved southeast. Essex followed, but neither army had much information on the location of their enemy, by 22 October, the Royalist army was quartered in the villages around Edgcote, and was threatening the Parliamentarian post at Banbury. The garrison of Banbury sent messengers pleading for help to the Parliamentarian garrison at Warwick Castle, Essex, who had just reached there, ordered an immediate march to Kineton to bring relief to Banbury, even though his army had straggled and not all his troops were present
18.
Battle of Gainsborough
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The Battle of Gainsborough was a battle in the English Civil War, fought on 28 July 1643. When the English Civil War was declared, Gainsborough in Lincolnshire lay in an area which supported Parliament, the town was of strategic importance to both sides, sited as it was on a crossing of the River Trent, lying on important roads leading south and north. In March 1643 Sir John Henderson sent a party from the Royalist base at Newark to capture Gainsborough for the King. The town was surrounded and quickly surrendered without any resistance, the town was put into the charge of the Earl of Kingston and was used as a base to harass the Parliamentarians in Lincolnshire. Royalist attacks at Louth and Market Rasen, together with the capture of gunpowder intended for Rotherham, lord Willoughby of Parham launched a surprise night attack on Gainsborough on 16 July 1643 and captured it. The Earl of Kingston was later killed by a cannonball from his own men as he was being taken as prisoner down the river to Hull, the Royalists immediately sent Charles Cavendish with a force to retake Gainsborough. Parliament sent forces from Nottingham under Sir John Meldrum and Colonel Oliver Cromwell from Cambridgeshire to relieve, the two forces met on 27 July at North Scarle, ten miles south of Gainsborough, where they were joined by a detachment from Lincoln. The next day,28 July 1643, the 1200 strong force marched north, at the village of Lea, just south of Gainsborough, they met an advanced guard of 100 horse, part of Cavendishs army. After a short skirmish the horsemen were driven back to Cavendishs main body which was drawn up on top of Foxby Hill to the east of the town, the Royalists consisted of three regiments of Horse with a further regiment in reserve, and held the tactical advantage. The Lincoln troops were ordered to advance up the steep and sandy gradient, as the Lincolners were forming up, Cavendish attacked. Cromwell, seeing this, charged with his own regiment to meet Cavendish. After some fierce mounted fighting, the Royalists gradually began to fall back, with the attacking Parliamentary cavalry gone, Cavendish took advantage by counter-attacking the remaining Lincoln troops with his reserve. However, Cromwell was still on the field with a reserve of three cavalry troops and he charged into Cavendishs rear, forcing the Royalists down off the hill and into the flat marshy land of the Trent, where 300 Royalists were slaughtered. Cavendish was knocked off his horse and killed by a sword thrust in the chest, the place where he was killed was later known as Cavendish Bog. With the battle over, Cromwell rode into Gainsborough with supplies for Willoughbys garrison, while this was being done, news arrived that a small Royalist force was marching on Gainsborough from the north. Cromwell and Meldrum, thinking this was a remnant of Cavendishs force not yet engaged, at Morton they drove off two troops of Horse. Willoughbys foot soldiers fell back in disorder, with his own men and horses exhausted by the recent battle, Cromwell ordered a withdrawal. In a disciplined rearguard action, two parties of Horse, one from Cromwells regiment and one from the Lincolners, stood firm, with the loss of only two men, they held back the Royalists until finally reaching the safety of Lincoln
19.
Isle of Ely
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The Isle of Ely /ˈiːli/ is a historic region around the city of Ely in Cambridgeshire, England. It used to be a county in its own right and its name is said to mean island of eels, a reference to the creatures that were often caught in the local rivers for food. This etymology was first recorded by the Venerable Bede, until the 17th century, the area was an island surrounded by a large area of fenland, a type of swamp. It was coveted as a difficult to penetrate, and was controlled in the very early medieval period by the Gyrwas. Upon their marriage in 652, Tondbert, a prince of the Gyrwas, presented Æthelthryth and she afterwards founded a monastery at Ely, which was destroyed by Viking raiders in 870, but was rebuilt and became a famous Abbey and Shrine. This began in 1626 using a network of canals designed by Dutch experts, the areas natural defences led to it playing a role in the military history of England. Following the Norman Conquest, the Isle became a refuge for English forces under Earl Morcar, Bishop Aethelwine of Durham, the area was taken by William the Conqueror only after a prolonged struggle. In 1139 civil war broke between the forces of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda, Bishop Nigel of Ely, a supporter of Matilda, unsuccessfully tried to hold the Isle. In 1143 Geoffrey de Mandeville rebelled against Stephen, and made his base in the Isle, Geoffrey was mortally wounded at Burwell in 1144. In 1216, during the First Barons War, the Isle was unsuccessfully defended against the army of King John, Ely took part in the Peasants Revolt of 1381. From 1107 until 1837, the Isle was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ely who appointed a Chief Justice of Ely and exercised temporal powers within the Liberty of Ely. This temporal jurisdiction originated in a charter granted by King Edgar in 970, the latter monarch established Ely as the seat of a bishop in 1107, creating the Isle of Ely a county palatine under the bishop. However, the bishop retained exclusive jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters, a chief bailiff was appointed for life by the bishop, and performed the functions of high sheriff within the liberty, who also headed the government of the city of Ely. The Liberty of Ely Act 1837 ended the secular powers in the Isle. The area was declared a division of Cambridgeshire, with the right to appoint justices revested in the crown, following the 1837 Act the Isle maintained separate Quarter Sessions, and formed its own constabulary. Under the Local Government Bill of 1888, which proposed the introduction of elected county councils, following the intervention of the local member of parliament, Charles Selwyn, the Isle of Ely was constituted a separate administrative county in 1889. The county was small in terms of area and population, and its abolition was proposed by the Local Government Boundary Commission in 1947. The report of the LGBC was not acted upon, and the administrative county survived until 1965, Whittlesey Rural district consisted of only one parish, which was added to Whittlesey urban district, in 1926
20.
Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester
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Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, KG, KB, FRS was an important commander of Parliamentary forces in the First English Civil War, and for a time Oliver Cromwells superior. Montagu accompanied Prince Charles during his 1623 trip to Habsburg Spain in pursuit of the Spanish Match and he was Member of Parliament for Huntingdonshire in the Happy Parliament of 1623–24, the Useless Parliament of 1625, and the Parliament of 1625–26. At the time of Charles Is coronation in February 1626, he was made a Knight of the Bath to reward him for his service to Charles in Spain. His first wife, who was related to the Duke of Buckingham, having died in 1625 after two years of marriage, Mandeville married in 1626 Anne Rich, daughter of Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick. Cromwell brought the shortcomings of Manchester before Parliament in the autumn of 1644 and in April the following year, anticipating the Self-denying Ordinance, Manchester resigned his command. He opposed the trial of the king, and retired from public life during the Commonwealth but after the Restoration, in 1667 he was made a General, and he died on 5 May 1671. Manchester was made a Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1661, men of such divergent sympathies as Baxter, Burnet and Clarendon agreed in describing Manchester as a lovable and virtuous man, who loved peace and moderation both in politics and religion. He was five times married, leaving children by two of his wives, and was succeeded in the title by his eldest son, Robert, 3rd Earl of Manchester. One of his daughters Lady Anne Montagu married her second cousin Robert Rich, 5th Earl of Warwick and he is inaccurately depicted sitting in the House of Commons in Cromwells presence although he had been a member of the Lords since 1626. Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England, Oxford,1839 Lord Clarendon, Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon, Lord High Chancellor of England and Chancellor of the University of Oxford. Oxford,1827 SR Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, london, 1886–1891 The Quarrel between the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell, documents collected by J. Bruce, with a historical preface completed by D. M. Masson. London,1875 Sir Philip Warwick, Memoires of the Reigne of King Charles I and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
21.
Second Battle of Newbury
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The Second Battle of Newbury was a battle of the English Civil War fought on 27 October 1644, in Speen, adjoining Newbury in Berkshire. The battle was close to the site of the First Battle of Newbury. The combined armies of Parliament inflicted a defeat on the Royalists. In the early months of 1644, the Parliamentarians had won victories at Cheriton in the south of England, also, they had secured the allegiance of the Scottish Covenanters, who sent an army into the north east. These developments both distracted the Royalists and weakened their forces around Oxford, King Charless wartime capital, early in June, the Parliamentarian armies of the Earl of Essex and Sir William Waller threatened to surround Oxford. King Charles made a march to escape to Worcester. He was still in danger but on 6 June, Essex and Waller conferred at Stow-on-the-Wold, while Waller continued to shadow the King, Essex marched into the West Country, to relieve Lyme Regis which was under siege, and then to subdue Devon and Cornwall. This allowed the King to double back and return to Oxford to collect reinforcements, on 29 June, he then won a victory over Waller at Cropredy Bridge. Wallers army, most of which was unwilling to serve far from its home areas in London, the King was free to march after Essexs army. Essex was soon trapped against the coast at Lostwithiel and he relied on support from the Parliamentarian navy, but contrary winds prevented the Parliamentarian ships leaving Portsmouth. Although Essex himself escaped in a boat and his cavalry broke out of encirclement. The troops were paroled, but suffered severely from exposure and attacks by people during their march to Portsmouth. Although they were re-equipped, only 4,000 infantry were fit for service, on 2 July however, the Covenanters and Parliamentarians in the north had defeated King Charless nephew Prince Rupert at the Battle of Marston Moor. He was joined briefly by Prince Rupert, who gave his account of his defeat at Marston Moor, Charles ordered Rupert to march into Gloucestershire, in an attempt to draw some of the Parliamentarian armies after him. The Earl of Essex kept his three armies together, and the result of Ruperts manoeuvre was to divide the Royalist forces, on 22 October, Charles relieved Donnington Castle. He knighted Lieutenant Colonel John Boys, the commander of its garrison and he hoped to relieve Basing House next, but the combined Parliamentarian armies were too strong for him to risk an advance. He therefore waited around Newbury for Rupert, and another detachment under the Earl of Northampton which had sent to relieve Banbury. Charles army held three strong points, Donnington Castle north of Newbury, Shaw House east of the town, Speen was held by Ruperts brother Prince Maurice, with a mixed detachment from the Royalist forces from the west country
22.
Battle of Naseby
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It was fought near the village of Naseby in Northamptonshire. This political campaign was successful, forming the New Model Army, after the Royalists stormed the Parliamentarian stronghold of Leicester, Fairfax was ordered to lift his siege of Oxford, the Royalist capital, and engage the Kings main army. Eager to bring battle to the Royalists, Fairfax set off in pursuit of the Royalist army, the King, faced with retreating north with Fairfax close behind, or giving battle, decided to give battle, fearing a loss of morale if his army continued retreating. After hard fighting, the Parliamentarian army had all but destroyed the Royalist force, captured in the baggage train were the Kings private papers, revealing to the fullest extent his attempts to draw Irish Catholics and foreign mercenaries into the war. Publication of these papers gave Parliament an added moral cause in fighting the war to a finish, within a year, Parliament had won the first civil war. At the beginning of 1645, most of King Charless advisers urged him to attack the New Model Army while it was still forming, initially, Charles welcomed this move, as Fairfax would be unable to interfere with his move north. Then at the end of May he was told that Oxford was short of provisions, to distract Fairfax, the Royalists stormed the Parliamentarian garrison at Leicester on 31 May. Having done so, Prince Rupert and the Kings council reversed their former decision and they sent messages ordering Goring to rejoin them, but Goring refused to leave the West Country. Parliament had indeed been alarmed by the loss of Leicester, and Fairfax was now instructed to abandon the siege of Oxford and he accordingly marched north from Oxford on 5 June. His leading detachments of horse clashed with Royalist outposts near Daventry on 12 June, on 13 June, the Royalists, who were now making for Newark so as to receive reinforcements, were at Market Harborough. Fairfax was eager to engage them, and held a council of war, during which Oliver Cromwell, the King now had to accept battle, or retreat with Fairfax in close pursuit. Early on 14 June, ignoring Ruperts advice and urged on by Secretary of State Lord Digby, the morning of 14 June was foggy, preventing the opposing armies from sighting each other at first. The Royalist army occupied a position on a ridge between the villages of Little Oxendon and East Farndon about 2 miles south of Market Harborough. The Royalist scoutmaster, Sir Francis Ruce, was sent out to find the Parliamentarian army, Rupert himself moved forward and saw some Parliamentarian cavalry, apparently retiring. He was determined to secure the commanding Naseby ridge and ordered the Royalist army to advance, Fairfax initially considered occupying the northern slopes of Naseby ridge. Cromwell believed that this position was too strong, and that the Royalists would refuse battle rather than attack it and he is said to have sent a message to Fairfax, saying, I beseech you, withdraw to yonder hill, which may provoke the enemy to charge us. Fairfax agreed, and moved his army back slightly, the Royalists did not see Fairfaxs position until they reached the village of Clipston, just over a mile north of Naseby ridge. It was clearly impossible for the Royalists to withdraw to their position without being attacked by the Parliamentarian cavalry while on the line of march
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Cavalier
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It was later adopted by the Royalists themselves. Prince Rupert, commander of much of Charles Is cavalry, is considered to be an archetypal Cavalier. Cavalier derives from the same Latin root as the French word chevalier, Cavalier is chiefly associated with the Royalist supporters of King Charles I in his struggle with Parliament in the English Civil War. Charles, in the Answer to the Petition 13 June 1642 speaks of Cavaliers as a word by what mistake soever it seemes much in disfavour, Cavalier was not understood at the time as primarily a term describing a style of dress, but a whole political and social attitude. Most Parliamentarian generals wore their hair at much the length as their Royalist counterparts. The best patrons in the nobility of Charles Is court painter Sir Anthony van Dyck, probably the most famous image identified as of a cavalier, Frans Hals Laughing Cavalier, shows a gentleman from the strongly Calvinist Dutch town of Haarlem, and is dated 1624. These derogatory terms also showed what the typical Parliamentarian thought of the Royalist side – capricious men who cared more for vanity than the nation at large. Although they did not share the same outlook on how to worship God as the English Independents of the New Model Army, if I forget Thee, do not forget me. However, the word was coined by the Roundheads as a propaganda image of a licentious, hard drinking and frivolous man. It is this image which has survived and many Royalists, for example Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester, fitted this description to a tee. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was his masterpiece, in which he so much excelled and this sense has developed into the modern English use of cavalier to describe a recklessly nonchalant attitude, although still with a suggestion of stylishness. Likewise during Exclusion Bill crisis the term Roundhead was replaced with Whig, an example of the Cavalier style can be seen in the painting Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles by Anthony van Dyck. The mascot of Cavalier has been commonly used in the sports world. Most prominently it has been that of the professional Cleveland Cavaliers in the NBA since 1970 and it has also been adopted by smaller organizations such as Johnson County Community College, Kankakee Community College, St. Gregorys University, and the University of Virginias College at Wise. Cavaliers have been represented as a class and subclass of role-playing character since 1983 in Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, Cavalier Generals, King Charles I and His Commanders in the English Civil War, 1642–46. Going to the Wars, The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638-1651, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Goring, George Goring, Lord. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of, the history of the rebellion and civil wars in England. The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution 1688, the Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639-1660
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Prince Rupert of the Rhine
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Rupert was a younger son of the German prince Frederick V, Elector Palatine and his wife Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of James I of England. Thus Rupert was the nephew of King Charles I of England, who made him Duke of Cumberland and Earl of Holderness, and his sister Electress Sophia was the mother of George I of Great Britain. Prince Rupert had a varied career and he was a soldier from a young age, fighting against Spain in the Netherlands during the Eighty Years War, and against the Holy Roman Emperor in Germany during the Thirty Years War. Aged 23, he was appointed commander of the Royalist cavalry during the English Civil War, becoming the archetypal Cavalier of the war and he surrendered after the fall of Bristol and was banished from England. He served under Louis XIV of France against Spain, and then as a Royalist privateer in the Caribbean, Rupert died in England in 1682, aged 62. Rupert is considered to have been a quick-thinking and energetic cavalry general, in the Interregnum, Rupert continued the conflict against Parliament by sea from the Mediterranean to the Caribbean, showing considerable persistence in the face of adversity. As the head of the Royal Navy in his years, he showed greater maturity and made impressive and long-lasting contributions to the Royal Navys doctrine. As a colonial governor, Rupert shaped the geography of modern Canada—Ruperts Land was named in his honour. He also played a role in the early African slave trade, Ruperts varied and numerous scientific and administrative interests combined with his considerable artistic skills made him one of the more colourful individuals of the Restoration period. Rupert was born in Prague in 1619, at the start of the Thirty Years War, to Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and Elizabeth Stuart and he was given his name in honour of King Rupert of Germany, a famous Wittelsbach ancestor. Ruperts father was a member of the Holy Roman Empire. This support was not forthcoming, resulting in a defeat at the hands of his Catholic enemies at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. Ruperts parents were mockingly termed the Winter King and Queen as a consequence of their reigns in Bohemia having lasted only a single season. Rupert was almost left behind in the rush to escape Ferdinands advance on Prague, until Kryštof z Donína. Rupert accompanied his parents to The Hague, where he spent his years at the Hof te Wassenaer. Ruperts mother paid her children little attention even by the standards of the day, apparently preferring her pet monkeys, the result was a strict school routine including logic, mathematics, writing, drawing, singing and playing instruments. As a child, Rupert was at times badly behaved, fiery, mischievous, nonetheless, Rupert proved to be an able student. By the age of three he could speak some English, Czech and French, and mastered German while still young and he excelled in art, being taught by Gerard van Honthorst, and found the maths and sciences easy
25.
Siege of Oxford
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The first engagement was in May 1644, during which King Charles I escaped, thus preventing a formal siege. The second, in May 1645, had started when Sir Thomas Fairfax was given orders to stop. The last siege began in May 1646 and was a siege of some three months, but the war was obviously over and negotiation, rather than fighting, took precedence. The creation of the Kings Oxford Parliament in January 1644 placed Oxford at the centre of the Cavalier cause and this had advantages and disadvantages for both parties, although the majority of citizens supported the Roundheads, supplying the Royalist court and garrison gave them financial opportunities. The location of Oxford gave the King the strategic advantage in controlling the Midland counties, despite this, any proposals to retreat to the southwest were silenced, particularly by those enjoying the comforts of university accommodation. The King was at Christ Church and the Queen at Merton, at New Inn Hall, the requisitioned college plate was melted down into Oxford Crowns, and at Carfax, there was a gibbet. University life continued, although somewhat restricted and disturbed, the future kings Charles II and James II were conferred Master of Arts degrees, as were many others for non-academic reasons. Throughout, both sides employed poor strategies and suffered from weak intelligence, and there was animosity between the sides than is usual in such wars. Late in May 1644 Edmund Ludlow joined Sir William Waller at Abingdon to blockade Oxford, according to Sir Edward Walkers diary, on 27 May Waller attempted to cross the Isis at Newbridge, but was defeated by Royalist dragoons. The following day, the Earl of Essex Robert Devereaux and his army forded the river at Sandford-on-Thames, halting on Bullingdon Green in full view of the city. Whilst the main army marched on to Islip to make quarters there, the Earl of Essex, the King, being at that time on the top of Magdalen Tower, had a clear view of the troops manoeuvres. Waller finally succeeded in forcing the passage at Newbridge on 2 June, the King went to Woodstock to hold council and in the late evening heard news that Waller had brought some 5,000 horse and foot through Newbridge, some of which were within three miles of Woodstock. Walker notes that there was not enough supplies to last fourteen days and it was decided the King should leave Oxford that night, the King ordered a large part of the army, with cannon, to march through the city towards Abingdon to act as a diversion. The King constituted a council to govern affairs in his absence, after a few hours the army returned from Abingdon, having successfully drawn off Waller. On the night of 3 June 1644 at about 9 p. m. m. on 4 June, the armys Colours had been left standing and a further diversion was arranged by the 3,500 infantry left with the cannon in North Oxford. The Earl of Essex and his troops had crossed the River Cherwell and had troops in Woodstock, while Waller. Although without heavy baggage, the King had some sixty to seventy carriages, the escape being discovered, Waller made haste in pursuit, taking some few stragglers in Burford who had regarded their drink more than their safety. The King and his forces, after assembling in the fields beyond Bourton, in the one course Oxford had been yielded up to them, having not a fortnights provisions, and no hopes of relief
26.
Bristol
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Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
27.
Appleby (UK Parliament constituency)
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Appleby was a parliamentary constituency in the former county of Westmorland in England. It existed for two periods, from 1295 to 1832, and from 1885 to 1918. Appleby was enfranchised as parliamentary borough in 1295, and abolished by the Great Reform Act of 1832 and it returned two Members of Parliament using the bloc vote system. Its best-known MP was William Pitt the Younger who became Prime Minister in 1783 at the age of 24, for the 1885 general election the Redistribution of Seats Act created a county constituency of the same name, which returned a single MP elected by the first-past-the-post system. The county constituency was abolished at the 1918 general election, the right to vote rested with the occupiers of around a hundred burgage tenements. The seats were kept for members of those families, but Applebys other representatives included William Pitt the younger. After abolition the borough was absorbed into the Westmorland county constituency, the Appleby constituency created for the 1885 election was, in full, The Appleby or Northern Division of Westmorland, and was sometimes referred to as Westmorland North. It consisted of the whole of the half of the county, including the towns of Ambleside, Grasmere. It was abolished at the 1918 general election, the whole county henceforth being united in a single Westmorland constituency, figures are those following a recount General Election 1914/15, Another General Election was required to take place before the end of 1915
28.
Putney Debates
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The Putney Debates were a series of discussions between members of the New Model Army – a number of the participants being Levellers – concerning the makeup of a new constitution for Britain. After seizing the City of London from Presbyterian opponents in August 1647, the debates began on 28 October 1647 at the Church of St. Mary the Virgin, but moved to the nearby lodgings of Thomas Grosvenor, Quartermaster General of Foot, the following day. The debates lasted until 11 November, earlier that summer Oliver Cromwell, Henry Ireton and other officers, known as the Grandees, attempted to negotiate a settlement with Charles I of England in the aftermath of the First Civil War. Their proposals, termed the Heads of Proposals, included provisions for social justice, a further feature of the Heads of Proposals was that the king would be restored before the issues of the soldiers indemnity and arrears were entrenched in law. This was contrary to the New Model Armys Declaration of 14 June 1647 and consequently the Heads of Proposals lost the support of the radical elements among the military. The New Model Army was the first army in history to have kind of democratic debate in its ranks. Sometime before October 1647, five of the most radical cavalry regiments elected new Agitators – known as the New Agents – to represent their views, the New Agents issued a political manifesto, The Case of the Armie Truly Stated. The fundamental ideas of the Case of the Armie would later be reflected in the constitutional proposals drafted in the Agreement of the People, the Putney Debates came about as a result of the publication of the Case of the Armie. The radicals wanted a constitution based upon manhood suffrage, biennial Parliaments, authority was to be vested in the House of Commons rather than the King and Lords. Certain native rights were declared sacrosanct for all Englishmen, freedom of conscience, freedom from impressment into the armed forces, commander-in-chief Fairfax was unwell and could not be present, so Cromwell sat in the chair. The New Agents accepted the meeting, sending Robert Everard and another New Agent from Col. Whalleys Regiment only identified as Bedfordshire Man, other members of the Army present were Colonel Thomas Rainsborough, his brother Major William Rainsborough, and the Agitators Edward Sexby and William Allen. The New Agents also brought John Wildman and Maximillian Petty, two civilian advisors who had been involved with Army affairs since at least July 1647, the debates opened on 28 October and were transcribed by secretary William Clarke and a team of stenographers. From 2 November however, all recording ceased, the debates were not reported and Clarkes minutes were not published at the time. They were lost until 1890 when they were rediscovered at the library of Worcester College, Oxford, Cromwell and Iretons main complaint about the Agreement was that it included terms for near universal male suffrage, which Ireton considered to be anarchy. Instead they suggested suffrage should be limited only to landholders, the Agitators, on the other hand, felt they deserved the rights in payment for their service during the war. This was reinforced on 11 November when King Charles escaped from Hampton Court Palace, Charles Is flight brought all debate to an end as the New Model Army were faced with a more immediate threat. The presentation itself was split from one mass meeting to three smaller ones and those regiments invited to the first meeting on 15 November agreed with the manifesto, but two regiments arrived uninvited and objected, sparking the Corkbush Field mutiny. Cromwell suppressed the mutiny and at the two meetings the other regiments agreed to the terms in the manifesto
29.
Levellers
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In contrast to the Diggers, the Levellers opposed common ownership, except in cases of mutual agreement of the property owners. The Levellers came to prominence at the end of the First English Civil War and were most influential before the start of the Second Civil War, Leveller views and support were found in the populace of the City of London and in some regiments in the New Model Army. The Levellers were not a party in the modern sense of the term. From July 1648 to September 1649, they published a newspaper, The Moderate and they identified themselves by sea-green ribbons worn on their clothing. After Prides Purge and the execution of Charles I, power lay in the hands of the Grandees in the Army, the Levellers, along with all other opposition groups, were marginalised by those in power and their influence waned. By 1650, they were no longer a threat to the established order. The term leveller had been used in 17th-century England as a term of abuse for rural rebels, in the Midland Revolt of 1607, the name was used to refer to those who levelled hedges in enclosure riots. As a political movement, the term first referred to a faction of New Model Army Agitators, but the term was gradually attached to John Lilburne, Richard Overton, and William Walwyn and their faction. Books published in 1647–1648 often reflect this terminological uncertainty, the public identification was largely due to the aspersions by Marchamont Needham, the author of the newspaper Mercurius Pragmaticus. Lilburne, John Wildman and Richard Baxter later thought that Oliver Cromwell, Lilburne considered the term pejorative and called his supporters Levellers so-called and preferred Agitators. The term suggested that the Levellers aimed to bring all down to the lowest common level, the leaders vehemently denied the charge of levelling, but adopted the name because it was how they were known to the majority of people. After their arrest and imprisonment in 1649, four of the Leveller leaders – Walwyn, Overton, Lilburne, the term was used in a letter of 1 November 1647. The 19th-century historian S. R. Gardiner suggested that it existed as a nickname before this date, blair Worden, the most recent historian to publish on the subject, concluded that the 1 November letter was the first recorded use of the term. Worden shows that the term first appeared in print in a book by Charles I called His Majesties Most Gracious Declaration and this tract was a printing of a letter that had been read in the House of Lords on 11 November 1647. Although George Thomason did not date this tract, the last date internal to the document was Saturday 13 November 1647, the Levellers agenda developed in tandem with growing dissent within the New Model Army in the wake of the First Civil War. Col. Lilburne, Walwyn, Overton and Prince appeared in May 1649 and it called for an extension of suffrage to include almost all the adult male population, electoral reform, biennial elections, religious freedom, and an end to imprisonment for debt. It would also have excluded women, most adult women married and, Levellers tended to hold fast to a notion of natural rights that had been violated by the Kings side in the Civil Wars. At the Putney Debates in 1647, Colonel Thomas Rainsborough defended natural rights as coming from the law of God expressed in the Bible, Richard Overton considered that liberty was an innate property of every person
30.
House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
31.
House of Commons of the United Kingdom
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The House of Commons of the United Kingdom is the lower house of the countrys parliament. Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. The House is a body consisting of 650 members known as Members of Parliament. Members are elected to represent constituencies by first-past-the-post and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved, under the Parliament Act 1911, the Lords power to reject legislation was reduced to a delaying power. The Government is primarily responsible to the House of Commons and the prime minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains the support of a majority of its members. Although it does not formally elect the prime minister, the position of the parties in the House of Commons is of overriding importance, by convention, the prime minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Since 1963, by convention, the minister is always a member of the House of Commons. The Commons may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a motion of confidence or by passing a motion of no confidence, confidence and no confidence motions are sometimes phrased explicitly, for instance, That this House has no confidence in Her Majestys Government. Many other motions were considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such, in particular, important bills that form a part of the Governments agenda were formerly considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. Parliament normally sits for a term of five years. Subject to that limit, the minister could formerly choose the timing of the dissolution of parliament. By this second mechanism, the government of the United Kingdom can change without a general election. In such circumstances there may not even have been a party leadership election, as the new leader may be chosen by acclaim. A prime minister may resign if he or she is not defeated at the polls. In such a case, the premiership goes to whoever can command a majority in the House of Commons, in practice this is usually the new leader of the outgoing prime ministers party. Until 1965, the Conservative Party had no mechanism for electing a new leader, when Anthony Eden resigned as PM in 1957 without recommending a successor and it fell to the Queen to appoint Harold Macmillan as the new prime minister, after taking the advice of ministers. By convention, all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or of the House of Lords, a handful have been appointed who were outside Parliament, but in most cases they then entered Parliament either in a by-election or by receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all ministers have been members of the Commons
32.
Constitutional monarchy
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A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
33.
Charles I of England
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Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
34.
Isle of Wight
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The Isle of Wight /ˈaɪl əv ˈwaɪt/ is a county and the largest and second-most populous island in England. It is located in the English Channel, about 4 miles off the coast of Hampshire, the island has resorts that have been holiday destinations since Victorian times, and is known for its mild climate, coastal scenery, and verdant landscape of fields, downland and chines. The island has been home to the poets Swinburne and Tennyson and to Queen Victoria and it has a maritime and industrial tradition including boat building, sail making, the manufacture of flying boats, the hovercraft, and Britains space rockets. The island hosts annual festivals including the Isle of Wight Festival. It has well-conserved wildlife and some of the richest cliffs and quarries for dinosaur fossils in Europe, the Isle was owned by a Norman family until 1293 and was earlier a kingdom in its own right. Rural for most of its history, its Victorian fashionability and the affordability of holidays led to significant urban development during the late 19th. The island was part of Hampshire until 1890 when it became its own administrative county, apart from a shared police force, there is now no administrative link with Hampshire, although a combined local authority with Portsmouth and Southampton is being considered. Until 1995 the island had a governor, the quickest public transport link to the mainland is the hovercraft from Ryde to Southsea, while three ferry and two catamaran services cross the Solent to Southampton, Lymington and Portsmouth. During the Ice Age, sea levels were lower and the Solent was part of a river flowing south east from current day Poole Harbour towards mid-Channel. As sea levels rose, the valley became flooded. The first inhabitants are assumed to have been hunter-gatherers migrating by land during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age period, as the ice age began to recede. From the Neolithic era onwards, there are indications that the island had wide trading links, with a port at Bouldnor, evidence of Bronze Age tin trading, caesar reported that the Belgae took the Isle of Wight in about 85 BC and gave its name as Vectis. The Roman historian Suetonius mentions that the island was captured by the commander Vespasian, the Romans built no towns or roads on the island, but the remains of at least seven Roman villas have been found, indicating the prosperity of local agriculture. During the Dark Ages the island was settled by Jutes as the kingdom of Wihtwara under King Arwald. In 685 it was invaded by Caedwalla, who tried to replace the inhabitants with his own followers and it suffered especially from Viking raids, and was often used as a winter base by Viking raiders when they were unable to reach Normandy. Later, both Earl Tostig and his brother Harold Godwinson held manors on the island, the Norman Conquest of 1066 created the position of Lord of the Isle of Wight, the island being given by William the Conqueror to his kinsman William FitzOsbern. Carisbrooke Priory and the fort of Carisbrooke Castle were then founded, allegiance was sworn to FitzOsbern rather than the king, the Lordship was subsequently granted to the de Redvers family by Henry I, after his succession in 1100. For nearly 200 years the island was a semi-independent feudal fiefdom, the final private owner was the Countess Isabella de Fortibus, who, on her deathbed in 1293, was persuaded to sell it to Edward I
35.
Thomas Fairfax
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Fairfax became unhappy with Cromwells policy and publicly refused to take part in Charless show trial. Eventually he resigned, leaving Cromwell to control the republic and his dark hair and eyes and a swarthy complexion earned him the nickname Black Tom. Thomas Fairfax was born at Denton Hall, halfway between Ilkley and Otley in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on 17 January 1612, the eldest son of Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron. He studied at St Johns College, Cambridge, and Grays Inn, in the Second Bishops War the following year the English army was routed at the Battle of Newburn. Fairfax fled with the rest of the army but was nevertheless knighted for his services in January 1641. His distant cousin was Sir Thomas Fairfax of Gilling Castle - the common ancestor of both Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge and her husband, Prince William and this was at a great meeting of the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire convened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles evaded receiving the petition, pressing his horse forward, but Fairfax followed him and placed the petition on the pommel of the kings saddle. When the civil war broke out in 1642, his father, Lord Fairfax, was appointed general of the Parliamentary forces in the north, both father and son distinguished themselves in the campaigns in Yorkshire. A gathering of national forces within a few square miles of ground naturally led to a battle. The younger Fairfax bore himself with the greatest gallantry in the battle, and though severely wounded managed to join Oliver Cromwell, one of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax, was killed in the action. But the Marquess of Newcastle fled the kingdom, and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their affairs, the city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north submitted to the Parliament. In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist cause was still strong, the war had lasted two years, and the nation began to complain of the contributions that were exacted, and the excesses that were committed by the military. Dissatisfaction was expressed with the commanders, and, as a preliminary step to reform. This involved the removal of the Earl of Essex from the supreme command and this was followed by the New Model Ordinance, which replaced the locally raised Parliamentary regiments with a unified army. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as the new general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. Fairfax besieged Leicester, and was successful at Taunton, Bridgwater, the whole west was soon reduced. Fairfax arrived in London on 12 November 1645, in his progress towards the capital he was accompanied by applauding crowds. Complimentary speeches and thanks were presented to him by both houses of parliament, along with a jewel of great value set with diamonds, in January 1647 he was delivered up by the Covenanters to the commissioners of Englands parliament
36.
Kent
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Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south west, the county also shares borders with Essex via the Dartford Crossing and the French department of Pas-de-Calais through the Channel Tunnel. France can be clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover. Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county, because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens, Kent is known as The Garden of England. The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place, behind North Yorkshire, Devon. Haulage, logistics, and tourism are industries, major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials, printing. Coal mining has played its part in Kents industrial heritage. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its transport connections to the capital. Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the North Downs and The High Weald, the area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era, There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning rim or border and this describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC, the extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730, the early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital, in 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity, the Diocese of Canterbury became Britains first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Englands centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral, in the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning undefeated. This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, the Kent peoples continued resistance against the Normans led to Kents designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of Williams half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales
37.
Essex
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Essex /ˈɛsᵻks/ is a county in England immediately north-east of London. It borders the counties of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire to the north, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent across the estuary of the River Thames to the south, the county town is Chelmsford, which is the only city in the county. Essex occupies the part of the old Kingdom of Essex, before this. As well as areas, the county also includes London Stansted Airport, the new towns of Basildon and Harlow, Lakeside Shopping Centre, the port of Tilbury. Originally recorded in AD527, Essex occupied territory to the north of the River Thames, incorporating all of what later became Middlesex and its territory was later restricted to lands east of the River Lea. In changes before the Norman conquest the East Saxons were subsumed into the Kingdom of England and, following the Norman conquest, Essex became a county. During the medieval period, much of the area was designated a Royal forest, including the county in a period to 1204. Gradually, the subject to forest law diminished, but at various times included the forests of Becontree, Chelmsford, Epping, Hatfield, Ongar. County-wide administration Essex County Council was formed in 1889, however County Boroughs of West Ham, Southend-on-Sea and East Ham formed part of the county but were unitary authorities. 12 boroughs and districts provide more localised services such as rubbish and recycling collections, leisure and planning, parish-level administration – changes A few Essex parishes have been transferred to other counties. Before 1889, small areas were transferred to Hertfordshire near Bishops Stortford, Essex became part of the East of England Government Office Region in 1994 and was statistically counted as part of that region from 1999, having previously been part of the South East England region. Two unitary authorities In 1998 the boroughs of Southend-on-Sea and Thurrock were granted autonomy from the county of Essex after successful requests to become unitary authorities. Essex Police covers the county and the two unitary authorities. The county council chamber and main headquarters is at the County Hall in Chelmsford, before 1938 the council regularly met in London near Moorgate, which with significant parts closer to that point and the dominance of railways had been more convenient than any place in the county. It currently has 75 elected councillors, before 1965, the number of councillors reached over 100. The highest point of the county of Essex is Chrishall Common near the village of Langley, close to the Hertfordshire border, the pattern of settlement in the county is diverse. Epping Forest also acts as a barrier to the further spread of London. Part of the southeast of the county, already containing the population centres of Basildon, Southend and Thurrock, is within the Thames Gateway
38.
Charles Lucas
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Sir Charles Lucas was an English soldier, a Royalist commander in the English Civil War. Lucas was a son of Sir Thomas Lucas of Colchester in Essex, by his wife Elizabeth Leighton, daughter of John Leighton of London. His elder brothers Sir John Lucas and Sir Thomas Lucas fought for the King and his younger sister Margaret Lucas, later Duchess of Newcastle, described her brothers youthful career in her autobiography. As a young man Lucas served as a soldier in the Netherlands under the command of his brother, at the outbreak of the Civil War, Lucas naturally took the kings side, and was wounded at the Battle of Powick Bridge, the first cavalry engagement. Early in 1643 Lucas raised a regiment of horse, with which he defeated Middleton at Padbury on 1 July. In January 1645 he commanded the forces attacking Nottingham, and soon afterwards, on the recommendation of Prince Rupert, he was made lieutenant-general of the Duke of Newcastles Northern army. When Newcastle was shut up in York, Lucas and the cavalry remained in the country. At the Battle of Marston Moor Lucas swept Fairfaxs Yorkshire horse before him, exchanged for Parliamentary prisoners during the winter, he defended Berkeley Castle, in Gloucestershire, for a short time against Thomas Rainsborough, but was soon back in the field. During the Second Civil War he broke this parole when he took a prominent part in the seizure of Colchester in 1648, following the three month Siege of Colchester, the town surrendered to Fairfax on 28 August 1648. When Colchester capitulated the superior officers were obliged to render themselves to mercy, Parliament by its votes of 20 June 1648 had declared all who took part in the new civil war guilty of high treason, and Henry Ireton used this argument to justify the sentence. I am no traitor, answered Lucas, but a subject to my king. I do plead before you all the laws of this kingdom, I have fought with a commission from those that were my sovereigns, and from that commission I must justify my action. By way of reparation, Lucas was awarded a peerage in 1666. Lucas was reputed to be one of the best cavalry leaders in the kings army, even Clarendon, who judges him with undue severity, describes him as very brave in his person, and in a day of battle a gallant man to look upon and follow. According to his sister, Lucas naturally had a genius to the warlike arts, as natural poets have to poetry. He left a Treatise of the Arts of War, but being written in cipher it was never published, to his military gifts Lucas added a devotion to the kings cause, which he sometimes expressed in singularly high-flown and poetical language. An inscribed stone obelisk in commemoration of Lucas and Lisle exists at Colchester Castle. Lucas and Lisle are celebrated in two poems, The Loyal Sacrifice, 8vo,1648, An Elegy on the Murder committed at Colchester upon Sir C. Lucas and Sir G. Lisle
39.
George Lisle
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Sir George Lisle was a Royalist leader in the English Civil War. Lisles execution without trial, following the siege of Colchester, came to be regarded as a miscarriage of justice. The known facts suggest that Lisle came from London and was related in some way to George Villiers and he gained military experience in the army of the Prince of Orange during the 1630s. He served under Prince Rupert in the Dutch Wars, and was a captain in Lord Grandisons Regiment during the Bishops War in Scotland, by 1644, Lisle had become a colonel. He was seriously wounded at the Battle of Naseby, and was knighted by King Charles I in December 1645, captured by the enemy following the siege of Colchester in 1648, he was taken out to be executed by firing squad, along with his friend Sir Charles Lucas. Lucas was first to face the squad and after long deliberations opened his shirt and encouraged, “Now rebels. Lisle was next, and having kissed his dead comrade invited the firing squad to come closer, the officer in charge exclaimed, “Sir, I warrant we will hit you”. Sir George smiled and replied, “I have been nearer to you, friend, after short prayers he rose from his knees, opened his shirt and he too invited the enemy to ‘do their worst’
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Colchester
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Colchester /ˈkoʊltʃɛstər/ is an historic large town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester in the county of Essex. As the oldest recorded Roman town in Britain, Colchester is claimed to be the oldest town in Britain and it was for a time the capital of Roman Britain, and is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network. Colchester is some 50 miles northeast of London and is connected to the capital by the A12 road and it is seen as a popular town for commuters, and is less than 30 miles away from Stansted Airport and 20 miles from the passenger ferry port of Harwich. Colchester is home to Colchester Castle and Colchester United Football Club and it has a Conservative Member of Parliament, Will Quince, who was elected in the 2015 General Election. The River Colne runs through the town and it is a widely held belief that the name Colchester is derived from the Latin words Colonia and Castra, meaning fortifications. The earliest forms of the name Colchester are Colenceaster and Colneceastre from the 10th century, in this way of interpreting the name, the River Colne which runs through the town takes its name from Colonia as well. Cologne also gained its name from a similar etymology, ekwall went as far as to say it has often been held that Colchester contains as first element colonia. This derivation is ruled out of court by the fact that Colne is the name of old villages situated a good many miles from Colchester. The identification of Colonia with Colchester is doubtful, from these deposits beneath the town have been found Palaeolithic flint tools, including at least six Acheulian handaxes. Further flint tools made by hunter gatherers living in the Colne Valley during the Mesolithic have been discovered and this included a pit found at Culver Street containing a ritually placed Neolithic grooved ware pot, as well as find spots containing later Deverel-Rimbury bucket urns. Before the Roman conquest of Britain it was already a centre of power for Cunobelin – known to Shakespeare as Cymbeline – king of the Catuvellauni, who minted coins there. Its Celtic name, Camulodunon, variously represented as CA, CAM, CAMV, CAMVL and CAMVLODVNO on the coins of Cunobelinus, during the 30s AD Camulodunon controlled a large swathe of Southern and Eastern Britain, with Cunobelin called King of the Britons by Roman writers. Camulodunon is considered one of possible sites around Britain for the legendary Camelot of King Arthur. Soon after the Roman conquest of Britain in AD43, a Roman legionary fortress was established, later, when the Roman frontier moved outwards and the twentieth legion had moved to the west, Camulodunum became a colonia named in a second-century inscription as Colonia Victricensis. This contained a large and elaborate Temple to the Divine Claudius, Colchester is home to two of the five Roman theatres found in Britain, the one at Gosbecks being the largest in Britain, able to seat 5,000. Camulodunum served as a provincial Roman capital of Britain, but was attacked and destroyed during Boudicas rebellion in AD61, sometime after the destruction, London became the capital of the province of Britannia. Colchesters town walls c.3,000 yd. long were built c. 65–80 A. D. when the Roman town was rebuilt after the Boudicca rebellion. In 2004, Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered the remains of a Roman Circus underneath the Garrison in Colchester, the Roman town of Camulodunum, officially known as Colonia Victricensis, reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD
41.
Hugh Peter
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Hugh Peter was an English preacher, political advisor and soldier who supported the Parliamentary cause during the English Civil War, and became highly influential. He employed a flamboyant preaching style that was considered effective in furthering the interests of the Puritan cause. From a radically Protestant family of Cornwall, England, though of part Dutch origin, Peters emigrated to a Puritan colony in America, after spending time in Holland, he returned to England and became a close associate and propagandist for Oliver Cromwell. Peters may have been the first to propose the trial and execution of Charles I and was believed to have assisted at the beheading. Peters unsuccessfully proposed revolutionary charges that would have disestablished the Church of Englands role in landholding, Peters was born to a father from Antwerp and was of an affluent background. Peters was baptized on 29 June 1598 in Fowey and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, having experienced conversion, he preached in Essex, returning to London, he took Anglican orders and was appointed lecturer at St Sepulchres. He entertained, however, Puritan opinions and eventually left England for Holland and he visited Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in Germany in about 1632 and, afterwards, became the minister of the English church at Rotterdam. Here, his Puritan leanings again attracted attention, and Peter made a move to New England. He was connected with John Winthrop through his wife, and had formed several friendships with the American colonists. He arrived at Boston in October 1635 and was given charge of the church at Salem and he played a significant role during the 1637 trial of Anne Hutchinson during the Antinomian Controversy, being one of the ministers wanting her banished from the colony. He took a part in the affairs of the colony. He was also active in the establishment of Harvard College, in 1641, Peters returned to England as agent of the colony, but soon became involved in the political troubles which now began. He became chaplain to the forces of the adventurers in Ireland, in September 1643 the Parliamentary Committee of Safety employed Peter on a mission to Holland, there to borrow money on behalf of Parliament, and to explain the justice of its cause to the Dutch. He was more valuable to the Parliamentary cause as a preacher than as a diplomat and he also became famous as an exhorter at the executions of state criminals, attended Richard Challoner on the scaffold, and improved the opportunity when Sir John Hotham was beheaded. But it was as a chaplain that Peter exerted the widest influence. This was the prelude to greater services of the same nature rendered to Sir Thomas Fairfax, as chaplain, Peters took a prominent part in the campaigns of that army during 1645 and 1646. After a victory he was effective in persuading the populace of the justice of the parliamentary arms. In addition to his duties as a chaplain, Peters exercised the functions of an agent of the general
42.
An Agreement of the People
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An Agreement of the People was a series of manifestos, published between 1647 and 1649, for constitutional changes to the English state. Several versions of the Agreement were published, each adapted to address not only broad concerns, the Agreements of the People have been most associated as the manifestos of the Levellers but were also published by the Agitators and the General Council of the New Model Army. Major published versions of the Agreement include, An Agreement of the People for a firme and present Peace, upon grounds of common right, presented to the Army Council in October 1647. AN AGREEMENT OF THE Free People of England, soon after the First English Civil War, the Agreement was the subject of the Putney Debates in 1647. The major tenets of this first version of the Agreement were, freedom of religion and these tenets also appeared in the later versions of the manifesto. The Agreement is believed to have greatly influence the development of the U. S. Constitution, English Commonwealth Instrument of Government Borgeaud, Charles, Hill, A. B. Hill, Mrs. Birkbeck. History of the Agreement of the People, the rise of modern democracy in old and New England. London, S. Sonnenschein & Co. pp. 45–76, — includes a timeline Cobbett, William, ed. A partition from the Army presented to the Commons inclosing An Agreement of the People, 1261–1277 An Agreement of the People
43.
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
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Cromwell invaded Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of Englands Rump Parliament in August 1649. Following the Irish Rebellion of 1641, most of Ireland came under the control of the Irish Catholic Confederation, in early 1649, the Confederates allied with the English Royalists, who had been defeated by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. By May 1652, Cromwells Parliamentarian army had defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland, however, guerrilla warfare continued for a further year. Cromwell passed a series of Penal Laws against Roman Catholics and confiscated large amounts of their land, the Parliamentarian reconquest of Ireland was brutal, and Cromwell is still a hated figure in Ireland. The extent to which Cromwell, who was in command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some historians argue that the actions of Cromwell were within the rules of war, or were exaggerated or distorted by later propagandists. The impact of the war on the Irish population was unquestionably severe, the war resulted in famine, which was worsened by an outbreak of bubonic plague. Estimates of the drop in the Irish population resulting from the Parliamentarian campaign range from 15 to 83 percent, the Parliamentarians also transported about 50,000 people as indentured labourers. The English Rump Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War, an alliance was signed in 1649 between the Irish Confederate Catholics, Charles II and the English Royalists. This allowed for Royalist troops to be sent to Ireland and put the Irish Confederate Catholic troops under the command of Royalist officers led by James Butler and their aim was to invade England and restore the monarchy there. This was a threat which the new English Commonwealth could not afford to ignore, even if the Confederates had not allied themselves with the Royalists, it is likely that the English Parliament would have eventually tried to reconquer Ireland. They had sent Parliamentary forces to Ireland throughout the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and they viewed Ireland as part of the territory governed by right by the Kingdom of England and only temporarily out of its control since the Irish Rebellion of 1641. In addition many Parliamentarians wished to punish the Irish for atrocities against English Protestant settlers during the 1641 Uprising, some Irish towns had acted as bases from which privateers had attacked English shipping during the 1640s. Parliament had raised loans of £10 million under the Adventurers Act to subdue Ireland since 1642, to repay these creditors, it would be necessary to conquer Ireland and confiscate such land. Army mutinies at Banbury and Bishopsgate in April and May 1649 were unsettling, Cromwell and many of his army were Puritans who considered all Roman Catholics to be heretics, and so for them the conquest was partly a crusade. The Irish Confederates had been supplied with arms and money by the Papacy and had welcomed the papal legate Pierfrancesco Scarampi and later the Papal Nuncio Giovanni Battista Rinuccini in 1643–49. By the end of the period, known as Confederate Ireland, in 1649 the only remaining Parliamentarian outpost in Ireland was in Dublin, under the command of Colonel Michael Jones. A combined Royalist and Confederate force under the Marquess of Ormonde gathered at Rathmines, south of Dublin, to take the city, Jones, however, launched a surprise attack on the Royalists while they were deploying on 2 August, putting them to flight
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Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
45.
John Cook (regicide)
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John Cook was the first Solicitor General of the English Commonwealth and led the prosecution of Charles I. Following the English Restoration, Cook was convicted of regicide and hanged, drawn, John Cook was the son of Leicestershire farmers Isaac and Elizabeth Cook whose farm was just outside Burbage. He was baptised on 18 September 1608 in the All Saints church in Husbands Bosworth and educated at Wadham College, Oxford, Cook and his wife Frances had a son and a daughter, Freelove, who was still a baby in 1660 when Cook was executed. Prior to his appointment as prosecutor, he had established a reputation as a radical lawyer, although he was not fundamentally anti-monarchist, he was forced to this stance when Charles refused to recognise the legality of the court or answer the charges of tyranny against him. Robertson writes that Cook bravely accepted his fate at the Restoration when many others compromised with the new regime, the idea of trying a king was a novel one, previous monarchs had been deposed, but had never been brought to trial as monarchs. The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 Commissioners, the trial of Charles I on charges of high treason and other high crimes began on 20 January 1649, but he refused to enter a plea, claiming that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch. When Cook began to read the indictment, Charles I twice tried to stop him by ordering him to Hold, Charles nodded to Cook to pick it up, but Cook stood his ground and after a long pause, Charles stooped to retrieve it himself. This is considered an important historical moment that was seen as symbolising the divine monarch bowing before human law, the memoirs of Edmund Ludlow give an account of Cooks trial and his public execution the next day. Secondly, that to bring about this conspiracy, he, with others, had assumed authority and power to accuse, kill and murder the King. Thirdly, that a person unknown did cut off the Kings head, thirdly, that he, who had neither been accuser, witness, jury, judge, or executioner could not be guilty of treason in this case. Thus, John Cook was tried and found guilty of treason for his part in the trial of Charles I. He was hanged, drawn and quartered with the radical preacher Hugh Peters, John and Freelove had three sons, but only one surviving – John Gunthorpe Junior, who died in Antigua in 1740, leaving issue. The journalist, historian and anti-Corn Law propagandist William Cooke Taylor claimed descent from Cook, firth, C. H. ed. Memoirs of Edmond Ludlow Lieutenant-General of the Horse in the Army of the Commonwealth of England, 1625–1672. Maume, Patrick, ed. Memoirs of Daniel OConnell, chapter 1, The Human Rights Story. Crimes Against Humanity, The Struggle for Global Justice, the Tyrannicide Brief, The story of the man who sent Charles I to the scaffold. Biography of Cook British Civil Wars website Audio from a talk on John Cooke by Geoffrey Robertson for Bristol Radical History Group
46.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ireton, Henry". Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 792.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the