1.
Punch (magazine)
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Punch, or The London Charivari was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire established in 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells. Historically, it was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s, after the 1940s, when its circulation peaked, it went into a long decline, closing in 1992. It was revived in 1996, but closed again in 2002, Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, on an initial investment of £25. It was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon and it was subtitled The London Charivari in homage to Charles Philipons French satirical humour magazine Le Charivari. Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became suggestor in chief until he severed his connection in 1845, the magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 Almanack issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842 due to difficulties the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens, Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the terms widespread use. The illustrator Archibald Henning designed the cover of the magazines first issues, the cover design varied in the early years, though Richard Doyle designed what became the magazines masthead in 1849. Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and this group became known as The Punch Brotherhood, which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week. In the 1860s and 1870s, conservative Punch faced competition from upstart liberal journal Fun, at Evanss café in London, the two journals had Round tables in competition with each other. Punch gave several phrases to the English language, including The Crystal Palace, several British humour classics were first serialised in Punch, such as the Diary of a Nobody and 1066 and All That. Towards the end of the century, the artistic roster included Harry Furniss, Linley Sambourne, Francis Carruthers Gould. Among the outstanding cartoonists of the century were Bernard Partridge, H. M. Bateman, Bernard Hollowood who also edited the magazine from 1957 to 1968, Kenneth Mahood. Circulation broke the 100,000 mark around 1910, and peaked in 1947–1948 at 175,000 to 184,000, sales declined steadily thereafter, ultimately, the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years of publication. Punch was widely emulated worldwide and popular in the colonies, however, the colonial experience, especially in India, also influenced Punch and its iconography. Tenniels Punch cartoons of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny led to a surge in the magazines popularity, colonial India was time and again caricatured in Punch and can be seen as a significant source for producing knowledge about India. Many Punch cartoonists of the late 20th century published collections of their own, Punch magazine ceased publishing in 1992
2.
Mark Lemon
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Mark Lemon was founding editor of both Punch and The Field. Lemon was born in London on 30 November 1809 and he was the son of Martin Lemon, a hop merchant, and Alice Collis. His parents married on 26 December 1808 at St Mary, Marylebone and his father having died in 1817, Lemon was just 15 when he was sent to live in Boston, Lincolnshire with his mothers brother Thomas Collis. Mark had a talent for journalism and the stage, and, at twenty-six. More than sixty of his melodramas, operettas and comedies were produced in London, whilst at the time he was contributing to a wide variety of magazines. He married Helen Romer, on 28 September 1839 in Kensington, London and had 8 children - sons Mark, Frank and Henry, Frank died shortly after he was born. Betty married Sir Robert Romer and their son was Mark Lemon Romer, the paper was for some time unsuccessful, Lemon keeping it alive out of the profits of his plays. On the sale of Punch, Lemon became sole editor for the new proprietors and it remained under his control until his death, achieving remarkable popularity and influence. Lemon was an actor of ability, a lecturer and a successful impersonator of Shakespearian characters. He played in the 1851 production of Not So Bad As We Seem and he also wrote a host of novelettes and lyrics, over a hundred songs, a few three-volume novels, several Christmas fairy tales and a volume of jests. He was a stalwart of the London Gentlemens club the Savage Club and he died in his adopted home town Crawley, West Sussex on 23 May 1870 and was buried in St Margarets Church, Ifield. A blue plaque commemorates him outside The George Hotel, Crawley, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Lemon, Mark. Works by Mark Lemon at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Mark Lemon at Internet Archive Works by Mark Lemon at LibriVox The Field magazine
3.
London Labour and the London Poor
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London Labour and the London Poor is a work of Victorian journalism by Henry Mayhew. In the 1840s he observed, documented, and described the state of working people in London for a series of articles in a newspaper, the Morning Chronicle, that were later compiled into book form. Mayhew went into deep, almost pedantic detail concerning the trades, habits, religion, much of the material comprises detailed interviews in which people candidly describe their lives and work. For instance, Jack Black talks about his job as rat and mole destroyer to Her Majesty, beyond this anecdotal material, Mayhews articles are particularly notable for attempting to justify numerical estimates with other information, such as census data and police statistics. The articles were collected and published in three volumes in 1851, London in the 1840s was more like a 21st-century Third World megalopolis than a 19th-century city. A significant portion of the population had no fixed place of work, in classic fashion, the city teemed with outsiders and migrants from other parts of Britain, even from other parts of Europe. Items of commerce, such as food, drink, textiles and household goods, were distributed by an army of carts, while goods were sold from storefronts, there were also thousands upon thousands of street-traders generally lumped together as costermongers. Mayhews perception as an observer is unsurpassed in early descriptions of Londons street scenes and his richly detailed descriptions are able to give an impression of what the street markets of his day were like. Here is a description by Mayhew, The pavement and the road are crowded with purchasers and street-sellers. The housewife in her shawl, with the market-basket on her arm, walks slowly on, stopping now to look at the stall of caps. Little boys, holding three or four onions in their hand, creep between the people, wriggling their way through every interstice, and asking for custom in whining tones, as if seeking charity. Then the tumult of the thousand different cries of the dealers, all shouting at the top of their voices, at one. “Chestnuts all‘ot, a penny a score, ” bawls another, “An ‘aypenny a skin, blacking, ” squeaks a boy. “Buy, buy, buy, buy, buy-- bu-u-uy. ”“Half-quire of paper for a penny, “Who‘ll buy a bonnet for fourpence. ”Three pair for a halfpenny, bootlaces. ”Beautiful whelks, a penny a lot. ”“Here‘s ha‘p‘orths, ” shouts the perambulating confectioner. “Come and look at ‘em. here‘s toasters. ”Bellows one with a Yarmouth bloater stuck on a toasting-fork, “Penny a lot, fine russets, ” calls the apple woman, and so the Babel goes on. The articles comprising London Labour and the London Poor were initially collected into three volumes in 1851. He wrote in one, I shall consider the whole of the metropolitan poor under three separate phases, according as they will work, they cant work, and they wont work. He described their clothes, how and where they lived, their entertainments and customs, the books make fascinating reading, showing how marginal and precarious many peoples lives were, in what, at that time, must have been the richest city in the world
4.
Westminster School
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Westminster School is an English independent day and boarding school located within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. It has the highest Oxford and Cambridge university acceptance rates of any school or college in the world. With origins before the 12th century, the tradition of Westminster probably dates back as far as AD960. Boys are admitted to the Under School at age seven and to the school at age thirteen. The school has around 750 pupils, around a quarter are boarders, most of whom go home at weekends and it is one of the original seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Charging up to £7,800 per term for day pupils and £11,264 for boarders in 2014/15, Westminster is the 13th most expensive HMC day school and 10th most expensive HMC boarding school in the UK. In 1540, Henry VIII ordered the dissolution of the monasteries in England, including that of the powerful Abbots of Westminster, the Royal College of St. Peter carried on with forty Kings Scholars financed from the royal purse. By this point Westminster School had certainly become a public school, during Mary Is brief reign the Abbey was reinstated as a Roman Catholic monastery, but the school continued. Elizabeth I refounded the School in 1560, with new statutes to select 40 Queens Scholars from boys who had attended the school for a year. Queen Elizabeth frequently visited her scholars, although she never signed the statutes nor endowed her scholarships, Elizabeth I appointed William Camden as headmaster, and he is the only layman known to have held the position until 1937. Regardless of politics, he thrashed Royalist and Puritan boys alike without fear or favour, Busby also took part in Oliver Cromwells funeral procession in 1658, when Robert Uvedale, a Westminster schoolboy, succeeded in snatching the Majesty Scutcheon draped on the coffin. Busby remained in office throughout the Civil War and the Commonwealth, when the school was governed by Parliamentary Commissioners, and well into the Restoration. In 1679, a group of scholars killed a bailiff, ostensibly in defence of the Abbeys traditional right of sanctuary, dr Busby obtained a royal pardon for his scholars from Charles II and added the cost to the school bills. Until the 19th century, the curriculum was made up of Latin and Greek. After the Public Schools Act 1868, in response to the Clarendon Commission on the financial and other malpractices at nine pre-eminent public schools, the school began to approach its modern form. It was legally separated from the Abbey, although the organisations remain close, there followed a scandalous public and parliamentary dispute lasting a further 25 years, to settle the transfer of the properties from the Canons of the Abbey to the School. School statutes have been made by Order in Council of Queen Elizabeth II, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford and the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge are ex officio members of the schools governing body. Westminster Under School was formed in 1943 in the school buildings in Westminster
5.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
6.
Midshipman
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A midshipman is an officer cadet or a commissioned officer candidate of the junior-most rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonwealth countries which use the rank include Canada, Australia, Bangladesh, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Kenya. Beginning in the 18th century, an officer candidate was rated as a midshipman. After serving at least three years as a midshipman or masters mate, he was eligible to take the examination for lieutenant, promotion to lieutenant was not automatic, and many midshipmen took positions as masters mates for an increase in pay and responsibility aboard ship. Midshipman began to mean an officer cadet at a naval college, trainees now spent around four years in a college and two years at sea prior to promotion to commissioned officer rank. Between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries, time at sea declined to less than a year as the age was increased from 12 to 18. Ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in other navies. Using US midshipman or pre-fleet board UK midshipman as the basis for comparison, using post-fleet board UK midshipman for comparison, the rank would be the most junior commissioned officer in the rank structure, and similar to a US ensign in role and responsibility. Today, these ranks all refer to cadets, but historically they were selected by the monarchy. The first published use of the term midshipman was in 1662, the word derives from an area aboard a ship, amidships, but it refers either to the location where midshipmen worked on the ship, or the location where midshipmen were berthed. By the 18th century, four types of midshipman existed, midshipman, midshipman extraordinary, midshipman, by 1794, all midshipmen were considered officer candidates, and the original rating was phased out. Beginning in 1661, boys who aspired to become officers were sent by their families to serve on ships with a letter of service from the crown, and were paid at the same rate as midshipmen. Their official rating was volunteer-per-order, but they were known as Kings letter boys. Beginning in 1677, Royal Navy regulations for promotion to lieutenant required service as a midshipman, by the Napoleonic era, the regulations required at least three years of services as a midshipman or masters mate and six years of total sea time. Sea time was earned in various ways, most boys served this period at sea in any lower rating, either as a servant of one of the ships officers, a volunteer, or a seaman. By the 1730s, the rating volunteer-per-order was phased out and replaced with a system where prospective midshipmen served as servants for officers. For example, a captain was allowed four servants for every 100 men aboard his ship, the school was unpopular in the Navy, because officers enjoyed the privilege of having servants and preferred the traditional method of training officers via apprenticeship. Volunteers were paid £6 per year, by 1816, the rating of midshipman ordinary was phased out, and all apprentice officers were rated as midshipmen
7.
Kolkata
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Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtɑː/ is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Areas economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai, in the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was enough to abolish Nizamat. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement, it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics, following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods and freestyle intellectual exchanges. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football, there are several explanations about the etymology of this name, The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô, meaning Field of Kali. Similarly, it can be a variation of Kalikshetra, alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila, or flat area. The name may have its origin in the words khal meaning canal, followed by kaṭa, according to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun and coir or kata, hence, it was called Kolikata. The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh,35 kilometres north of Kolkata, Kolkatas recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. The area occupied by the city encompassed three villages, Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a village, Sutanuti was a riverside weavers village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor and these rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698. In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and his warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked, he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A force of Company soldiers and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year, declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772. In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took control of the city
8.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
9.
Erwood
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Erwood is a village lying beside the River Wye, on the A470 road some 6 miles south-east of Builth Wells in Powys, Wales. The population of the community taken at the 2011 census was 429 and it is in the historic county of Brecknockshire and the older cantref of Cantref Selyf. The church of Saint Dubricius in Gwenddwr was extensively rebuilt in the Victorian period after a fire, in former times drovers would ford the Wye at Erwood on their journey towards the English Midlands and eventually London, where they would sell their livestock. Erwood is overlooked from across the Wye by the ancient hill-fort of Twyn y Garth, on its 325-metre-high summit is a German field howitzer, a trophy from World War I. The fact that it is pointing towards Erwood from the county of Radnorshire is part of a local running joke. At the southern end of the community, on the Nant Scithwen, is Trericket Mill where Roderick Murchison recorded in the 1830s that he had identified the first true Silurian, the name Erwood is of uncertain origin and is recorded in numerous forms over the centuries. It may derive from the rare cerwyd meaning stag with subsequent anglicization to -wood and it is known in Welsh as Erwyd which may be a cymricization of Erwood. The Erwood Community consists of the village, the two ancient parishes of Gwenddwr and Crickadarn, and the former Forestry Commission hamlet of Llaneglwys, the village is the centre of a flourishing branch of the Young Farmers Club. The village shop and post office no longer exists, and of the two one, The Erwood Inn, has recently changed to a private house offering bed. Until 1962 Erwood railway station, about 1 kilometre away, served the village
10.
Builth Wells
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It has a population of 2,568, or 2,994 including the neighbouring village of Llanelwedd in Radnorshire. Builth is an anglicization of the Welsh Buellt or Buallt and it derives from the Welsh words bu, meaning ox, and gellt, meaning pasture, rendering cow pasture. The town added Wells to the name in the 19th century when its springs were promoted as a visitor attraction, the Welsh name Llanfair-ym-Muallt means St Marys Church in Buallt. Builth first emerged in post-Roman times, probably on the side of the Irfon river from its present site at Dol Eglwys where a ruined early medieval church is thought to have stood. Early Post-Roman Builth was an independent kingdom, the most famous ruler was Elystan Glodrydd from whom many local gentry claimed descent. As an important component of Rhwng Gwy a Hafren, an entity referred to in the poems of Taliesin. Glodrydd probably lived at Llanafan Fawr rather than the site of Builth Wells. Until the foundation of the Norman town Llanfair ym Muallt the main settlement was Llanafan, stories about Philip de Braose centre on Llanafan not modern Builth. Ecclesiastically, the Deanery of Builth had always been part of St Davids and later Swansea and Brecon, the site of the town controls an important ford across the Wye and the crossing point of the main north-south route in Wales and an important south-west-east route. It was militarily and economically significant for centuries, the Welsh name for the town Llanfair ym Muallt refers to the foundation of a Norman church dedicated to St Mary. The churchyard is however, an oval which is strongly suggestive of an original Celtic foundation. The town was out as two streets connecting a castle and a church and was protected by a hedge rather than a wall. This type of town is called a Bastide, a kind of medieval market settlement. In exchange for rights to live and trade in the market of the new town skilled townspeople paid the lord various dues, in many parts of Wales the skilled workers were of Flemish or English origin. Despite repeated destructive fires, at one time involving a collection in London. It received major boosts from the development of roads, it was at the centre of early road networks. The railway allowed it to develop as a spa, and is known nationally as the location of the Royal Welsh Showground. The only remains of the castle are huge earthworks, Builth Castle was built under King Edward I, the construction taking nearly five years in the 1270s
11.
William Thackeray
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William Makepeace Thackeray was an English novelist of the 19th century. He is known for his works, particularly Vanity Fair. Thackeray, a child, was born in Calcutta, British India. His mother, Anne Becher, was the daughter of Harriet Becher and John Harman Becher. Richmond died in 1815, which caused Anne to send her son to England in 1816, the ship on which he travelled made a short stopover at St. Helena, where the imprisoned Napoleon was pointed out to him. Once in England he was educated at schools in Southampton and Chiswick, and then at Charterhouse School, Thackeray disliked Charterhouse, and parodied it in his fiction as Slaughterhouse. Nevertheless, Thackeray was honoured in the Charterhouse Chapel with a monument after his death, Thackeray then travelled for some time on the continent, visiting Paris and Weimar, where he met Goethe. He returned to England and began to study law at the Middle Temple and he also lost a good part of his fortune in the collapse of two Indian banks. The Thackerays had three children, all girls, Anne Isabella, Jane and Harriet Marian, who married Sir Leslie Stephen, editor, Thackeray now began writing for his life, as he put it, turning to journalism in an effort to support his young family. Between 1837 and 1840 he also reviewed books for The Times and he was also a regular contributor to The Morning Chronicle and The Foreign Quarterly Review. Later, through his connection to the illustrator John Leech, he began writing for the newly created magazine Punch, in which he published The Snob Papers and this work popularised the modern meaning of the word snob. Thackeray was a regular contributor to Punch between 1843 and 1854. Tragedy struck in Thackerays personal life as his wife, Isabella, succumbed to depression after the birth of their third child, in 1840. Finding that he could get no work done at home, he spent more and more time away until September 1840, struck by guilt, he set out with his wife to Ireland. During the crossing she threw herself from a water-closet into the sea and they fled back home after a four-week battle with her mother. From November 1840 to February 1842 Isabella was in and out of professional care and she eventually deteriorated into a permanent state of detachment from reality. Isabella outlived her husband by 30 years, in the end being cared for by a family named Thompson in Leigh-on-Sea at Southend until her death in 1894, after his wifes illness Thackeray became a de facto widower, never establishing another permanent relationship. He did pursue other women, however, in particular Mrs Jane Brookfield, in 1851 Mr Brookfield barred Thackeray from further visits to or correspondence with Jane. Baxter, an American twenty years Thackerays junior whom he met during a tour in New York City in 1852
12.
Douglas William Jerrold
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Douglas William Jerrold was an English dramatist and writer. Jerrolds father, Samuel Jerrold, was an actor and lessee of the theatre of Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent. In 1807 Douglas moved to Sheerness, where he spent his childhood and he occasionally took a child part on the stage, but his fathers profession held little attraction for him. In December 1813 he joined the guardship Namur, where he had Jane Austens brother Francis as captain and he saw nothing of the war save a number of wounded soldiers from Waterloo, but he retained an affection for the sea. Thus Jerrold became a professional journalist, Jerrolds figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed almost to deformity. His features were marked and expressive, from the thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes. He was brisk and active, with the careless bluffness of a sailor, open and sincere, he concealed neither his anger nor his pleasure, to his sailors frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful. The cynical side of his nature he kept for his writings, in politics Jerrold was a Liberal, and he gave eager sympathy to Lajos Kossuth, Giuseppe Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social politics especially he took a part, he never tired of declaiming against the horrors of war. Douglas Jerrold is now better known from his reputation as a brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As a dramatist he was popular, though his plays have not kept the stage. He dealt with rather humbler forms of world than had commonly been represented on the boards. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram and brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, in 1821, a comedy that Jerrold had written at the age of 14 was brought out at Sadlers Wells theatre under the title More Frightened than Hurt. Other plays followed, and in 1825 he was employed for a few pounds weekly to produce dramas, in the autumn of 1824, the little Shakespeare in a camlet cloak, as he was nicknamed, married Mary Swan and continued to work as both dramatist and journalist. For a short while he was proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829, through a quarrel with the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left for Coburg, in 1829, a three-act melodrama about corrupt personnel and press gangs of the Navy launched his fame. Black-Eyed Susan, or, All in the Downs, was out by manager Robert William Elliston at the Surrey Theatre. Its subject was very topical and its success was enormous and it took the town by storm, and all London crossed the river to see it
13.
Le Charivari
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Le Charivari was an illustrated magazine published in Paris, France, from 1832 to 1937. It published caricatures, political cartoons and reviews, after 1835, when the government banned political caricature, Le Charivari began publishing satires of everyday life. Le Charivari was started by caricaturist Charles Philipon and his brother-in-law Gabriel Aubert to reduce their risk of censorship fines. They also had published the satirical, anti-monarchist, illustrated newspaper La Caricature, in Le Charivari, they featured humorous content which was not so political. Ownership of the paper changed often due to issues with government censorship, Le Charivari published daily from 1832 to 1936, and then weekly until 1937. In 1841 English engraver, Ebenezer Landells, together with Henry Mayhew, used Le Charivari as the model to establish their Punch magazine, H. Daumier and His Lithographic Work. Honoré Daumier exhibition, Masterworks fine art, archived from the original on 15 June 2006, Daumier Drawings, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Le Charivari
14.
Puppet
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A puppet is an object, often resembling a human, animal or mythical figure, that is animated or manipulated by a person called a puppeteer. The puppeteer uses movements of her hands, arms, or control devices such as rods or strings to move the body, head, limbs, and in some cases the mouth and eyes of the puppet. The puppeteer often speaks in the voice of the character of the puppet, the actions, gestures and spoken parts acted out by the puppeteer with the puppet are typically used in storytelling. Puppetry is an ancient form of theatre which dates back to the 5th century BC in Ancient Greece. There are many different varieties of puppets, and they are made from a range of materials, depending on their form. They range from very simple in construction and operation to very complex, the sock puppet is a type of hand puppet, which is controlled using one hand that occupies the interior of the puppet and moves the puppet around. A live-hand puppet is similar to a puppet but is larger. A rod puppet is constructed around a central rod secured to the head, a shadow puppet is a cut-out figure held between a source of light and a translucent screen. Bunraku puppets are a type of Japanese wood-carved puppet, carnival puppets are large puppets, typically bigger than a human, designed to be part of a large spectacle or parade. Puppetry was practiced in Ancient Greece and the oldest written records of puppetry can be found in the works of Herodotus and Xenophon, aristotle discusses puppets in his work On the Motion of Animals. In India, puppetry was practiced from ancient times and is known by different names in different parts of the country, excavation of clay dolls from Indus valley sites serve as an indication. The art of puppetry called Bommalattam is mentioned in Tamil literature Silappadikaram, puppetry by its nature is a flexible and inventive medium and many puppet companies work with combinations of puppet forms and incorporate real objects into their performances. They might, for example, incorporate performing objects such as paper for snow. The puppeteers perform dressed in black against a background, with the background. The puppeteers manipulate the puppets under the light, while they position themselves unseen against the black unlit background, Puppets of many sizes and types may be used. The original concept of form of puppetry can be traced to Bunraku puppetry. Bunraku puppets are a type of wood-carved puppet originally made to stand out through torch illumination, Bunraku traditionally uses three puppeteers to operate a puppet that varies from 1/3 to 1/2 life size. Carnival puppets are designed to be part of a large spectacle
15.
Punch and Judy
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Punch and Judy is a traditional, popular, and usually very violent puppet show featuring Pulcinella and his wife Judy. The performance consists of a sequence of scenes, each depicting an interaction between two characters, most typically Mr. Punch and one other character. It is often associated with traditional British seaside culture, the various episodes of Punch and Judy are performed in the spirit of outrageous comedy — often provoking shocked laughter — and are dominated by the clowning of Mr. Punch. In Victorian times, the drum and pan pipes were the instruments of choice, today, the audience is also encouraged to participate, calling out to the characters on the stage to warn them of danger or clue them in to what is going on behind their backs. Also nowadays, most professors work solo, since the need for a bottler became less important when busking with the show gave way to paid engagements at private parties or public events, the Punch and Judy show has roots in the 16th-century Italian commedia dellarte. The figure of Punch is derived from the Neapolitan stock character of Pulcinella and he is a manifestation of the Lord of Misrule and Trickster figures of deep-rooted mythologies. Punchs wife was originally called Joan, no, I am gonna punch you. The figure who later became Mr. Punch made his first recorded appearance in England on 9 May 1662, the diarist Samuel Pepys observed a marionette show featuring an early version of the Punch character in Covent Garden in London. It was performed by Italian puppet showman Pietro Gimonde, a. k. a, Pepys described the event in his diary as an Italian puppet play, that is within the rails there, which is very pretty. In the British Punch and Judy show, Punch wears a brightly coloured jesters motley and he is a hunchback whose hooked nose almost meets his curved, jutting chin. He carries a stick as large as himself, which he freely uses upon most of the characters in the show. He speaks in a distinctive squawking voice, produced by a known as a swazzle or swatchel which the professor holds in his mouth. This gives Punch a vocal quality as though he were speaking through a kazoo, so important is Punchs signature sound that it is a matter of some controversy within Punch and Judy circles as to whether a non-swazzled show can be considered a true Punch and Judy Show. Other characters do not use the swazzle, so the Punchman has to switch back, powell has been credited with being largely responsible for the form taken by the drama of Punch and Judy. In 1721, a theatre opened in Dublin that ran for decades. Fielding eventually ran his own puppet theatre under the pseudonym Madame de la Nash to avoid the censorship concomitant with the Theatre Licensing Act of 1737. Punch was extremely popular in Paris and, by the end of the 18th century, he was playing in Britains American colonies. These shows might travel through country towns or move from corner to corner along busy London streets, about this time, Punchs wifes name changed from Joan to Judy
16.
Daguerreotypes
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Daguerreotype process, or daguerreotypy, was the first publicly available photographic process, and for nearly twenty years it was the one most commonly used. During the past few decades, there has been a revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver, lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture, the surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal, the name daguerreotype correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. Since the Renaissance era, artists and inventors had searched for a method of capturing visual scenes. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in art from China, Japan. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Daguerre met with Niépce, Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved,15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin,34 - a camera obscura,74 - sulphuric acid. Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography, Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was named the physautotype. Niépces early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, the asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépces experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt, after Niépces death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. It would bear Daguerres name alone and this was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Everyone says it is superb, but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre
17.
Bankruptcy
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Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay the debts it owes to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, in the United States, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word banqueroute is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, in Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into debt slavery, until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years, debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime. An exception to rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt, as a consequence. The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency, Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times, a failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1575 and 1596, at the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well. For private households, it is argued to be insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period and it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation, in the United States, discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system, the Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. It is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy, unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is encouraged to do so under Chapter 13. In order to avoid bankruptcy, one could negotiate with the lender to lower monthly payments, student loan bankruptcy is considered a last resort. However, some find themselves being forced to file bankruptcy, as the lender refused to lower payments
18.
The Illustrated London News
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The Illustrated London News appeared first on Saturday 14 May 1842, as the worlds first illustrated weekly news magazine. Founded by Herbert Ingram, it appeared weekly until 1971, then less frequently thereafter, the company continues today as Illustrated London News Ltd, a publishing, content and digital agency in London, which holds the publication and business archives of the magazine. As a newsagent, Ingram was struck by the increase in newspaper sales when they featured pictures. Ingram began to plan a weekly newspaper that would contain pictures in every edition, Ingram rented an office, recruited artists and reporters, and employed as his editor Frederick William Naylor Bayley, formerly editor of the National Omnibus. The first issue of The Illustrated London News appeared on Saturday,14 May 1842, Ingram hired 200 men to carry placards through the streets of London promoting the first edition of his new newspaper. Costing sixpence, the first issue sold 26,000 copies, despite this initial success, sales of the second and subsequent editions were disappointing. Its circulation soon increased to 40,000 and by the end of its first year was 60,000, in 1851, after the newspaper published Joseph Paxtons designs for the Crystal Palace before even Prince Albert had seen them, the circulation rose to 130,000. Andrew Spottiswoodes Pictorial Times lost £20,000 before it was sold to Ingram by Henry Vizetelly, Ingram folded it into another purchase, The Ladys Newspaper, which became The Ladys Newspaper and Pictorial Times. Vitezelly was also behind a competitor, The Illustrated Times in 1855. Ingrams other early collaborators left the business in the 1850s, nathanial Cooke, his business partner and brother-in-law, found himself in a subordinate role in the business and parted on bad terms around 1854. 1858 saw the departure of William Little, who, in addition to providing a loan of £10,000, was printer and publisher of the paper for 15 years, littles relationship with Ingram deteriorated over Ingrams harassment of their mutual sister-in-law. By 1863, The Illustrated London News was selling more than 300,000 copies every week, the death of Herbert and his eldest son left the company without a director and manager. Control passed to Ingrams widow Ann, and his friend Sir Edward William Watkin, once Ingrams two younger sons, William and Charles, were old enough, they took over as managing directors, although it was William who took the lead. It was also a period of expansion and increased competition for the ILN, as reading habits and the illustrated news market changed, the ILN bought or established a number of new publications, evolving from a single newspaper to a larger-scale publishing business. As with Herbert Ingrams purchases in the 1850s, this expansion was also a way of managing competition, dominating markets. As too with the acquisitions of the 1850s, several similar illustrated publications were established in this period by former employees of The Illustrated London News. Serious competition for the ILN appeared in 1869, with the establishment of The Graphic, Thomas was a former wood engraver for The Illustrated London News, and brought his expertise in illustrated publishing to his new magazine. The Graphic was highly popular, particularly for its coverage of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, William Ingram became chief proprietor of The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, and The Ladys Pictorial, which may have been a later title of The Ladys Newspaper and Pictorial Times
19.
Andrew Halliday (journalist)
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Andrew Halliday was a Scottish journalist and dramatist. Halliday was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1849 he went to London and his first engagement was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the Cornhill Magazine. From 1861 he contributed largely to All the Year Round, and he was also the author, alone and with others, of a great number of farces, burlesques and melodramas and a peculiarly successful adapter of popular novels for the stage. Of these Little Emly, his adaptation of David Copperfield, was approved by Dickens himself. Andrew was educated at the Marischal College and the University of Aberdeen, on coming to London in 1849 he was for some time connected with the Morning Chronicle, the Leader, the Peoples Journal, and other periodicals. He soon became known as a writer, and discarded the name of Duff, in 1851 he wrote the article Beggars in Henry Mayhews London Labour and the London Poor. He wrote for the Cornhill Magazine, and was a constant contributor to All the Year Round, to the latter periodical he furnished a series of essays from 1861 onwards, which were afterwards collected into volumes entitled Everyday Papers, Sunnyside Papers, and Town and Country. His article in All the Year Round called My Account with Her Majesty was reprinted by order of the postmaster-general, in partnership with William Brough he then wrote the Pretty Horsebreaker, the Census, the Area Belle, and several other farces. In domestic drama he was the author of Daddy Gray, the Loving Cup, Checkmate, and Loves Dream, pieces produced with much success by Miss Oliver at the Royalty Theatre. The Great City, a put on the stage at Drury Lane on 22 April 1867, although not remarkable for the plot or dialogue, hit the public taste. The opening piece at the new Vaudeville Theatre, London,16 April 1870 and he also was the writer of a series of dramas adapted from the works of well-known authors. After visiting Australia James Robertson Anderson appeared in 1874 at Drury Lane as Richard I in Hallidays adaption of Sir Walter Scotts novel The Talisman and he possessed a remarkable talent for bringing out the salient points of a novel, and his adaptations were successful where others failed. Charles Dickens warmly praised the construction of Little Emly, from 1873 Halliday suffered from softening of the brain. He died at 74 St. Augustines Road, Camden Town, London,10 April 1877 and his works include The Adventures of Mr. Wilderspin in his Journey through Life,1860. The Great City, a novel,1867, the Savage Club Papers,1867 and 1868, edited by A. Halliday,2 vols. Shakespeares tragedy of Antony and Cleopatra, arranged by A. Halliday,1873, in Lacys Acting Edition of Plays, the following pieces were printed, in vol. xliii. Romeo and Juliet travestie, and in vol. lxxxv, the farces by William Brough and A. Halliday were, In vol. l. the Census, in vol. li. the Pretty Horsebreaker, in vol. lv. A Shilling Day at the Great Exhibition and the Colleen Bawn settled at last and my Hearts in the Highlands, in vol. lxii. the Area Belle, in vol. lxiii
20.
Sweatshop
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Sweatshop is a pejorative term for a workplace that has poor, socially unacceptable working conditions. The work may be difficult, dangerous, or underpaid, Workers in sweatshops may work long hours with low pay, regardless of laws mandating overtime pay or a minimum wage, child labor laws may also be violated. A sweatshop is a factory or workshop, especially in the clothing industry, the workplaces created for the sweating system, a system of subcontracting in the tailoring trade were called sweatshops and might contain only a few workers or as many as 100 and more. In the 1890s, a group calling itself the National Anti-Sweating League was formed in Melbourne, a group with the same name campaigned from 1906 in the UK, resulting in the Trade Boards Act 1909. In 1910, the International Ladies Garment Workers Union was founded to try to improve the condition of these workers, criticism of garment sweatshops became a major force behind workplace safety regulation and labor laws. As some journalists strove to change working conditions, the term came to refer to a broader set of workplaces whose conditions were considered inferior. In the United States, investigative journalists, known as muckrakers, wrote exposés of business practices, notable exposés of sweatshop conditions include Jacob Riis photo documentary How the Other Half Lives and Upton Sinclairs book, The Jungle, about the meat packing industry. In 1911, negative perceptions of sweatshops were galvanized by the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire in New York City. The pivotal role of time and place is chronicled at the Lower East Side Tenement Museum. This recent definition eliminates any historical distinction about the role of a middleman or the items produced, sometimes penal labor facilities are grouped under the sweatshop label. Sweatshops conditions resemble prison labor in many cases, especially from a commonly found Western perspective, in 2014 Apple was caught failing to protect its workers in one of its Pegatron factories. Overwhelmed workers were caught falling asleep during their 12-hour shifts and a reporter had to work 18 days in a row. Sweatshops in question carry characteristics such as pregnancy tests for female laborers. Workers then go into a state of forced labor, if one day of work is not accounted for. These working conditions have been the source of suicidal unrest within factories in the past, chinese sweatshops known to have increased numbers of suicidal employees have suicide nets covering the whole site, in place to stop over-worked and stressed employees leaping to their deaths. Sweatshops have proved an issue to resolve because their roots lie in the conceptual foundations of the world economy. Developing countries like India, China, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Honduras encourage the outsourcing of work from the world to provide work for their people. Outsourced work can, at times, bring some form of wealth to impoverished countries, regardless of Western labor concerns, people living in poor conditions prefer low wages to none at all
21.
Mudlark
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A mudlark is someone who scavenges in river mud for items of value, a term used especially to describe those who scavenged this way in London during the late 18th and 19th centuries. Mudlarks would search the shores of the River Thames at low tide for anything that could be sold, and sometimes. By at least the late 18th century people dwelling near the river could scrape a living this way. Mudlarks were usually either youngsters aged eight and fifteen, or the robust elderly, and though most mudlarks were male, girls. Becoming a mudlark was usually a choice dictated by poverty and lack of skills, work conditions were filthy and uncomfortable, as excrement and waste would wash onto the shores from the raw sewage and sometimes also the corpses of humans, cats and dogs. Mudlarks would often get cuts from broken glass left on the shore, although in 1904 a person could still claim mudlark as his occupation, it seems to have been no longer viewed as an acceptable or lawful pursuit. More recently, metal-detectorists searching the foreshore for historic artefacts have described themselves as mudlarks, the word was used in the late 18th century as a slang expression for a pig. Poor Jack, novel by Frederick Marryat,1842, in his novel Marryat, who was himself a seaman before he turned to writing, vividly describes the unlikely rise of a fictional mudlark, Thomas Saunders, to the position of river pilot. The book contains many scenes descriptive of the typical mudlarks life, a mudlark is also a term, used in Sussex dialect for a fisherman from Rye. The Copper Treasure - a 1998 book for teenagers by Melvin Burgess describing three 19th century mudlarks and their struggle to successfully transport a roll of stolen copper. The Mudlark – a 1950 British film about a street boy whose contact with Queen Victoria plays a part in bringing her back to public life after her lengthy mourning for Prince Albert. In Neal Stephensons The Baroque Cycle, one of the characters, Jack Shaftoe. Mudlark by John Sedden is a set in Portsmouth in the First World War in which two mudlarks find a human skull in the mud of Portsmouth Harbour, beginning a chain of tragi-comic events. The television show Mud Men follows Johnny Vaughan as he teams up with Steve Brooker to go mudlarking along the Thames foreshore, the Faerie Ring, a book by Kiki Hamilton also makes a few references to mudlarks. Mudlarks, a 2014 PC mystery/paranormal adventure game by Cloak and Dagger Games, features mudlarks, the term mudlark is used in the 2012 video-game Dishonored by several NPCs, which reflects the games Victorian-inspired tableaux & setting
22.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
23.
Tanning (leather)
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Tanning is the process of treating skins and hides of animals to produce leather. A tannery is the place where the skins are processed, Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to decomposition, and also possibly coloring it. Before tanning, the skins are unhaired, degreased, desalted and soaked in water over a period of 6 hours to 2 days, historically this process was considered a noxious or odoriferous trade and relegated to the outskirts of town. Traditionally, tanning used tannin, a chemical compound from which the tanning process draws its name. The use of a solution was adopted by tanners in the Industrial Revolution. The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin tannāre, deriv. of tannum and this refers to use of the bark of oaks in some kinds of hide preservation. Ancient civilizations used leather for waterskins, bags, harnesses and tack, boats, armour, quivers, scabbards, boots, Tanning was being carried out by the inhabitants of Mehrgarh in India between 7000 and 3300 BC. Around 2500 BC, the Sumerians began using leather, affixed by copper studs, formerly, tanning was considered a noxious or odoriferous trade and relegated to the outskirts of town, amongst the poor. Indeed, tanning by ancient methods is so foul smelling, tanneries are still isolated from those towns today where the old methods are used, Skins typically arrived at the tannery dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient tanners would soak the skins in water to clean, then they would pound and scour the skin to remove any remaining flesh and fat. Next, the tanner needed to remove the hair from the skin and this was done by either soaking the skin in urine, painting it with an alkaline lime mixture, or simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in a salt solution. After the hairs were loosened, the tanners scraped them off with a knife, once the hair was removed, the tanners would bate the material by pounding dung into the skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating was a process which relied on enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were those of dogs or pigeons, sometimes, the dung was mixed with water in a large vat, and the prepared skins were kneaded in the dung water until they became supple from bacterial enzyme action, but not too soft. The ancient tanner might use his feet to knead the skins in the dung water. This combination of urine, animal feces, and decaying flesh made ancient tanneries malodorous, children employed as dung gatherers were a common sight in ancient cities. Also common were piss-pots located on street corners, where human urine could be collected for use in tanneries or by washerwomen, historically the actual tanning process used vegetable tanning. In some variations of the process, cedar oil, alum, as the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the agent
24.
Paper quire
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Various measures of paper quantity have been and are in use. Although there are no S. I. units such as quires and bales, there are ISO, the usual meaning is 25 sheets of the same size and quality, 1⁄20 of a ream of 500 sheets. Quires of 25 sheets are used for machine-made paper, while quires of 24 sheets are often used for handmade or specialised paper of 480-sheet reams. Quires of 15,18 or 20 sheets have also been used, the current word quire derives from OE quair or guaer, from OF quayer, cayer, from L. quaternum, by fours, fourfold. Later, when bookmaking switched to using paper and it possible to easily stitch 5 to 7 sheets at a time. In the Middle Ages, a quire was most often formed of 4 folded sheets of vellum or parchment, the term quaternion designates such a quire. A quire made of a folded sheet is a bifolium. This last meaning is preserved in the modern Italian term for quire, formerly, when paper was packed at the paper mill, the top and bottom quires were made up of slightly damaged sheets to protect the good quires. These outside quires were known as cassie quires, or cording quires and had only 20 sheets to the quire. The printer William Caslon in a book published in 1770 mentions both 24- and 25-sheet quires, he also details printers wastage, and the sorting and recycling of damaged cassie quires. An 1826 French manual on typography complained that cording quires from the Netherlands barely contained a single good sheet and it also became the name for any booklet small enough to be made from a single quire of paper. Simon Winchester, in The Surgeon of Crowthorne, cites a specific number, several European words for quire keep the meaning of book of paper, Ger. In blankbook binding, quire is a term indicating 80 pages, a ream of paper is a quantity of sheets of the same size and quality. International standards organizations define the ream as 500 identical sheets and this ream of 500 sheets is also known as a long ream, and is gradually replacing the old value of 480 sheets, now known as a short ream. Reams of 472 and 516 sheets are still current, but in retail outlets paper is sold in reams of 500. As an old UK and US unit, a ream was equal to 516 sheets. Certain types of specialist papers such as paper, greaseproof paper, handmade paper. However, the use of the word ream for quantities of paper other than 500 is now deprecated by such standards as ISO4046
25.
Gladys in Grammarland
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Gladys in Grammarland is a novel by Audrey Mayhew Allen, written ca.1897 and published by the Roxburghe Press of Westminster. It is an imitation of Lewis Carrolls book Alices Adventures in Wonderland. In this story, Gladys becomes sleepy after class and finds that a Verb Fairy has taken an interest in her education and she is tried at court and for using bad grammar, and imprisoned, where she studies some grammar. At length she is released and tried to mediate a dispute between King Proper Noun and King Common Noun, Gladys in Grammarland is one of a class of books called a didactic imitation by Carolyn Sigler. Audrey Mayhew Allen was born in 1870, and so was about 27 years of age when she wrote Gladys in Grammarland. She was the granddaughter of Henry Mayhew, one of the two founders of the satirical and humorous magazine Punch, and of Douglas William Jerrold, a dramatist, the book features a number of line-drawings by an artist credited as Claudine. Allen, Audrey Mayhew Gladys in Grammarland
26.
Works based on Alice in Wonderland
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1890 – The Nursery Alice by the author himself, a short version of the story written for little children. 1895 – A New Alice in the Old Wonderland, a novel by Anna M. Richards in which a different Alice, Alice Lee, travels to Wonderland and meets many of the characters of Carrolls books as well as others. C1897 – Gladys in Grammarland, a parody by Audrey Mayhew Allen illustrated by Henry Clarence Pitz in which a recalcitrant schoolgirl meets many grammar Imps which help to educate her. 1902 – The Westminster Alice, a parody by Saki illustrated by Francis Carruthers Gould critical of the Second Boer War in which Alice meets many British politicians of the time. 1902 – Clara in Blunderland, a parody by Caroline Lewis critical of the Second Boer War in which Clara represents Leader of the House of Commons Arthur Balfour,1903 – Lost in Blunderland, a sequel to Clara in Blunderland criticizing Arthur Balfour after he was made Prime Minister. 1907 – Alice in Blunderland, An Iridescent Dream, a parody by American humourist John Kendrick Bangs making fun of big business and big government. 1917 - New Adventures of Alice by artist John Rae, in which a girl called Betsey dreams in bed about finding a new Alice book she had longed for since she read the first two and from there. The story follows Alice as she goes on another deep sleep adventure encountering characters,1923 – Alice in Grammarland, a play by Louise Franklin Bache and illustrated by Claudine, in which Alice attends a courtroom scene in Grammarland where questions of grammar are discussed. 1925 - Alice in Orchestralia by Ernest La Prade has another girl named Alice meeting animated musical instruments, a second edition was issued in 1934 under the title Alice in Orchestra-Land. 1928 - Alices Adventures in China by Chinese writer Shen Congwen,1929 - Marching Notes by Ernest La Prade. A sequel to Alice in Orchestralia in which another girl named Alice learns about music theory, a second British edition was issued in 1952 under the title Alice in Music Land. 1959 - More Alice by Yates Wilson, whose young daughter begged him for more Alice stories. Alice is ill in bed, and in a half dream shrinks to the size of an insect and makes a tour of her bedroom. 1984 – Alice Through the Needles Eye by Gilbert Adair, a sequel to Carrolls Alice books,1985 – Alices Last Adventure, a short story by Thomas Ligotti, is a present-day horror tale using Carroll-derived imagery. 1996 – Automated Alice by Jeff Noon, in this illustrated novella, Alice enters a grandfather clock and emerges in future Manchester, which has many bizarre denizens including an invisible cat named Quark and Celia, the Automated Alice. 1997 – Złote popołudnie, a story by Andrzej Sapkowski. 1998 – Otherland by Tad Williams, a fiction series heavily influenced by Alice. There are sections involving a Red Queen, the concept from Looking Glass
27.
Lewis Carroll
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Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English writer, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon, and photographer. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life. Dodgsons family was predominantly northern English, with Irish connections, conservative, most of Dodgsons male ancestors were army officers or Church of England clergy. His great-grandfather, also named Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become the Bishop of Elphin. His paternal grandfather, another Charles, had been an army captain, the older of these sons – yet another Charles Dodgson – was Carrolls father. He went to Westminster School and then to Christ Church, Oxford and he reverted to the other family tradition and took holy orders. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career, instead, he married his first cousin Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1830 and became a country parson. Dodgson was born in the parsonage at Daresbury in Cheshire near the towns of Warrington and Runcorn. When Charles was 11, his father was given the living of Croft-on-Tees in North Yorkshire, and this remained their home for the next 25 years. He was High Church, inclining to Anglo-Catholicism, an admirer of John Henry Newman and the Tractarian movement, Young Charles was to develop an ambiguous relationship with his fathers values and with the Church of England as a whole. During his early youth, Dodgson was educated at home and his reading lists preserved in the family archives testify to a precocious intellect, at the age of seven, he was reading books such as The Pilgrims Progress. He also suffered from a stammer – a condition shared by most of his siblings – that often influenced his life throughout his years. At the age of twelve, he was sent to Richmond Grammar School at nearby Richmond, in 1846, Dodgson entered Rugby School where he was evidently unhappy, as he wrote some years after leaving, I cannot say. That any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again, I can honestly say that if I could have been. Secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear, scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. I have not had a promising boy at his age since I came to Rugby. He left Rugby at the end of 1849 and matriculated at Oxford in May 1850 as a member of his fathers old college, after waiting for rooms in college to become available, he went into residence in January 1851. He had been at Oxford only two days when he received a summons home and his mother had died of inflammation of the brain – perhaps meningitis or a stroke – at the age of 47
28.
Christian Socialists
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Christian socialism is a form of religious socialism based on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Many Christian socialists believe capitalism to be idolatrous and rooted in greed, Christian socialists identify the cause of inequality to be the greed that they associate with capitalism. Christian socialism became a movement in the United Kingdom beginning in the 1960s through the Christian Socialist Movement. Elements that would form the basis of Christian socialism are found in the Old, the Old Testament had divided perspectives on the issue of poverty. However, there are sections that instruct generosity to the have nots of society. Rescue the weak and the needy, deliver them from the hand of the wicked Blessed is the man who fears the Lord, many have come to ruin because of gold, and their destruction has met them face to face. Matthew 25, 31–46 is a component of Christianity and is considered the cornerstone of Christian socialism. And in the Parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus gives the revolutionary response that the neighbour includes anyone in need, in the Sermon on the Plain, Jesus says, Blessed are you poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. Blessed are you that hunger now, for you shall be satisfied and your riches have rotted and your garments are moth-eaten. Your gold and silver have rusted, and their rust will be evidence against you and you have laid up for treasure for the last days. Behold, the wages of the labourers who mowed your fields, which you have kept back by fraud, cry out, during the great famine of 368, Basil denounced against profiteers and the indifferent rich. Basil wrote the sermon on The Rich Fool in which he states, one for whom plenty is not enough. One who takes away what belongs to everyone, and are not you covetous, are you not a defrauder, when you keep for private use what you were given for distribution. When some one strips a man of his clothes we call him a thief, and one who might clothe the naked and does not—should not he be given the same name. The bread in your hoard belongs to the hungry, the cloak in your wardrobe belongs to the naked, the shoes you let rot belong to the barefoot, yes, because the rich are continually attacking the poor. But those I attack are not the rich as such, only those who misuse their wealth, I point out constantly that those I accuse are not the rich, but the rapacious, wealth is one thing, covetousness another. A variety of socialist perspectives emerged in 19th century Britain, beginning with John Ruskin, the influential Victorian art critic John Ruskin expounded theories about social justice in Unto This Last. In it, he stated four goals that might be called socialist although Ruskin did not use the term and his only real contact with the Christian Socialists came through the Working Mens College
29.
Thomas Hughes
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Thomas Hughes QC was an English lawyer, judge, politician and author. He is most famous for his novel Tom Browns School Days, a work set at Rugby School. It had a sequel, Tom Brown at Oxford. Hughes had numerous interests, in particular as a Member of Parliament, in the British co-operative movement. Hughes was the son of John Hughes, editor of the Boscobel Tracts and was born in Uffington. He had six brothers, and one sister, Jane Senior who later became Britains first female civil servant, at the age of eight he was sent to Twyford School, a preparatory public school near Winchester, where he remained until the age of eleven. In February 1834 he went to Rugby School, which was then under the celebrated Thomas Arnold, Hughes excelled at sports rather than in scholarship, and his school career culminated in a cricket match at Lords Cricket Ground. In 1842 he went on to Oriel College, and graduated B. A. in 1845. At Oxford, he played cricket for the university team in the annual University Match against Cambridge University, also at Lords, Hughes was called to the bar in 1848, became Queens Counsel in 1869 and a bencher in 1870. He was appointed to a county judgeship in the Chester district in July 1882. A committed social reformer, Hughes became involved in the Christian socialism movement led by Frederick Maurice, in January 1854 he was one of the founders of the Working Mens College in Great Ormond Street, and was the Colleges principal from 1872 to 1883. Hughes gave evidence in 1850 to a House of Commons committee on savings, the Act was the work of Robert Aglionby Slaney, with whom Hughes worked in alliance. He invested with William Romaine Callender in co-operative mills, in 1866, Hughes was elected to Parliament as a Liberal for Lambeth, and for Frome. He stood as candidate in 1874 for Marylebone in 1874, but dropped out just before the election, the context for the end of his political career was the unpopularity with Hughess Frome constituents of his support for the Elementary Education Act 1870. As an MP Hughes worked on trade legislation, but was not in a position to have major changes passed. He had greater success in improving the position of co-operatives. The issue of legal obstacles to the operation of labour unions was topical, Hughes then worked with Harrison and Robert Applegarth to diminish the effect of some of the testimony from employers. The outcome of this Commission was that Harrison, Hughes and Lord Lichfield produced a minority report, then the matter was raised again in a second Commission, at the end of Hughess time in Parliament
30.
Charles Kingsley
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Charles Kingsley was a broad church priest of the Church of England, a university professor, social reformer, historian and novelist. He is particularly associated with Christian socialism, the mens college. He was a friend and correspondent with Charles Darwin, Kingsley was born in Holne, Devon, the elder of two sons of the Reverend Charles Kingsley and his wife Mary Lucas Kingsley. His brother, Henry Kingsley, also became a novelist, Charles entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, in 1838, and graduated in 1842. He chose to pursue a ministry in the church, from 1844, he was rector of Eversley in Hampshire. In 1859 he was appointed chaplain to Queen Victoria, in 1860, he was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Cambridge. In 1861 he became a tutor to the Prince of Wales. In 1869 Kingsley resigned his Cambridge professorship and, from 1870 to 1873, was a canon of Chester Cathedral, while in Chester he founded the Chester Society for Natural Science, Literature and Art, which played an important part in the establishment of the Grosvenor Museum. In 1872 he accepted the Presidency of the Birmingham and Midland Institute, in 1873 he was made a canon of Westminster Abbey. Kingsley died in 1875 and was buried in St Marys Churchyard in Eversley, one of his daughters, Mary St Leger Kingsley, became known as a novelist under the pseudonym Lucas Malet. Kingsleys life was written by his widow in 1877, entitled Charles Kingsley, his Letters, Kingsley also received letters from Thomas Huxley in 1860 and later in 1863, discussing Huxleys early ideas on agnosticism. He was sympathetic to the idea of evolution and was one of the first to welcome Charles Darwins book On the Origin of Species. When a heated dispute lasting three years developed over human evolution, Kingsley gently satirised the debate, known as the Great Hippocampus Question, the story mentions the main protagonists in the scientific debate over human origins, rearranging his earlier satire as the great hippopotamus test. The book won a Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1963 and his chief power as a novelist lay in his descriptive faculties. The descriptions of South American scenery in Westward Ho and his sympathy with children taught him how to secure their interests. His version of the old Greek stories entitled The Heroes, and Water-babies and Madam How and Lady Why, in which he deals with natural history. Kingsley also wrote poetry and political articles, as well as volumes of sermons. Kingsley coined the term pteridomania in his 1855 book Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Shore, Charles Kingsleys novel Westward Ho. led to the founding of a village by the same name and inspired the construction of the Bideford, Westward Ho. and Appledore Railway
31.
Frederick Denison Maurice
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John Frederick Denison Maurice, often known as F. D. Maurice, was a major theologian of the Church of England, a prolific author and one of the founders of Christian Socialism. Since World War II, interest in Maurice has expanded, John Frederick Denison Maurice was born in Normanton, Suffolk, on 29 August 1805, the only son of Michael Maurice and his wife, Priscilla. Michael Maurice was the preacher in a Unitarian chapel. Deaths in the family brought about changes in the religious convictions. Maurice later wrote about these disagreements and their effect on him and he wished me to be one also. He had a feeling against the English Church, and against Cambridge as well as Oxford. My elder sisters, and ultimately my mother, abandoned Unitarianism, but they continued to be Dissenters, they were not less, but some of them at least more, averse from the English Church than he was. I was much confused between the opinions in our household. What would surprise many, I felt a drawing towards the side, not from any religious bias. Early education Michael was of no little learning and gave his son his early education, the son appears to have been an exemplary child, responsive to teaching and always dutiful. He read a good deal on his own account, but had little inclination for games, serious and precocious, he even at this time harboured ambitions for a life of public service. With John Sterling Maurice founded the Apostles Club and he moved to Trinity Hall in 1825. In 1826, Maurice went to London to read for the bar, during the 1827–1830 break in his higher education, Maurice lived in London and Southampton. While in London, he contributed to the Westminster Review and made the acquaintance of John Stuart Mill, with Sterling he also edited the Athenaeum. The magazine did not pay and his father had lost money which entailed moving the family to a house in Southampton. During his time in Southampton, Maurice rejected his earlier Unitarianism, higher education in theology Maurice entered Exeter College Oxford in 1830 to prepare for ordination. He was older than most of students, he was poor and he kept to himself. However, his honesty and intellectual powers impressed others, in March 1831, Maurice was baptised in the Church of England
32.
Northern Star (Chartist newspaper)
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Feargus OConnor, a former Irish MP forging a career in English radical politics, decided to establish a weekly newspaper in 1837. He based it in Yorkshire, one of the heartlands of the campaigns for an extension of the Factory Acts and he chose the name Northern Star in tribute to the newspaper of the Society of United Irishmen which was suppressed by the military in Belfast in 1797. Meetings were held in Leeds, Bradford, Halifax, Huddersfield and Hull, share capital was raised from supporters in Ashton-under-Lyne, Oldham. £690 was raised for the foundation of the Northern Star, which was first published on 18 November 1837, the newspaper paid a stamp duty of 4d. despite OConnors protests that the tax restricted free speech. The Northern Star reported on chartist meetings throughout Britain and its letters page was host to lively debates on parliamentary reform, the paper led a campaign in support of the working class who suffered economically due to the introduction of new technology and falling wages. By September 1838 it had a circulation of 10,000, by the end of 1839, it had the second largest circulation in the United Kingdom. OConnor used the paper to help propagate the essence of the movement, to achieve reform, the Northern Star continued to sell well, however, outstripping the 6,000 copies a week sold by Robert Hartwells The Charter with a circulation of 48,000. Whilst in prison, OConnor also used the paper as his means of communication with the Chartists, from its start, Northern Star was a lively and innovative newspaper. It quickly abandoned the practice of devoting the front page to advertisements. Unusually for a paper, each issue was published in various editions tailored to different regions of the country. OConnor presented copies of engraved portraits of Chartist heroes to regular readers, the Stars poetry column not only printed the work of radical heroes such as Shelley and Shakespeare but hundreds of contributions by the papers working-class readers. In 1845 OConnor used the Northern Star to help launch the Chartist Land Plan, the same year George Julian Harney replaced William Hill as editor of the paper. Harney increasingly used the paper to advocate his internationalist outlook, for publishing articles by Karl Marx. OConnor disapproved, accusing Harney and his supporters of being Socialists first and it was not until May 1850 that Harney finally resigned as editor of the paper, to concentrate on his other journalistic interests. Sales of the paper declined as the interest in the Chartist movement fell, OConnor was losing interest in the campaign and sold the Northern Star to Harney in April 1852, who merged it with the Friend of the people to form the Star of Freedom. The latter appeared in a format to Northern Star and to avoid the Stamp Duty printed no news. It survived only until December of the same year, papers for the People, A Study of the Chartist Press Chase, Malcolm. Chartism, A New History Epstein, James, feargus O’Connor and the Northern Star, International Review of Social History 21 Royle, Edward
33.
Edwin Chadwick
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Sir Edwin Chadwick KCB was an English social reformer who is noted for his work to reform the Poor Laws and to improve sanitation and public health. Edwin Chadwick was born in 1800 at Longsight, Manchester, to James Chadwick and his mother died when he was still a young child, yet to be named. His father, James Chadwick, tutored the scientist John Dalton in music and botany and was considered a liberal politician. His grandfather, Andrew Chadwick, had been a friend of the theologian John Wesley. He began his education at a school in Lancashire and moved to a boarding school in Stockport. When his family moved to London in 1810, Chadwick continued his education with the help of private tutors, his father and his father remarried in the early 1820s and Edwins younger half-brother was baseball icon Henry Chadwick, born in 1824. James, his new wife, Henry and younger sister Rosa migrated to the United States in 1837, Henry mirrored his brothers interest in health by advocating for baseball to become the national pastime for the US. At 18, he decided to pursue a career in law, in 1823, he enrolled in law school at The Temple in London. On 26 November 1830 he was called to the bar, becoming a barrister and he became friends with two of the leading philosophers of the day, John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. Bentham engaged him as an assistant and left him a large legacy. He also became acquaintances with Thomas Southwood Smith, Neil Arnott, from his exposure to social reform and under the influence of his friends, he began to devote his efforts to sanitary reform. In 1832, Chadwick began on his path to make improvements with sanitary, in 1832, he was employed by the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the operation of the Poor Law, and in 1833, he was made a full member of that commission. Chadwick and Nassau William Senior drafted the report of 1834. Under the 1834 system, individual parishes were formed into Poor Law Unions, in 1834, he was appointed secretary to the Poor Law commissioners. Unwilling to administer an act of what he was largely the author in any way other than as he thought best, the disagreement, among others, contributed to the dissolution of the Poor Law Commission in 1847. While still officially working with the Poor Law, Chadwick took up the question of sanitation in conjunction with Dr Thomas Southwood Smith and their joint efforts produced a salutary improvement in the public health. His report on The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population was researched and published at his own expense, a supplementary report was also published in 1843. The formation of the Health of Towns Association and the creation of various city-based branches followed rapidly, the national and local movements contributed to the passing of the Public Health Act 1848
34.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
35.
The Fool (1990 film)
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The Fool is a 1990 British film, produced and directed by Christine Edzard from a script by Edzard and Olivier Stockman. The narrative is grounded in the life of a humble clerk who poses as the reclusive. He thus moves in wealthy upper class circles and participates in grand investment schemes while living in a London slum, the movies grand-eloquent socialist soliliquaies and detailed evocation of life in Victorian London drew on the vast personal archive of interviews about contemporary London life by Henry Mayhew. The atmospheric camerawork was by British cinematographer Robin Vidgeon, halliwells Film Guide 2008, HarperCollins The Fool at the Internet Movie Database
36.
Timothy West
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Timothy Lancaster West, CBE is an English film, stage and television actor. West was born in Bradford, Yorkshire, the son of Olive and he was educated at the John Lyon School, Harrow on the Hill, at Bristol Grammar School, where he was a classmate of Julian Glover, and at Regent Street Polytechnic. West worked as a furniture salesman and as a recording technician. West played repertory seasons in Newquay, Hull, Northampton, Worthing, other screen roles have included Nicholas and Alexandra, The Day of the Jackal, The Thirty Nine Steps, Masada, Cry Freedom and Luc Bessons The Messenger, The Story of Joan of Arc. In Richard Eyres Iris he plays Maurice and his son Samuel West plays Maurice as a young man, West starred as patriarch Bradley Hardacre in Granada TVs satirical Northern super-soap Brass over three seasons. West appeared in the series Miss Marple in 1985, and made an appearance as Professor Furie in A Very Peculiar Practice in 1986. In 1997, he played Gloucester in the BBC television production of King Lear, from 2001 to 2003, he played the grumpy and frequently volatile Andrew in the BBC drama series Bedtime. At Christmas 2007, he joined Not Going Out as Geoffrey Adams and he reprised this role in two episodes of series three, Geoffrey Whitehead played the role in later seasons. In 2011, he appeared alongside John Simm and Jim Broadbent in BBC series Exile, in February 2013, West joined the cast of ITV soap Coronation Street, playing Eric Babbage. He joined the cast of EastEnders in 2013, playing Stan Carter from January 2014 and he filmed his final scenes for EastEnders in February 2015. He was co-artistic director of the Old Vic Theatre from 1980–81 and he was Director-in-Residence at the University of Western Australia in 1982. In 2004, he toured Australia with the Carl Rosa Opera Company as Director of the production of H. M. S, pinafore, also singing the role of Sir Joseph Porter. He was replaced in the role by Dennis Olsen for the Perth. West is married to the actress Prunella Scales, with whom he has two boys, one of their sons, Samuel West, is also an actor. The Guardian crossword setter Biggles referred to Wests 50th wedding anniversary in its prize crossword puzzle on 26 October 2013, West and Scales are both prominent supporters of the Labour Party. They are also patrons of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham, and of Conway Hall Sunday Concerts programme, West is an Ambassador of SOS Childrens Villages, an international orphan charity providing homes and mothers for orphaned and abandoned children. He currently supports the charitys annual World Orphan Week campaign which takes place each February, West is patron of the National Piers Society, a charity dedicated to preserving and promoting seaside piers. He and Prunella Scales are patrons of Avon Navigation Trust, the charity that runs the River Avon from Stratford-upon-Avon to Tewkesbury and they both support ANT by attending the Stratford River Festival every year
37.
Dodger (novel)
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Dodger is a novel written by Terry Pratchett, set in early Victorian London, and inspired by Charles Dickens character the Artful Dodger. The book was released on 13 September 2012 in the UK, one night on the streets of London, a battered young woman leaps from a carriage, followed and assaulted by two men. The protagonist Dodger, a street urchin and tosher, emerging from a drain, comes to her help. This is witnessed by two gentlemen, Charlie and Henry, who take the girl to the nearby home. A doctor treats her injuries and discovers that she was pregnant, Dodgers actions impress the gentlemen, as does the genuine affection they quickly see growing between him and the girl, who is tentatively called Simplicity. Charlie gives Dodger the task of finding information on the streets about her and these incidents turn Dodger into a celebrity, which helps him gather information, but also make it impossible for him to stay anonymous. This endangers Simplicity and prompts Charlie to have her moved to the house of his rich friend Angela Burdett-Coutts. Through their activities, Charlie and Dodger learn that the girl had secretly married a prince of one of the German states and this political dimension of the case soon have Dodger meet some of the Empires top politicians, such as Benjamin Disraeli and Robert Peel. He learns that the family of Simplicitys husband is pressuring the British government to return her, additionally, a mysterious assassin known only as the Outlander is rumoured to be looking for Dodger and Simplicity. Dodger decides that the solution is to fake Simplicitys death. The plan is foiled when the Outlander appears, turning out to be a woman. However, with the help of Simplicity, Dodger manages to defeat the assassin and he earns his livelihood as a tosher, looking for valuables in the sewers and early in the story he is given the title king of the toshers. He considers himself a geezer and despite his age he has earned respect amongst the poor in London. Simplicity is a girl that Dodger rescues from being beaten by two men at the beginning of the story. It is implied that she is of heritage and married to a prince from one of the German states. After a series of incidents of violence, she fled to England, only to be pursued by her husband and his father. She is given the name Simplicity by Henry Mayhews wife and her name is never revealed. After Dodger helped her fake her death, she calls herself Serendipity, solomon Cohen, an elderly craftsman who lives with Dodger in the Seven Dials rookery and acts as his mentor
38.
Terry Pratchett
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Sir Terence David John Terry Pratchett, OBE was an English author of fantasy novels, especially comical works. He is best known for his Discworld series of 41 novels, Pratchetts first novel, The Carpet People, was published in 1971. The first Discworld novel, The Colour of Magic, was published in 1983 and his 2011 Discworld novel Snuff was at the time of its release the third-fastest-selling hardback adult-readership novel since records began in the UK, selling 55,000 copies in the first three days. His final Discworld novel, The Shepherds Crown, was published in August 2015, Pratchett, with more than 85 million books sold worldwide in 37 languages, was the UKs best-selling author of the 1990s. He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1998 and was knighted for services to literature in the 2009 New Year Honours, in 2001 he won the annual Carnegie Medal for The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents, the first Discworld book marketed for children. He received the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 2010, in December 2007, Pratchett announced that he had been diagnosed with early-onset Alzheimers disease. Pratchett died on 12 March 2015 at age 66, Pratchett was born on 28 April 1948 in Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire, England, the only child of David and Eileen Pratchett, of Hay-on-Wye where he attended Holtspur School. Pratchett described himself as a student and, in his Whos Who entry. He collected Brooke Bond tea cards about space, owned a telescope and wanted to be an astronomer and he developed an interest in reading science fiction and began attending science fiction conventions from about 1963–1964, but stopped when he got his first job a few years later. His early reading included the works of H. G. Wells, Arthur Conan Doyle, and every book you ought to read. Pratchett published his first short story entitled Business Rivals in the High Wycombe Technical School magazine in 1962 and it is the tale of a man named Crucible who finds the Devil in his flat in a cloud of sulphurous smoke. The Hades Business, which was published in the magazine when he was 13 was published commercially when he was 15. Pratchett earned five O-levels and started A-level courses in Art, English, One of these episodic stories contains characters found in his novel, The Carpet People. The stories are part of a project by the Bucks Free Press to make them available online. While on day release he finished his A-Level in English and took a course for journalists. Pratchett had his breakthrough in 1968 when he interviewed Peter Bander van Duren, co-director of a small publishing company. During the meeting, Pratchett mentioned he had written a manuscript, Colin Smythe Ltd published the book in 1971, with illustrations by Pratchett. The book received strong, if few, reviews and was followed by the science fiction novels The Dark Side of the Sun, after various positions in journalism, in 1980 Pratchett became Press Officer for the Central Electricity Generating Board in an area which covered four nuclear power stations
39.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
40.
OUP
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Edmund Yates
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Edmund Hodgson Yates was a British journalist, novelist and dramatist. He was born in Edinburgh to the actor and theatre manager Frederick Henry Yates and was educated at Highgate School in London from 1840-1846 and his first career was a clerk in the General Post Office, before entering journalism, working on the Court Journal and then Daily News. In 1854 he published his first book My Haunts and their Frequenters, after which followed a succession of novels, as a contributor to All The Year Round and Household Words, he gained the high opinion of Charles Dickens. The World, which was perceived as a newspaper chronicling upper class London Society, was a pioneer in personal journalism, such as the interview, in 1884 he was sentenced to four months imprisonment for libelling Lord Lonsdale. But in later life enjoyed a career as a county magistrate. Yates was also the author of and performed in Invitations at Egyptian Hall, London, the work was a highly successful comedy in which he and Harold Littledale Power posed as hosts to a variety of singers and actors. Power also performed songs and imitations, Edmund Yates wrote his autobiography titled Edmund Yates, His Recollections and Experiences, the first edition of which was published by Richard Bentley and Son in 1884. He was a friend of Charles Dickens, and in the 1850s, Yates lived at No.43 Doughty Street, London,48, which is now the Charles Dickens Museum. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, London, J. M. Dent & Sons. Wikisource Works by or about Edmund Yates at Internet Archive Yates, cartoon portraits and biographical sketches of men of the day
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Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
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LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
